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General Issues
2.1 What is Quality
2.1.1 What is Quality?
What is quality? What does it mean? What makes a quality car a quality car? Are all cars quality? Are there some that are better than another? Does this mean they are better quality?
What does quality really mean? See for example http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality Wikipedia talks about Quality as:- A quality (from Latin qualitas) is an attribute or a property. Attributes are ascribable, by a subject, whereas properties are possessible. In contemporary philosophy, the idea of qualities and especially how to distinguish certain kinds of qualities from one another remains controversial. A quality is a way of describing something so that the “something” is different from other “somethings”. A red ball has the quality of being red and of being a ball. It is not a cow but a ball and a red one. You may have blue eyes. Your blue eyes are one of your qualities or attributes. However, we also use the word quality to mean that something is a little better than another thing. One sort of car might be built better than another. The better car is sometimes referred to as being of “better quality” – it has better attributes. Take a simple example.
My car is better than my bicycle. What is this saying? It is saying that my car has advantages over my bicycle. What might some of those advantages be? Maybe it is faster, easier to work, easier to “drive”, or looks better. It may be lots of things. To show it is better, we use attributes, like faster, smoother, newer, easier, etc. If someone makes a better bicycle or a better car, we speak of them improving the quality.
In the electro technology industry products change all the time. All the time manufacturers are trying to improve their products, to improve their quality, to change attributes so that more people will want the product. This continuing change is called “Continuous Improvement”. It is a process that tries to review quality and improve it all the time. By making a better product or offering a better service, quality is improved and people like that.
2.1.2 Quality workplace A quality workplace is a happy workplace. Is this true? How can you tell? What is it that makes a workplace happy?
List some of the things that you think make a workplace or a lecture hall or a schoolroom a happy place. ........................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................... ... ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................ ............................................................................................................................ Just as with earlier examples of cars and bicycles, workplaces can and should be improving all the time. If a workplace is happy, then more work will get done and workers will have more pride in their work. A happy workplace is usually A sign of quality management A sign of quality work
It is sometimes easier to describe the “ungreat” workplace than the great one.
It is often easier to describe the good work-place by using the
poor work-place as a starting point. When we ask the employees of such a site they answer by mentioning unclear responsibilities, no feedback, unfairness in wages, promotions and dismissals, no opportunity for personal development, poor physical environment, in brief a place characterized by uncertainty, hostility and fear.
In the quotation above, what do these words/terms mean?
Unclear responsibilities .......................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................... No feedback ......................................................................................................... ...................................................................................... ......................................... Unfairness in wages ............................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................. . ............................................................................................................................. . No opportunity for personal development ............................................................ ............................................................................................................................. .. ............................................................................................................................... What, for you, are the five (5) most important things that make a workplace happy? List them in importance to you, first to last. .............................................................. ............................................................... .............................................................. .............................................................. ...............................................................
What makes the first one the most important to you? ............................................................................................................................. .... ................................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................. ....
2.2 What is Continuous Improvement? Visit http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_improvement
Market forces place increased pressure on organisations to improve their products and services. To remain competitive in this environment, organisations must continually seek ways to improve all aspects of their business - including workplace relationships, processes, products and services. While the focus on achieving quality products and services is not new, it has shifted from being reactive - inspect and fix - to pro-active, plan to get it right the first time. Continuous Improvement is a vital element of today’s electronic industry. It is probably a vital part of all industry, services and production. We live in a very competitive world. It is increasingly important that producers and service providers continually improve their goods and services.
Continuous Improvement
Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI, CI) is a process whereby service provision and delivery is constantly evaluated and improved in the light of its efficiency, effectiveness and flexibility.
Continuous Improvement involves:
Progressively increasing value to consumers or participants and other stakeholders through changes designed to better address their individual needs
Enhancing performance against industry standards Commitment to identifying needs and opportunities for improvement in a systematic
and planned way.
Continuous Improvement is not a ‘stop-start’ approach to making things better. It forms a central part of a comprehensive management system to constantly improve the way in which your organisation provides services.
2.2.1 A Definition Continuous improvement is a constant cycle of monitoring and improvement in the life cycle of a project. It is an ongoing effort to improve the quality of an item or activity. Improvement may be "incremental" improvement over time or "breakthrough" improvement all at once. One cycle suggests the four steps of
Creating a profile (project or item specifications)
Setting goals
Planning to improve
Implementing the improvement plan. The diagram to the right illustrates this.
Where is the starting point in this diagram? Why is it not marked?
A continuous improvement process (CIP or CI) is an ongoing, or continuing, effort to improve products, services, or processes. These efforts can seek "incremental" improvement over time or "breakthrough" improvement all at once. Delivery (customer valued) processes are constantly evaluated and improved in the light of their efficiency, effectiveness and flexibility. Another, very slightly different view is shown in the diagram on the next page.
Where is the starting point in this second diagram?
How is it different from the one on the previous page? ...............................................................................................................
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In this diagram the word “evaluate” appears. What does it mean?
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......................................................... The word “implement” also occurs. What
does it mean? ....................................................................................................................................... ........................................................................................................................................
Notice in the diagram that each time an improvement is implemented, it is then evaluated, or checked to see if the improvement was actually an improvement. This is the very heart of continuous improvement. Continuous improvement is simply a process to improve a business process or product, to check to see if it has really improved, and then to improve it again.
The process is continuous and so both diagrams have a circle pattern.
2.2.2 Key words
Incremental Incremental change is change in small stages or parts made one after the other. These can add up to quite important and major changes over time.
Breakthrough
Breakthrough change is a single large change made all at once. This is sometimes a good idea but too much change all at once can be a problem for workers and for management.
Strategies These are arrangements, plans and ideas that help to shape action and meet goals. They may sometimes be the action itself but are more often general ideas from which actions are developed.
Principles These are the basis goals or key concepts that shape strategies and actions. In continuous improvement, principles are the goals that the improvement aims for – the quality of the item or service, the quality of the processes involved, and so on. Add further terms you have found here, with their meanings and explanations. ............................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................... ............................................................................................................................... ...............................................................................................................................
2.2.3 Continuous or Continual?
Continuous improvement is an ongoing effort to improve products, services or processes. These efforts can seek “incremental” improvement over time or “breakthrough” improvement all at once.
Among the most widely used tools for continuous improvement is a four-step quality model—the plan-do-check-act (PDCA) cycle, also known as Deming Cycle or Shewhart Cycle:
Plan: Identify an opportunity and plan for change.
Do: Implement the change on a small scale.
Check: Use data to analyze the results of the change and determine whether it made a difference.
Act: If the change was successful, implement it on a wider scale and continuously assess your results. If the change did not work, begin the cycle again.
Other widely used methods of continuous improvement — such as Six Sigma, Lean, and Total Quality Management — emphasize employee involvement and teamwork; measuring and systematizing processes; and reducing variation, defects and cycle times.
Continuous or Continual?
The terms continuous improvement and continual improvement are frequently used interchangeably. But some quality practitioners make the following distinction:
Continual improvement: a broader term preferred by W. Edwards Deming to refer to general processes of improvement and encompassing “discontinuous” improvements—that is, many different approaches, covering different areas. Strictly speaking, it is improvement that is not continuous but happens in recurring spurts. However, in popular usage it serves as a synonym for continuous improvement.
Continuous improvement: a subset of continual improvement, with a more specific focus on linear, incremental improvement within an existing process. Some practitioners also associate continuous improvement more closely with techniques of statistical process control. Continuous Improvement is the term to describe improvement occurring in in incremental steps. It never stops. Continuous improvement is the process to ensure processes are continually improved.
Read more information on continuous improvement for quality.
So... which sort of improvement is your project going to include? Continuous or Continual? Why?
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Source: http://asq.org/learn-about-quality/continuous- improvement/overview/overview.html
2.2.4 One View
[A brief article outlining Derek Stockley's personal views on continuous improvement and quality systems.]
Continuous improvement and quality systems received a lot of attention in the 1980's and 1990's. In the new century, commitment to quality has become common place, with most major organisations having commenced or completed the implementation of formal quality systems. Many have been certified to ISO standards. The standards themselves have been extended and improved.
I have worked with clients on the development of processes and the preparation of quality manuals in order for them to attain certification. I am aware that organisations can focus too heavily on the development of the manuals and implementation of the "system". It is possible sometimes to neglect the underlying processes in the "rush" to be ready for the external audit.
I was fortunate in my early career to have four significant influences that have meant that continuous improvement has been an underlying theme for my whole working life, even before it became fashionable.
The four influences were:
involvement in designing and conducting training;
involvement in auditing with a professional accounting firm;
involvement in policy and procedure development and the introduction of computer systems;
induction into a lifelong learning commitment through exposure to the important theme of personal development.
Training has been based on a systems approach since training theory was refined by the military after the Second World War. Training theory encompasses the cycle of: assess training need (training needs analysis (TNA)), design, conduct and evaluate. Continuous improvement was inherent in the process. I have always reviewed the training I have conducted to find better, more efficient and effective methods. Training evaluation is constant, see current testimonials. Importantly, I received this grounding before I started full-time work. (See also: Train the Trainer (TTT).)
This approach was reinforced when I was an auditor with a firm of accountants. Auditing was an accounting discipline based on a systems approach. Again I learnt that systems could always be streamlined and improved.
Thirdly, my work with policies and procedures emphasised the need to review to keep pace with changing circumstances. Coupled with involvement in the design and implementation
of new computer systems, the need for continuous improvement became firmly entrenched as a "way of operating".
The personal development theme was reinforced by the involvement in training. However, lifelong learning involves far more than pure training activities.
The lessons gained from these early experiences have been constantly re-inforced, particularly as I have always worked in organisations undergoing change.
This approach to quality is reflected in the way the Derek Stockley business is conducted, see: Quality Approaches and in the approach taken to the Derek Stockley web site and e- learning products, see the Personal Journey section of Web Site Design and Construction.
An excellent example of continuous improvement is this website. Minor improvements are made constantly. Each page is reviewed on a regular basis. As required, major re- developments also occur. In recent times, this has averaged out at six month intervals.
For more information and comment, see the following newsletter articles:
The importance of striving for continuous improvement and innovation - explores the importance of innovation and continuous improvement. Specific personal examples provide a basis for the development of principles, with customer service in organisations being highlighted.
Professional development and continuous improvement - the link between professional development and continuous improvement.
Source: http://derekstockley.com.au/continuous.html
2.2.5 Kaizen
(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_improvement_process)
Some successful implementations of continuous improvement use the approach known as Kaizen (the translation of kai (“change”) zen (“good”) is “improvement”). This method became famous by the book of Masaaki Imai “Kaizen: The Key to Japan's Competitive Success.”
The core principle of CIP is the (self) reflection of processes. (Feedback) The purpose of CIP is the identification, reduction, and elimination of suboptimal
processes. (Efficiency) The emphasis of CIP is on incremental, continuous steps rather than giant leaps.
(Evolution)
Key features of Kaizen:
Improvements are based on many, small changes rather than the radical changes that might arise from Research and Development
As the ideas come from the workers themselves, they are less likely to be radically different, and therefore easier to implement
Small improvements are less likely to require major capital investment than major process changes
The ideas come from the talents of the existing workforce, as opposed to using R&D, consultants or equipment – any of which could be very expensive
All employees should continually be seeking ways to improve their own performance It helps encourage workers to take ownership for their work, and can help reinforce
team working, thereby improving worker motivation
Using http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaizen or other web sites, find out what the Toyota Production System is all about.
How does this relate to Continuous Improvement? What are Toyota doing that is continuous?
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2.3 Managing Continuous Improvement
Frontline managers have an active role in managing the continuous improvement process in achieving the organisation’s objectives. Their position, closely associated with the creation and delivery of products and services, means that they play an important part in influencing the ongoing development of the organisation.
What does this mean? Management of continuous improvement is vital for the health of the company or organization. Nowhere is this more important than in the ever- changing electronic areas. Management generally involves the establishing of organizational principles, strategies to achieve these principles and then processes that will work through the strategies and achieve the principles.
2.3.1 Quality Improvement Principles Quality improvement is a systematic approach to assessing services and improving them on a priority basis. One approach (a care industry one) to quality improvement is based on the following principles:
Customer Focus. High quality organizations focus on their internal and external customers and on meeting or exceeding needs and expectations.
Recovery-oriented. Services are characterized by a commitment to promoting and preserving wellness and to expanding choice. This approach promotes maximum flexibility and choice to meet individually defined goals and to permit person- centered services.
Employee Empowerment. Effective programs involve people at all levels of the organization in improving quality.
Leadership Involvement. Strong leadership, direction and support of quality improvement activities by the governing body and CEO are key to performance
improvement. This involvement of organizational leadership assures that quality improvement initiatives are consistent with provider mission and/or strategic plan.
Data Informed Practice. Successful QI processes create feedback loops, using data to inform practice and measure results. Fact-based decisions are likely to be correct decisions.
Statistical Tools. For continuous improvement of care, tools and methods are needed that foster knowledge and understanding. CQI organizations use a defined set of analytic tools such as run charts, cause and effect diagrams, flowcharts, Pareto charts, histograms, and control charts to turn data into information.
Prevention Over Correction. Continuous Quality Improvement entities seek to design good processes to achieve excellent outcomes rather than fix processes after the fact.
Continuous Improvement. Processes must be continually reviewed and improved. Small incremental changes do make an impact, and providers can almost always find an opportunity to make things better.
These improvement principles may not all appear in the same project or even the same organisation. But each organisation and each project, if it aims for quality and improvement, will include some of these principles in its design and implementation.
Customer satisfaction is one very common principle. It is especially obvious in service industries that include electrical and electronics.
2.3.2 Management strategies Strategies are developed to ensure that team members are actively encouraged and supported to participate in decision making processes, and to assume responsibility and exercise initiative as appropriate. These strategies need to reflect the principles (like those above) that have been adopted. Systems are established to ensure that the organisation’s continuous improvement processes are communicated to all stakeholders.
Effective mentoring and coaching processes are developed to ensure that individuals and teams are able to implement and support the organisation’s continuous improvement processes Strategies are developed to ensure that systems and procedures including technology are used to monitor operational progress and to identify ways in which planning and operations could be improved Customer service strategies and processes like those above, are improved through continuous improvement techniques and processes.
Strategies are adjusted and communicated to all stakeholders according to organisational procedures
2.3.3 Management Processes Processes are established to ensure that team members are informed of savings and productivity/ service improvements in achieving the business plan Processes include documentation of work team performance to aid the identification of further opportunities for improvement Areas which have recorded improvement and opportunities for improvement, are taken into account in all aspects of future planning
How is this done? continuous improvement systems and processes Benchmarking change management problem identification and resolution leadership and mentoring techniques management of ongoing product and service quality consultation and communication techniques best practice strategies to monitor and adjust operational performance recording and reporting methods
Various strategies long-term or short-term plans factoring in opportunities for team input mentoring and ‘buddy’ systems to support team members in participating in decision
making clarification of roles and expectations training and development activities performance plans communication devices and processes, such as intranet and email communication
systems, to facilitate input into workplace decisions reward/recognition programs for high performing staff
Documenting the process records and reports annotated performance plans quantitative data such as production figures recommendations for improvement
Why are strategies developed to ensure Continuous Improvement takes place? ....................................................................................................................
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2.4 Performance measurement
Section 4 – Performance Measurement
Performance Measurement is the process of regularly assessing the results produced by the program. It involves identifying processes, systems and outcomes that are integral to the performance of the service delivery system, selecting indicators of these processes, systems and outcomes, and analyzing information related to these indicators on a regular basis. Continuous Quality Improvement involves taking action as needed based on the results of the data analysis and the opportunities for performance they identify.
The purpose of measurement and assessment is to:
Assess the stability of processes or outcomes to determine whether there is an undesirable degree of variation or a failure to perform at an expected level.
Identify problems and opportunities to improve the performance of processes. Assess the outcome of the care provided. Assess whether a new or improved process meets performance expectations.
Measurement and assessment involves:
Selection of a process or outcome to be measured, on a priority basis. Identification and/or development of performance indicators for the selected
process or outcome to be measured. Aggregating data so that it is summarized and quantified to measure a process or
outcome. Assessment of performance with regard to these indicators at planned and regular
intervals. Taking action to address performance discrepancies when indicators indicate that a
process is not stable, is not performing at an expected level or represents an opportunity for quality improvement.
Reporting within the organization on findings, conclusions and actions taken as a result of performance assessment.
Selection of a Performance Indicator. A performance indicator is a quantitative tool that provides information about the performance of a clinic’s process, services, functions or outcomes. Selection of a Performance Indicator is based on the following considerations:
Relevance to mission - whether the indicator addresses the population served Critical importance - whether it addresses a critically important process that is:
o high volume o problem prone or o high risk
Characteristics of a Performance Indicator. Factors to consider in determining which indicator to use include;
Scientific Foundation: the relationship between the indicator and the process, system or critical outcome being measured
Validity: whether the indicator assesses what it purports to assess Resource Availability: the relationship of the results of the indicator to the cost
involved and the staffing resources that are available Consumer Preferences: the extent to which the indicator takes into account
individual or group (e.g., racial, ethnic, or cultural) preferences Meaningfulness: whether the results of the indicator can be easily understood, the
indicator measures a variable over which the program has some control, and the variable is likely to be changed by reasonable quality improvement efforts.
Consider your classroom activity right now. What might one performance measurement be that could apply to the class work/learning?
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On what basis have you decided this Indicator?
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2.5 Continuous Improvement Tools CI involves an extended journey, gradually building up skills and capabilities within the organisation to find and solve problems. Not surprisingly there are many different techniques or tools which can help enable the process, and for a full account of them you should look at the further information sources. What follows here are some brief explanations of basic tools. Specifically we will look at:
• problem-solving cycle; • brainstorming; • cause and effect diagrams; • check sheets; • flow diagrams; • and an outline of policy deployment.
2.5.1 Problem-Solving Cycle
What is problem solving?
Problem solving is a process and skill that you develop over time to be used when needing to solve immediate problems in order to achieve a goal.
The Problem-Solving Cycle At its simplest, we can see continuous improvement as involving a cycle of problem-finding and solving, like this: In the first stage — identify — the organization recognizes that there is a problem to solve. Note the diagram to the right. Identification is followed be investigation/exploration and so on.
This may be an emergency or it may be a minor difficulty which has been nagging away for some time; it may not even be a ‘problem’ but an experiment, an attempt to find out a new way of doing something. A useful weblink - http://www.unisa.edu.au/counsellingservices/balance/problem.asp Whatever the initial stimulus, finding a problem then triggers the next stage which is to define it more clearly. Here the issue is often to separate out the apparent problem (which may only be a symptom) from the underlying problem to be solved. Defining it also puts some boundaries around the problem; it may be necessary to break a big problem down into smaller sub-problems which can be tackled — ‘eating the elephant a spoonful at a time’. It can also clarify who ‘owns’ the problem — and thus who ought to be involved in its solution, if the solution is to stick for the longer-term. Having analysed the nature of the problem, the next stage is to explore ways of solving it. There may be a single correct answer, as in crossword puzzles or simple arithmetic — but it is much more likely to be an open-ended problem for which there may be a number of possible solutions. The challenge at this stage is to explore as widely as possible — perhaps through the use of brainstorming or other group tools — to generate as many potential solutions as possible. Next comes the selection of the most promising solutions to try out — essentially the reverse of the previous stage since this involves trying to close down and focus from a wide range of options. The selected option is then put into practice — and the results, successful or otherwise, reviewed. On the basis of this evaluation, the problem may be solved, or it may need another trip around the loop. It may even be the case that solving one problem brings another to light. In terms of learning, this is essentially a model for experimenting and evaluating. We gain knowledge at various steps in the process — for example, about the boundaries of the problem in defining it, or about potential solutions in exploring it or about what works and what doesn’t work in implementing it. The point is that if we capture this learning it puts us in a much better position to meet the next problem; if it is a repeat, we already know how to solve it. If it is similar, we have a set of possible solutions which would be worth trying. And if it is completely new, we still have the experience of a structured approach to problem solving.
Clearly, problem solving is a critical aspect of continuous improvement. How does this relate to the diary requirement built in to some CI reporting? (see section 2.7.2)
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2.5.2 Brainstorming Brainstorming is the rapid pooling of all and any ideas that a group of people can come up with before any discussion or judgement takes place. Every idea is recorded no matter how bizarre or irrational. How to Brainstorm
1. Keep a relaxed atmosphere. Meetings should be disciplined but informal. If possible, choose an informal venue. 2. Get the right size of team. The technique seems to work best with groups of 5 to 7 people. 3. Choose a leader. The leader checks that everyone understands what is going on and why. 4. Define the problem clearly. 5. Generate as many ideas as possible. 6. Do not allow any evaluation and discussion. 7. Give everyone equal opportunity to contribute. 8. Write down EVERY idea — clearly and where everyone can see them. 9. When all the ideas are listed, review them for clarification, making sure everyone understands each item. At this point you can eliminate duplications and remove ideas the group feels are no longer appropriate. 10. Allow ideas to incubate. Brainstorm in sessions with perhaps a few days in between.
This gives time for the team to let the ideas turn over in their mind, which often results in new ideas at a later session. Approaches to Brainstorming One-at-a-time A member of the group offers one idea and the session continues this way until everyone has had a chance to add to the list. Open Door or Freewheeling Anyone who has a contribution speaks whenever he or she wants. Write-it down Ideas are written down rather than stated out loud, but everyone must be able to see each idea listed.
2.5.3 Cause and Effect Diagram
Also called the ‘Fishbone Diagram’, this participatory exercise explores the links between the effects and the possible causes of an issue. This tool encourages a group setting for problem —solving and demonstrates that problems can have a number of causes. What is it? Cause and effect analysis is a technique for identifying the possible causes of a problem or effect. The technique uses a Cause and Effect Diagram to record the possible causes as they are suggested. When should you use it? Use this tool when you want to establish the cause of an effect. The effect may be either a problem or a desirable effect — when something desirable has happened it is useful to find out what caused it so you can make it happen again. Constructing a Cause and Effect Diagram 1. Establish what the problem, or effect, is. It must be stated in clear and concise terms, agreed by everyone. 2. Write the effect (problem) in a box on the right and draw a long line pointing to the box. 3. Decide the major categories of causes. This may be done in several ways:
• Brainstorming. • Using standard categories such as the 4Ms (Machines, Materials, Methods, Manpower) or PEMPEM (Plant, Equipment, Materials, People, Environment, Methods). • When the effect results from a recognisable process or set of activities, the major steps in the process can be used.
4. Write the major categories in boxes parallel to, and some distance from, the main line. Connect them to the main line with slanting arrows. 5. Brainstorm for possible causes.
• Add the causes to the diagram clustered around the major causes they influence. Divide and sub-divide the causes to show how they interact, and draw links between causes that are related. If the diagram becomes too crowded, move one or more categories to a new sheet of paper.
6. Evaluate and analyse the possible causes. 7. Decide and act.
• This will probably involve using other tools. For example, in order to verify some of the possible causes identified you may need to collect data (using Checklists) and analyse it (Pareto Analysis, graphs, etc.).
2.5.4 Checklists What is it? A Checklist is a tool for recording and organising data. There are three kinds of Checklists: 1. Recording Checklist :
• Counts how many times something happens in pre-specified categories 2. Checklist Checklist:
• A list of items to be addressed in some predetermined manner e.g. an inspection sequence that prevents steps or procedures from being left out.
3. Location Checklist: • Records the relative or specific locations of defects, injuries, accidents etc … Usually it is a picture or map of the item/area under consideration on which the location of the defect etc. is marked with a dot or a cross.
Why use it? Checklists will help you to gather and classify data. Checklists ensures that everyone collects comparable data in the same form, and in a format that allows easy analysis. Constructing a Checklist 1. Decide what data you need to collect. 2. Decide how often the events will be observed (the frequency) and over what total period (the duration). 3. Design a draft Checklist. Put the items to be monitored on the left and the time periods across the top. Allow space for totals on the right for each item being observed 4. Test the draft Checklist by getting someone who did not help design it to use it. 5. Make any revisions that are necessary as a result of step 4. 6. Distribute the Checklists to the people collecting the data and explain how to use them. 7. Act on the data collected.
Consider your classroom learning right now. Discuss with your teacher and the rest of the class the items you might include on a checklist to measure continuous improvement in class. What are some of the items you would put on your checklist?
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2.5.5 Flow Charting What is it? A flowchart is a diagram illustrating the activities in a process.
Why use it? A flowchart can tell you a lot about a process and the activities involved eg Are all the activities really necessary? What controls are in place? Flowcharts are a useful tool to use when improving a process, especially when you are planning to collect data or to implement a solution. They can also be used to document a new process or to compare an existing process with an ‘ideal’ process. Flowcharts are a good communication tool — by using standard symbols everyone will have the same understanding of the process.
Constructing a flowchart 1. Decide what level of detail the flowchart is to represent. This will depend on the purpose for constructing the flowchart. On a higher level flowchart several tasks which make up an activity will be shown as one activity
whereas on a lower level flowchart each task will be shown separately. 2. List the activities in the process. 3. Draw the flowchart (sometimes this is done using standard symbols — for example:
Stretched circle Start or end of process
Rectangle Step or activity in the process
Diamond Decision point
Arrow Direction of flow
Consider your last assignment. Prepare a flow chart using the symbols suggested above, to show how you approached that assessment.
2.5.6 Policy deployment As the name suggests the basic concept in policy deployment is the development of mechanisms for breaking overall strategic objectives of the business down into small units, each of which can provide the target for groups or individuals in their CI activities over a sustained period. For example, in Nissan Cars the overall strategic target is cascaded down through the organisation via the appraisal process, where everyone has the chance to discuss and agree to certain objectives over the coming year, including a range of targets for their own CI activities. This process — which is essentially ‘management by objectives’ — is a two way
one but the outcome is agreed targets and a commitment on the part of the employee to achieving them, a recognition that this is what will be used to assess performance over the coming year, and an understanding that achievement will be related to rewards. Its value in CI is to provide a focus and targeting process which moves on from simply improving things on a project by project basis. In policy deployment targets are linked to strategic objectives and local activities mesh together to contribute to meeting these. For example, if the overall target includes an objective to become competitive by reducing customer lead-time by 25%, then policy deployment would ask, for each area, how they could cut 25% of time out of their overall operations. In turn this would cascade down to the
individual units within the area, and down to the individual teams, with the same question. Each individual team will then use CI tools to explore the sources of wasted time, and the kinds of thing which might cut it down — and on a project by project basis they would chip away at the time taken within their area. In aggregate form this would result in major savings. Two key features are important here — the use of ‘stretch’ targets which
give impetus, and the use of monitoring and measurement against these targets as a way of guiding the process and maintaining momentum. In addition there is a strong component of ‘know why’ as well as know-how — in other words, there is an attempt to explain the rationale behind the strategy and how improvements in a particular area contribute to it. For example, in a chemical plant working towards the target of ‘zero breakdowns’ each machine has detailed operating and maintaining instructions attached. These have been developed through CI activity and include not only the new operating procedures but also a section on why these steps are important. There is thus an element of organisational learning, of turning tacit into formal knowledge. Similar functions are performed by the storyboards which characterise progress along the road to meeting strategic targets. Policy deployment is concerned with strategic objectives so the timescales for typical ‘campaigns’ are long. For example, in Japan the ‘mid-term plan is the key driver in firms, and this represents a clear statement of objectives and targets over the next 3 years.
What is the use of a “Stretch target”? ................................................. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
What guiding process is suggested above? ………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………..
What are “zero breakdowns”? …………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… See also –
http://nicholasandsmith.com/ToolsCI http://www.newcastle.edu.au/division/services/continuous-improvement/tools.html http://www.managing-innovation.com/tools/Continuous%20Improvement.pdf
2.6 Continuous Improvement Plans
In some workplaces, a plan is provided to make certain that continuous improvement happens.
When we think of "continuous" we often assume something is repeating over and over again. Sometimes the broken record idea applies, but that isn't always the case.
The continuous improvement plan is simply a system that keeps the level of business performance and productivity up, but also tries to make further improvement at the same time. It is more than just a plan, it's a method. The continuous improvement plan is a standard arrangement that uses the change concept on quite a few wavelengths, despite the good and bad of the business. It helps to document change, to measure it and to show where further improvements can be made. It is an arrangement that can keep all stakeholders informed while at the same time making certain improvements are made.
The continuous improvement plan impacts on all individual responsibilities of the business, but at the same time creates higher alternatives that can develop within the business. In order to make this or anything happen, it's a fact that individuals must be willing to contemplate the problematic issues and work through ways and means of fixing them. This can be anything from a standard evaluation of the overall organization that links directly to the problem to specific actions that can be taken to improve the business immediately from the problem. The continuous improvement plan is more than just evaluating and analyzing, as well as, organizing and planning, the continuous improvement plan is the future.
Every business is different and therefore; will use a variety of different continuous improvement plans, as a result. If you are an entrepreneur or a business (whether sole proprietorship, partnership, or corporation) chances are you will never settle for less than excellence.
Why is it so long? What is this organisation trying to do with its plan? Why is a mission statement the first item?
Imagine you are setting up a company to manufacture a new, faster cell phone. In 30 words or less, what would your company’s mission statement be?
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2.6.1 Does excellence exist?
I think many would like to think so, so yes it does. With the help of a continuous improvement plan, you are destined to be on the road to excellence. Some people would love to settle in the beautiful cottage in the Paris with multiple waterfalls and peace, however; some people would rather have all of France.
If the business is doing well, you will want to maintain that level of performance and overall productivity. However; like anything that is good, it doesn't mean it cannot be better. If the business is doing well, does it mean that your business is well? Absolutely not. The "If It's Broke, Don't Fix It" only applies to smaller things.
Businesses are big, whether sole proprietorship, partnership, or corporation. Like anything that exists today, there is always room for improvement to create something better, as a result. If the business is doing bad or poorly, you will want to improve the level of performance, as a result. This is where you put the continuous improvement plan to radical use and develop a keen likeness to the method.
What is a Continuous Improvement Plan exactly?
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What is Excellence?
……………………………………………………..............................................................… ………………………………………………..........................................................………… ……………………………………............................................................…………………… Can we get there? ……………….............................………………………………………….. ……………………………………………....................................……………………………………… …………………………………………….....................................……………………………………… Do we want to get there? Why? …………………………………………………………....................................………………………….. ………………………………………………………………..….................................………………….. ……………………………………………………………...................................………………………… …………………………………………………………..................................……………………………. Connect “Excellence” to electronics. What is the connection? …………………………………………………………………..................................……………………. …………………………………………………………..................................……………………………. …………………………………………………….................................………………………………….. ………………………………………………….................................………………………………………
2.7 Continuous Process Improvement
Source: http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/perform/process.html
Continuous Process Improvement 1
Quality is a never ending quest and Continuous Process Improvement (CPI) is a never ending effort to discover and eliminate the main causes of problems. It accomplishes this by using small-steps improvements, rather than implementing one huge improvement. The Japanese have a term for this called kaizen which involves everyone, from the hourly workers to top- management.
CPI means making things better. It is NOT fighting fires. Its goal is NOT to blame people for problems or failures. . . it is simply a way of looking at how we can do our work better. When we take a problem solving approach, we often never get to the root causes because our main goal is to put out the fire. But when we engage in process improvement, we seek to learn what causes things to happen and then use this knowledge to:
Reduce variation. Remove activities that have no value to the organization. Improve customer satisfaction.
Process improvement is important as Rummler & Brache's research (1995) showed that process account for about 80% of all problems while people account for the remaining 20%.
Steering Committee and CPI Teams
One way to get CPI started is to set up a Steering Committee (SC). Although everyone in the organization is responsible for CPI, the SC follows all ideas from conception to completion. Some organizations might have several SCs working on different processes, departments, or systems; while smaller organizations might set up one SC to oversee all CPI projects. Normally, there is one SC that oversees all CPI projects within a physical area. It in turn, passes each CPI suggestion on to a CPI team that carries that project out to completion. At the very least, the SC must contain members who can approve a project (spending authority).
CPI Procedure
CPI has been described using a number of models. This manual will use the system approach or ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development, Implement, Evaluate) model. There are five phases in this model:
Analysis Phase — Identify areas of opportunity and target specific problems. These areas and problems are based on team brain-storming sessions, process definition sessions, recommendations forwarded to the team by organizational members, and other various analysis techniques.
Design Phase — Generate solutions through brain-storming sessions. Identify the required resources to implement the chosen solution and identify baselines to measure.
Development Phase — Formulate a detailed procedure for implementing the approved solution.
Implementation Phase — Execute the solution. Evaluation Phase — Build measurement tools, monitor implementation, and
evaluate measurements to baseline. Please note that this phase is performed
throughout the entire process. The chart below shows that this is a dynamic, not a static model:
What is the primary goal of continuous Improvement? ..................................................................................................... ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................. .... What does CPI stand for? ............................................................................................................................. .... What is CPI used for?
a. .....................................................................................................................
b. .....................................................................................................................
c. ..................................................................................................................... What are the 5 phases of CPI procedure?
a. .....................................................................................................................
b. .....................................................................................................................
c. .....................................................................................................................
d. .....................................................................................................................
e. ..................................................................................................................... In your own words, describe what the diagram (page 2) is trying to say. ...................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................
Suggest one aspect of the electronics industry where CPI might be absolutely critical. Why? ....................................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................................
2.8 Reporting Continuous Improvement
There are three important aspects to reporting on Continuous Improvement
Planning
Progress
Finalisation In the planning stage there needs to be clear direction as to what the intended improvement actually is and what checks or assessments will be made to achieve the improvement. While improvement is taking place there will be checks to see if the planned improvement is happening and how it is progressing.
Once the improvement has been made, to see if there really was the intended improvement, a report will often be made to management or simply as a way of planning the next improvement. Remember the diagram seen earlier (right), note that planning is followed by implantation and that is followed by evaluation. Reports are often necessary at each of these stages. Those reports then help “Decide the next steps”.
2.8.1 Planning At the planning stage continuous reporting may well be built into a project brief such as the sample in the Resources folder associated with this workbook (Design brief Template). Section 9 of that template asks for “Quality measures”. These are the ways quality will be measured in the finished item or process. They will be the benchmarks by which improvements are judged. Section 17 asks for a suggested test plan (shown below). This section asks for planning of the ways different features or aspects of the project may be tested or checked for quality. It is important at an early stage to decide how different aspects or features of any project will be checked for quality and so checked to see if real improvement is happening.
17. Feature Test Plan Of Proposed Circuit
Test Plan for Feature 1
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Process or Method
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… Expected Result ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………
2.8.2 Progress During the improvement there needs to be effective monitoring of the process or project to ensure improvement is actually happening according to plan. One way of doing this is to keep a diary of work. This may be the responsibility of the worker or it may be a task carried out by a supervisor or other manager. A diary records all the steps as a project develops – the things that work as well as those that do not. It also includes the thinking that goes on eg. 12/12/11; 2.00pm; Programming did not function correctly, wonder if the interrupt is wrong, will check. In the below Final Report template the suggestion is made that a diary be filled out by students building a programming a small electronics project. They are provided with an example with 4 columns.
Date Time What happened? What can I do?
Notice that the date and time are recorded in order to build a picture of the continuous aspect of the project. The actual progress or event is logged under the heading of “What Happened?” and then the next step considered under the heading of “What Can I do?” Using this diary approach a picture of progress can be built up over time, tracking the improvement that was planned and also capturing the actual steps taken to complete the project. One concept to help with this is to keep asking yourself the question – “If I get sick and have to have time off, can someone else complete my project using the information in my diary?”
2.8.3 Finalisation At the end of the project a summary of the improvement process needs to be made. This will then form the basis for the next improvement stage – and thus the continuous improvement cycle takes its next step. Finalisation can take many forms. There may be a formal report required by management, it may simply be the next page in the project diary. In the final report includes 4 key questions.
1. Summarise the progress of you project.
A short summary: What were the main problems and highlights?
2. What improvements or changes were made along the way? List the main
ones.
Details details details...
3. Sum up your final result.
4. How might you improve this project if you were to do it again this year?
What are the three stages of CI reporting? ........................................ ..................................... .......................................
Why is planning for CI important? ................................................................................ ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... What are two ways of monitoring continuous improvement (note- one is mentioned above, you need to decide on another yourself). 1. ....................................................................................................................... 2. .......................................................................................................................... Why are dates and times important when monitoring CI? ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... What is the importance of final reporting in CI? .................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................. How would you summarise the importance of CI reporting? ......................................................................................................................................... ......................................................................................................................................... .........................................................................................................................................
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3. Specific Issues
Continuous Improvement brings with it a collection of specific challenges and extras Do you want fires with that? Quite frequently we have to work in teams. This involves getting along with others despite our differences with them.
3.1 Working with others
From Andrew Carnegie Teamwork is the ability to work together toward a common vision. The ability to direct individual accomplishments toward organizational objectives. It is the fuel that allows common people to attain uncommon results. Communication in a team
Seek feedback. As misinterpretations are common in communication, it is often advisable that you continually seek feedback to ensure that your messages have been received accurately.
Make it your priority to express rather than impress. The aim of communication is to express an opinion, idea or to transfer knowledge. It is important to remember that your primary aim is to get your message across, try not to obstruct it by being focused on sounding impressive or knowledgeable.
Choose the right medium. Effective communication means choosing the appropriate medium for your message. Some information is best conveyed in a team meeting, whilst other information may be received more appropriately in an email or memo, other information should be communicated face to face. Select the medium to suit the message and the person you are communicating with.
Be conscious of your non-verbal communication. Be conscious of what you are conveying non-verbally. Avoid diluting the impact of your message with mismatched or incongruent body language. Where possible, adjust your body language to align with your message.
Check out http://www.livetocoach.com/index.php/2009/05/25/effective-communication- within-a-team/
Teamwork never has problems. True/False (circle the correct answer)
Why might there be problems in a team? ……………………… ……………………………………………………………………………. …………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………..
Of course not. The successful team is prepared for setbacks and disappointment, deals with the issue, stays focused and stays on track. Even when a team is performing well there are issues to contend with, set backs and disappointments, sure there are but they are dealt with quickly, effectively. Importantly there is no internal bickering, blame laying or critical confrontation.
Teams are noisy. True/False (circle the correct answer)
Explain .................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................. ..................................................................................................................
3.2 Quality Leadership Continuous improvement has much to do with quality leadership.
“As we look ahead into the next century, leaders will be those who empower others” Bill Gates
Leaders who empower their workers, give them a real stake in the production and processes of their workplaces, allow greater potential for Continuous Improvement. If workers/employees feel they are valued and that they can actively contribute their ideas to the organisation will be more positive about improving quality, productivity and contributing to Continuous Improvement. In summary, employees who feel valued will work harder and be more likely take part in a Continuous Improvement arrangement.
3.2.1 Leadership Styles Empowering workers requires a special sort of leadership and special sorts of leader.
Who do you judge to be the best leader you know? ..................................................................................................
What makes that person your best leader? ..................................................................................................................... What attributes do they have? .................................................................................................................... ....................................................................................................................
Does everyone have these attributes? ..................................................................................................................... Leadership in a workplace makes a huge difference to how that workplace works. A happy workplace usually has a very considerate and effective leadership. If you are to be a leader in a quality workplace, then you need to be a leader of quality. What style of leadership is natural to you? Is it the best style? Does it always work for you?
What style of leadership do you show? Consider the following styles:
Coercive – the leader demands compliance. “Do what I tell you”. Authoritative – the leader mobilises people towards a vision. “Come with me”. Affiliative – the leader creates harmony and builds emotional bonds . “People
come first”. Democratic – the leader forges consensus through participation. “What do you
think?” Pacesetting – the leader sets high standards for performance and demonstrates
them. “Do as I do”. Coaching – the leader develops people for the future. “Try this.”
Really, the best leaders combine some of these depending on the decisions to be made and the circumstances. Too much of any one of these is not great in terms of producing quality workplaces and quality goods and services. In the past leaders were quite often only Coercive. Workers did what they were told or lost their jobs. Parents used to be coercive with their children. In the modern and very competitive world, this does not work as well. Many workers will react against a coercive leader. Leaders need to be more flexible in their approach to their employees. They need to know the right direction to go and then also know how to take their workers, their organisations, with them.
For example; why do many people see Bill Gates as an example of a good leader in the electrotechnology field? What makes/made him a leader?
If you are the leader then leadership and management is all about You as the leader.
You working with a leader
You understanding a leader
You following the leader
These may all contribute to quality – quality in the workplace and quality of the workplace. Checkout http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadstl.html Or http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_84.htm
3.2.2 Leading from the middle Leading is not necessarily all about being paid to be boss or being the CEO of an important organisation. Leaders are often chosen by nature rather than chosen by promotion. In organisations large and small there are many leaders who do not get recognised with big salaries or extra duties but they are leaders just the same. They cannot help themselves. Their personality helps them to encourage others to try new ways, work a little harder or smarter, or to lead other folk in some way. This has been called “leading from the middle” – leadership that comes from deep within the organisation, from the “ordinary” folk. A really effective leader will allow for this and encourage it. This is part of what Gates called “empowering”. So, you might not actually be paid to lead but you can take the initiative and make changes, improve what you and your co-workers do. Much has been achieved in the past by “ordinary” folk having ideas, using the gift of leadership, encouraging others while going about their “ordinary” tasks. If the management is effective, this will be encouraged.
Suggested Reading - Winzenried, A. (2010) Visionary Leaders for Information, CIS, Wagga Wagga.
List some ways that your lead in your work or home life right now.
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........................................................................................................................... Do you consider yourself a good leader? Why? ................................................. ........................................................................................................................... ...........................................................................................................................
3.3 Integration with Project Management Quality and Continuous Improvement are essential elements of any project. For this reason they are quite generally integrated into project management statements and plans. The second teaching approach suggested in this workbook is based on this close relationship. You may well be completing this Unit of Competency at the same time as you are completing one on Micro Applications and Project Management.
How many are there? …………………. How many of the other sections have a little to do with quality of the project? …………………………………
Place these items into their correct lists in the table below. Costs, testing, supervision, quality measures, circuit diagram, flowchart, stakeholders, key objectives, benefits, risks, project organisation, network diagrams, Gantt charts.
Continuous Improvement Other matters
There is not always a clear line between those that are only Continuous Improvement and those that are not. Improvement is connected to so many parts of a project.
3.4 Learning, an exercise in Continuous Improvement One of the commonest forms of Continuous Improvement is learning. Most of us will do it all our lives. In the past, it was more possible to finish school, learn a trade and then work at that trade for the rest of your life. Not much changed and so learning after leaving your apprenticeship was not generally needed.
In the modern world, so much is changing so fast that it is impossible to learn everything before you start work. Work itself is changing. Employers now look for generic skills rather than specific ability with a soldering iron or circuit board.
3.4.1 Generic Employment Skills Generic employment skills are:
Communication Teamwork Problem solving Initiative and enterprise Planning and organising Self management Learning technology
These skills are vital because they allow flexibility in the workplace. None of us knows exactly what the future holds so having generic skills that transfer to any workplace and any task are the really valuable “tools of the trade”.
Generic employability skills comprise a suite of ‘transferable’ skills which are independent of the occupational sectors and organisations in which individuals work, and which contribute to an individual’s overall employability by enhancing their capacity to adapt, learn and work independently. These skills are required not only to gain employment but also to progress within an organisation.
Generic employability skills are important because jobs today require flexibility, initiative and the ability to undertake many different tasks. They are not as narrowly prescribed and defined as in the past and generally they are more service oriented, making information and social skills increasingly important.
In each case though, they are continuing skills. Every worker is expected to improve themselves and have the skills to improve themselves. The process of learning is expected to be ongoing. Once you get a job, the modern employer expects you to learn on the job and generally improve your skills on a continuous basis – continuous improvement of your skills and abilities.
3.4.2 Trade Skills
Years ago, electrical wiring in Australia used cloth insulated copper wire housed in metal conduit. Today, plastic coated wire without conduit or occasionally in PVC tube is the norm. With the change in technology, has been a change in the way things are done. Developing technology is part of a continual process of improvement. Regulation is constantly changing. New rules for new situations. Nothing stays the same. Regulation, like technology is continuously being improved.
Trade skills and trade rules are just as much a part of continuous improvement are process in a factory, or portable computing devices. Learning on the job is a vital part of the modern workplace. Continuous improvement in your work skills is what it is all about.
Locate an example of the latest regulations regarding electronics that have been approved by your local authority.
When was the last regulation approved? ...................................................... What was the date of the previous version of those regulations? ........................................................................................................................... Why were the regulations changed? ........................................................................................................................... ...........................................................................................................................
3.4.3 Electronics and change Perhaps nowhere else are things changing faster than in the field of electronics. How often do Apple produce a new iPod? Has onboard memory changed at all in the past 10 years? Have we always used Bluetooth?
Can you identify the object to the right? When was the last time you saw one of these? Did your grandparents have these when they were your
age? Why do we not use floppy disks and more? Why all these changes? The world is changing and no more so than in the field of electronics. Can anyone remember the first computer games? or the first home computers?
Bill Gates, one of the leaders in personal computing, once said, "No one would ever need more than 64K of memory, so let us make the top limit 640K just in case?" (circa 1980). In 2002 one computer owner added the comment, Hey, Bill Gates' statement was true at the time he made it. Kinda like today, if you have 768 meg of rams on your system, more memory
probably wouldn't improve the performance of your system. This statement probably will not make any sense in 2005, but it is true today.
What would you say today?
Think about Bill Gates comment and the 2002 one also. What is your prediction for the future of computing? ..................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................... .............................................................................................................................. Change is a constant. There is nothing more certain than that technology will change. The whole field of technology is a constantly moving cycle of continuous improvement. Corporations around the world are constantly working to make faster processors, larger hard drives, more pixelated images and all of these at more competitive prices so that their companies will grow.
Because of this constant change, electronics workers need to be increasingly flexible. Thus the modern emphasis on generic and transferable skills rather than the more traditional trade specific one. To deal with all of this, every one of us needs to be constantly learning, constantly upskilling, learning new things every day. Lifelong learning might be a bit of a political football at times but it is also a fact of life. For more on lifelong learning check out http://www.lifelonglearning.com.au/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifelong_learning http://www.abc.net.au/rn/learning/lifelong/ The learning you do in this module is not the end – only the beginning. Your life in the electro technology industry will be one long learning experience. You certainly will not be making the sort of projects in 2020 that you are building now.
You are ontrack for a lifetime of Continuous Improvement.
4 Legislation
Legislation relevant to Continuous Improvement will depend on the country you are working in and possibly the region of that country. The relevant legislation will take 3 important forms.
1. International standards – ISO’s 2. Awards and Enterprise Agreements 3. General Legislation
4.1 International standards – ISO’s International standards of practice. Usually named ISO’s and are created by the International organisation for Standardisation. Why ISO? Because "International Organization for Standardization" would have different acronyms in different languages ("IOS" in English, "OIN" in French for Organisation internationale de normalisation), its founders decided to give it also a short, all-purpose name. They chose "ISO", derived from the Greek isos, meaning "equal". Whatever the country, whatever the language, the short form of the organization's name is always ISO. Why have Standards at all?
Standards make an enormous and positive contribution to most aspects of our lives.
Standards ensure desirable characteristics of products and services such as quality, environmental friendliness, safety, reliability, efficiency and interchangeability - and at an economical cost.
When products and services meet our expectations, we tend to take this for granted and be unaware of the role of standards. However, when standards are absent, we soon notice. We soon care when products turn out to be of poor quality, do not fit, are incompatible with equipment that we already have, are unreliable or dangerous.
When products, systems, machinery and devices work well and safely, it is often because they meet standards. And the organization responsible for many thousands of the standards which benefit the world is ISO.
When standards are absent, we soon notice.
Spend some time on the internet and locate an ISO that relates to the electronics industry. What is its ISO number and name? .............................................................................................
............................................................................................................................ What, very briefly, is the standard being suggested? ............................................................................................................................. ............................................................................................................................. .............................................................................................................................
4.2 Awards and Enterprise Agreements Award and enterprise agreements and relevant industrial instruments Awards are usually rules set by government that set minimum wages for workers is specific industries or jobs. These are standards that individual employers are required to use as a minimum. Individual organisations may well pay their employees above award wages. Such organisations are often the best ones to work for and quite often the ones who are paying more so that they can improve the quality of their processes and outcomes – those that are continuously improving. Enterprise agreements are agreements made within an organisation between the workers and management. These agreements usually operate for a fixed term (eg. two or three years) and cover wages as well as conditions. Industrial instruments are agreements or rules set by specific industry authorities. For example, the electronic industry in Australia, represented by Electronics Industry Association (EIA), has a range of registrations and licences that Electronics companies are required to agree to. Throughout the Australian Electronic Industry there are many, many agreements that will affect work conditions and continuous improvement. These are mostly agreements between a company or organisation and its workers.
Check out Electronics Industry Association or TechAgreements for a quick idea of some of these. What can you say about the range of agreements on this page?
While some governments have complex award legislation that regulates the pay of all workers in a particular industry, others leave this up to individual work places.
Do your own search of the net to locate a workplace agreement or award that relates to your area or organisation. What are some of the provisions of this legislation?
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4.3 General Legislation Legislation, codes and national standards relevant to the workplace may include:
relevant legislation from all levels of government that affects business operation, especially in regard to Work health and safety (WHS) and environmental issues, equal opportunity, industrial relations, anti-discrimination and record keeping standards and legislation.
WHS legislation is very common in many countries. Locate some such legislation for your industry and your country. What are some of the things required by those rules?
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