HIST 1305 Essay -
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\l Revolutionary Americao Change and Transformation 1764-1783
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Britain's decisive victory in the French and Indian War in1763 removed the French threat to its American empire. But the war had been expensive to wage, and the ongo¬ ing costs of administering and protectingNorth America nearly drained the British
treasury. To pay these costs, Britain adopted a new set of policies for America, includ¬ ingnew taxes, more aggressive ways of collecting them, and more severe methods of enforcing these measures. The colonists viewed these policies as an ominous first steps
CONTENTS
4.1 Tightening the Reins of Empire p. 100
\
inaplot to deprive them of their liberty. WhenKing GeorgeIII(r. 1760-1820) assumed the British throne, monarchism
iwas deeply rooted in American culture, and Americans were proud of their British heritage. Opposition to Britishpolicy beganwithrespectful pleas to the king for relief * from unjust policies. Gradually, over thenext decade, Americans became convinced '
that it was no longer possible to remain within the British Empire andprotect their y
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4.2 Patriots versus
Loyalists p. 109 lv CONG R ESS, Jv-LVv.r*.
A DECLARATION Bv THE REPRESENTATIVES o' vm
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA I, GENERAL CONGRESS
rights. Resistance to Britishpolicies stiffened, and the colonists eventually decided to declare independence from Britain.
Tensions betweenBritainand the Americancoloniesreached aboilingpoint ,v with the Tea Act in1773, the theme of this cartoon, The Tea-Tax-Tempest. In the image, £ - "Father Time" displays the events of the AmericanRevolution to four figures who % symbolize the four continents. The "magic lantern" shows a teapotboilingover, bolizingrevolution, while British and Americanmilitary forces stand ready to face •
one another.
The ideals of liberty and equality that Americans invokedin their struggle against.' British tyranny changed American society. The claim that "allmen are created equal" ; ’ and that every person enjoyed certain "inalienable rights," as America's Declaration of Independence asserted in1776, were radicalnotions for those who had grown up ina society that was ruledby a king and that enthusiastically embraced the idea of
aristocracy.
Slavery continued to present a problem for champions of the Revolution. For some, slavery was incompatible with the Revolution's ideals, while others sought to reconcile the two. New England effectively eliminated slavery after the Revolution,
The new states of the mid-Atlantic adopted a more gradual approach to abolishing slavery. In the South,however, whereplanters made fortunes from cropsproduced with slave labor, slavery remained deeply entrenched. Although women were not yet fullpoliticalparticipants, revolutionary notions of equality led them to demand 1
4.3 America at War p. 116
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7' 4.4 The Radicalism of the
AmericanRevolution
p. 121 IglgS
that husbands treat wives as partners in their marriage. Anew idea of companio:
marriage blossomed.
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..and a"Yesterday the greatest question was decided. greater questionperhapsnever was nor willbe decided
amongmen.Aresolution waspassed without one dissentingcolony, that theseUnitedColonies are, and of
right ought to be, free and independent states." JOHN ADAMS,1776
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100 CHAPTER 4 REVOLUTIONARY AMERICA: CHANGE AND TRANSFORMATION, 1764-1783
Tightening the Reins of Empire4.1 V i.ÿ|fe'jgSi The British victory in the French andIndian War in1763 securedNorth
A ® America against French attack.It also forced the British government to
Wj chart a new direction for dealing with America. A cornerstone of the new
I’ If ’ Jjjjr. policy was the Proclamation of 1763, whichprohibited settlement in lands west of the AppalachianMountains (see Chapter 3). Having just fought an
>
expensive war against the French, the British were keen to prevent colonists andIndians from starting a new war. Britain also felt a renewed urgency to raise funds to pay off the war debt and cover the costs of administering the colonies.
The first step inGrenville's new program was
the Revenue Act (1764),popularly known as the Sugar Act.It lowered the duties colonists had to
In1763, George Grenville, the new prime minister, PaY onmolasses,but taxed sugar and other goods
ordered a detailed investigation of colonial reve¬ nues and was unhappy to discover that American customs' duties produced less than £2,000 a year. The lucrative trade inmolasses betweenBritish North America and the Caribbean islands alone
should have yielded approximately £200,000 a year, apart from all of the other goods traded betweenNorth America and Britain, which
4.1 Taxation without Representation
imported to the colonies and increasedpenalties for smuggling. It also created new ways for enforc¬ ing compliance with these laws. Violators couldbe prosecutedinBritish vice-admiralty courts, which
operated without jury trials. For some Americans the Sugar Act violated two long-heldbeliefs: the idea that colonists couldnot be taxed without their consent and the equally sacred notion that English¬ men were entitled to a trialby a jury of their peers.
The Massachusetts lawyer James Otis attacked the Sugar Act as a violation of the rights of English¬ men. Otis had already achievednotoriety for his
should also have generated customs duties. To make the colonies pay their share of taxes, Gren¬ ville was determined to enforce existing laws and enact new taxes tobringin additional revenue. As the figures inEnvisioningEvidence: A Comparison of opposition to the use of writs of assistanceby
customs officials. Otis insisted that under BritishAnnual Per Capita Tax Rates in Britain and the Colo¬ nies in 1765 show, compared to the inhabitants of Britain andIreland, the tax burden on the Ameri¬ can colonists in the 1760s was low. Americans and
law, a court could issue a search warrant only for a specific place where there was probable cause to suspect illegal activity. Rather thanrequire that
officials designate where they intended to search,Britons had come to view taxation differently, and these different visions of the morality and legality new general writs allowed customs officials to
of Britain's new policies put the two on a collision search anY Private property without first demon¬ stratingprobable cause or seeking the approvalcourse. of a magistrate. Inhis pamphlet attacking the
Sugar Act, The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved, Otis denied that the Britishhad the
"The very act of taxing exercised over those who are
not represented appears to me to be depriving them of one of their most essential rights as
freemen/'
authority to tax the colonists without their consent. But Otis stopped short of recommending active resistance to the Sugar Act. Insteadhe counseled
patience, remindinghis readers that we "must and
ought to yield obedience to an act of Parliament, thougherroneous, till repealed."
Whereas Americans viewed the new tax on
sugar and other imports as aburden and a viola-
JAMES OTIS, The Rights of the British Colonies tion of their rights, for the British, the taxes were a modest impositionnecessary to pay for the costAsserted andProved (1764)
of eliminating the French fromNorthAmerica
4.1 TIGHTENING THE REINS OF EMPIRE 101
II:
nvisionmg tviaence A COMPARISON OF ANNUAL PER CAPITA TAX RATES
IN BRITAIN AND THE COLONIES IN 1765*
Given the stridency of colonial opposition to British taxation, one might think that Americans were the most heavily taxed people in the British Empire. In fact, however, they were the least heavily taxed part of the empire. Americans were also generally wealthier than their countrymen across the Atlantic. American
grievances were less about the levels of taxation than about the constitutional and political issues taxation raised. Policymakers inBritain had trouble understanding this distinction, which had profound consequences for relations with the colonies.
4
Ct/asztic
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New York
8 pence Connecticut
7pence Massachusetts Pennsylvania
1shilling 1shilling
Maryland 1shilling
Virginia
5 pence Britain
(England &
Scotland)
26 shillings
Ireland
6 shillings,
8 pence
‘Until 1970, British currency was denominated in pounds, shillings, and pence: £, s, d. There were 20 shillings to a pound and 12 pence to a shilling.
In the 1760s, the daily wage for a skilled worker in London was 2/s 2/d
and a beef dinner with a pint of beer cost 1/s. In British North America, wages and prices varied from colony to colony, but free white American males
enjoyed a higher standard of living than comparable workers did in Britain.
In 1760, a Philadelphia laborer earned just under £60 a year and a merchant £180.
SOURCE: Adapted from R. R. Palmer, The Age of Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760-1800
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1959)
,iSSSEilfc,4%- 1shilling = 12pence
I
102 CHAPTER 4 REVOLUTIONARY AMERICA: CHANGE AND TRANSFORMATION, 1764-1783
4.1 The Great Financier
Prime Minister George Grenville holds a balance in which "Debts" far outweigh "Savings." Britannia, symbol of Great Britain, sits off to the right, forlorn. AnIndian "princess,"
symbol of the American colonies,kneels with a yoke around her neck. The writing on the yoke declares "Taxed without
representation."
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IP rIs and administering the colonies. This political : Tfi cartoon (4.1), which portrays Grenville holding a
balance in which "debts" clearly outweigh "sav¬ ings," illustrates Britain's financial predicament.
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sfla* ft i The British cartoonist who drew it obviouslysympathized with Americans. He shows a Native
‘ American "princess," the most common symbol of the colonies in British cartoons, carrying a sack of
ft u,
money andbearing a heavy yoke around her neck. Inscribed on the yoke is the colonists' complaint: "Taxed without representation."
Whichparts of the British Empire were least
heavily taxed?
Halifax « ic
4.1.2 The Stamp Act Crisis,.6 H V <1 %
fV 1 Britain reacted to the colonists' resistance to the Sugar Actby imposing another, harsher tax, the
Stamp Act, which required colonists to purchase special stamps and place them on everything from newspapers to playing cards. A similar tax existed inBritain, and Parliament believed that requiring colonists to pay such a tax at a lower rate than their
brethren inBritain was entirely reasonable. Many colonists, however, rejected this notion. For them, taxation without consent was a violation of their
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Portsmouth Salem Marblehead Boston Plymouth Pomfret
LCP Windham Lebanon
£ ° AlbanyQA . iartford—.. .
Wethersfield -c • . Wallingford —A
Stratford--T 2 Newport“-—NorwichNew London& Fairfield- Lyme\ P—New Haven O'— West Haven
Milford York
Woodbridge Brunswick
Elizabeth Town Piscataway
Arnwell Twp.
&V rights.
Opposition was most intense in the seaports; the map (4.2) shows how widespread anger against this latest tax was. Stamps had to be affixed to virtually all legal transactions and most printed documents, so the new tax act alienated more
Philadelphia® \ •Salem
•Baltimore•LeAnnapolis* *131001 Dumfries ffl
Leeds’.Rappah
Williamsburg*
Elk Ridge Landing
Frederick Town ®
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annock
Americans than had any previous parliamentary tax. The British couldhardly have picked a worse
target for their new scheme of taxation. Among those most burdened by the tax were lawyers and
printers, two of the most vocal and influential
groups in the colonies. Protests against the Stamp Act filled colonial newspapers and produced a
spate of pamphlets defending colonial rights. The
Massachusetts House of Representatives called on
other colonial assemblies to send delegates to New
York to frame a response to the Stamp Act crisis.
Nine of the thirteen colonies sent a representative
ATLANTICrfolk
OCEAN
•New Bern
Wilmington
Fort Johnson
Duplin Cross Creek*
Brunswickÿ o
Kw f/ 4.2 Stamp Act Protests This map shows the scope of opposition to the detested
Stamp Act. Protest was most
intense in the seaports.
Charleston
'Savannah
4.1 TIGHTENING THE REINS OF EMPIRE 103
impose new taxes on the colonies. The Townshend Acts (1767),named for Charles Townshend, an ambitious British finance minister, leviednew taxes
on glass,paint,paper, and tea importedinto the colonies. Townshend misinterpreted the Stamp Act
protests.Hebelieved that colonists opposed inter¬ nal taxes targeted at commerce within the colonies, but that Americans would accept external taxes
such as customs duties that affected tradebetween the colonies and other parts of the BritishEmpire. Again,many Americans saw things differently.
The Townshend Acts prompted Americans to clarify their views about taxation. Pennsylvania lawyer JohnDickinson's pamphlet Lettersfrom a Farmer in Pennsylvania (1767-1768) was animport¬ ant statement of American views. Dickinson dis¬
putedParliament's right to tax the colonists at all. Parliament could regulate trade among different
parts of the empire,he acknowledged,but only the people's representatives could enact taxes designed primarily to raise revenues. Since Americanshadno representationinParliament, that institutioncould not tax them.
Inresponse to the Townshend Acts, Americans
began a nonimportationmovement, an organized boycott against the purchase of any imported Brit¬ ish goods. Women took an active role in theboycott, urging that instead of imported fabrics, Americans wear only clothes made from domestic homespun fabrics. The nonimportationmovement offered American women a chance to contribute actively to
the defense of Americanrights.It also raised wom¬
en's political consciousness. As thirteen-year-old Anna Green Winslow wrote inher journal regard¬ ing the decision to abandon imported fabrics, "I am (as we say) a daughter of liberty,Ichuse [sic] to wear as much of our manufactory as possible."
Another import, tea,hadbecome the basis
of an important social ritualincolonial society. Amid the growing frustration withBritishpolicy, tea drinking took onnew political significance.In 1774, Penelope Barker and a group of womenin Edenton,NorthCarolina, organized a tea boycott. Word of the Edentonprotest eventually reached England, where a British cartoonist lampoonedits
support for the American cause (4.3 onpage 104).
This satire casts the Edenton women as a motley assortment of hags andharlots, whose unfemi¬
nine actions andneglect of their proper duties as women demonstrate their lack of virtue. The tea
boycott eveninspirednine-year-old Susan Boudi- not, the daughter of a wealthy Philadelphia family,
to the Stamp Act Congress, and although framedin
-espectful terms, the "Declaration of the Rights and Grievances of the Colonies" was an important step toward articulating a commonresponse to British
policy, forcing representatives from different colo¬ nies to work together for a common goal.
Protest against this latest attack on American
liberty was not limited to newspapers or legislative chambers. Opposition to the Stamp Act spilled out of doors into the streets of American cities and
towns. Angry crowds attacked tax collectors and officials.In a few cases crowds also attacked the
homes of British officials, including the home of the lieutenant governor of Massachusetts, Thomas Hutchinson.
GeorgeIIIdismissed George Grenville in1765,
leaving the task of responding to the American crisis to a youngEnglishnobleman, Charles Went¬ worth,Marquess of Rockingham, the new prime minister. Rockingham shepherded two key pieces of legislation throughParliament to deal with the crisis createdby the Stamp Act. The Declaratory Act affirmedParliament's authority to "make
laws and statutes" binding on the colonies "inall
cases whatsoever." The second piece of legislation .epealed thehated Stamp Act.Britainbelieved that
it had reasserted its authority over the colonies,
while removing the main cause of colonialprotest. British officials misjudged the reaction of colonists
opposed to recent policy. For critics of Britishpol¬ icy,it appeared that Parliament had embarked on a
path that would lead inevitably to the destruction
of the colonists' liberty. Colonialpolitics hadmoved from the margins
to the center of Britishpolitics. The issue of what to do about the colonies would define Britishpolitics for the next decade.In the colonies the conflict over
Britishpolicy also transformed Americanpolitics, bringing to the fore a group of Patriots, aggressive supporters of Americanrights, including the Sons
of Liberty, a group devoted to opposingBritishpol¬ icy and defending Americanrights.
How didcolonists react to the Stamp Act?
An Assault onLiberty4.1.3 The resolution of the Stamp Act crisis didnot elim¬
inate Britain's pressing financialneed for colonial ''~>evenue,nor didit reduce colonial determination to
resist further efforts to tax Americans. What good¬ will the repeal of the Stamp Act generated,Britain
quickly squandered as it renewed its efforts to
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104 CHAPTER 4 REVOLUTIONARY AMERICA: CHANGE AND TRANSFORMATION, 1764-1783
W "A Lady's Adieu To Her Tea Table/'No more shallIdish out the once lov'dLiquor, Thoughnow detestable,
BecauseI'm taught (andIbelieve it true) Its Use will fasten slavish Chains uponmy Country,
And LIBERTY'S the GoddessIwould choose To reign triumphant in
AMERICA.
Virginia Gazette, January 20,1774
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4.3 Patriotic Ladies of Edenton
This sarcastic British cartoonlampoons the efforts of American women to participate in theboycott of British imports. The caricature shows the women as unfeminine andneglectful of their proper subordinate roles as wives andmothers. Relations between Bostonians and the occupy¬
ing forces were tense. OnMarch 5, 1770, a group of citizens taunted a patrol of soldiers andpelted them with snowballs. In the melee that followed, some of the soldiers fired on the crowd,killing five civilians. The Boston silversmith and engraver PaulRevere published apopular engraving of the BostonMassacre, as the confrontation came to be called, in whichhe portrayed the British as having deliberately fired on the unarmed crowd (4.4). Revere aligns the soldiers in a formalmilitary pose, andportrays the commanders as giving an order to fire. When the soldiers responsible for the shootings were indicted for murder,John Adams, a vocal critic of Britishpolicy, volunteered to defend them. Adams sought to demonstrate to the British
that the Americans were not a lawless mob,but a
law-abidingpeople. A gifted lawyer,he secured
acquittals for all those accused except for two sol¬ diers, who were convicted of the lesser crime of
manslaughter. The evidence presented at the trial
revealed that Revere's version of the event, while
excellent propaganda, was not an accurate render¬
ing of the circumstances. Thenew taxes andpressure for compliance
had stiffened the colonists' resistance. So although Parliament repealed most of the Townshend Acts in1770, relations between the colonies andBritain remained strained. Colonists continued to demand
the traditional rights of Englishmen, such as trial
by jury,but Americanprotests hadmovedina new Wi
direction, including the view that taxation with¬
out representation was a violation of fundamental
to demonstrate her solidarity with the colonial cause inher own way. Wheninvited to tea at the home of the royal governor of New Jersey, Susan curtsied respectfully, raisedher teacup to her lips, and then tossed the contents out of a window.
The new duties imposedby the British were only one part of a more aggressive policy toward the colonies. Between1765 and 1768, the British transferred thebulk of their military forces in America from the frontier to the major seaports, sites of the most violent opposition to the Stamp Act. This increased the already tense situationin these localities.In1768, the simmering tensions betweencolonists and the British government came to a head whenBritish customs officials in Boston seized merchant JohnHancock's ship Lib¬ erty. Customs officials had longsuspected Hancock of smuggling and thought that seizing the Liberty would give them the proof to prosecute him. The decisionproved to be a serious blunder. The sym¬ bolic significance of the British assault on a ship namedLiberty was not lost onBostonians, who saw this as an assault on the idea of liberty itself. Inresponse to the seizure of the Liberty,Bostonians rioted, driving customs officials from the town. To quellunrest inBoston, the British dispatched addi¬ tional troops and warships to the area. By 1769, the
Britishhad stationed almost 4,000 troops, dubbed
redcoatsbecause of their reduniforms,in a city
with a population of roughly 15,000.
4.1 TIGHTENING THE REINS OF EMPIRE 105 mm
reactions. Colonists resented the new law,
even though it made tea cheaper, and merchants resented the monopoly it gave to the East India Company. Others saw the act as a subtle way of reasserting Brit¬
ain's right to tax the colonies. One group of angry colonists inPhil¬
adelphia, calling themselves the Tar and
, Feathering Committee, warned that they would tar and feather any ship's captain
™*T who landed with British tea. The British
| found the colonists' actions thuggish. In this hostile British cartoon, Bostonians Pay-
| ing the Excise-Man (4.5), a cruel-looking | bunch of colonists force a British customs | official, covered in tar and feathers, to | drink tea until he becomes sick. A form of
I public humiliation, tarring and feathering ! involvedpouringhot tar onto the victim's
skin and then attaching a coat of feathers. Scraping off the resultingmess was pain¬ ful and laborious.
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4.5 Bostonians Paying the Excise-Man
In this pro-British cartoon, Bostonians
are cruel thugs who have tarred
and feathered the
custom's official
and are forcing tea
down his throat.
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Si i Entr»v« PrHt»d vSold byR»)tHrvmSosr<wj; 4.4 Boston Massacre
Paul Revere's influential engraving of the Boston Massacre
takes liberties with the facts to portray the British in the worst
possible light. The orderly arrangement of the troops and
the stance of the officer at their side suggest that they acted
under orders. Behind the troops,Revere has renamed the shop
"Butcher's Hall."
s jfrights.
Resistance to Britishpolicy was also becom¬
ingmore organized. The Sons of Liberty, created during the Stamp Act crisis, continued their criti¬
cism and intensified their efforts to coordinate and
enforce protests against Parliament's policies. After the repeal of the Townshend Acts, Amer¬
icans enjoyed a brief respite from Parliament's attentions, as Britain turned its focus elsewhere in
its far-flung empire, especially to India. However,
colonists soon faced another effort to tax them.
How didnonimportation transform women’s political
role in the colonies?
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My4.1.4 The Intolerable Acts and the First Continental Congress
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nwiIn 1773, Parliament decided to help the flaggingEast India Company increase its tea sales to thecolonies. Many members of Parliament had siz¬ able investments in the company. The new law
lowered the price of tea to Americans,but kept the tax on tea, and also gave the East India Company a monopoly on the tea trade with the colonies. Again,British authorities miscalculated American
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106 CHAPTER 4 REVOLUTIONARY AMERICA: CHANGE AND TRANSFORMATION, 1764-1783
4.6 The Able Doctor, or America Swallow¬ ing the Bitter Draught
PaulRevere's engraving
presents America as a
partially cladIndian princess.LordChief Justice Mansfield, a symbol of British law,holds America down. Theprime minister, LordNorth, shown with
a copy of the BostonPort Bill, one of the Intolerable Acts,protruding fromhis pocket, forces tea downher throat.
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The most dramatic response to the tea act occurred inDecember 1773, whenBostonians, dressed as Indians,boarded a British ship and tossed over 340 chests of tea into the harbor in what came tobe known as the Boston Tea Party.
To punish the colonists responsible for this act of what the British considered vandalism,Parlia¬
ment passed the Coercive Acts,known to colonists as the Intolerable Acts. This legislation closed the Port of Boston, annulled the Massachusetts colonial charter, dissolved or severely restricted that colony's political institutions, and allowed the British to quarter (house) troops inprivate homes. (A generation later Americans adopted the Third Amendment to the Bill of Rights, which for¬ bade quartering troops incivilianhomes, a direct
response to this detested Britishpractice.) The acts
also allowedBritishofficials charged withcapital crimes to be tried outside the colonies. Some col¬ onists called the last provision the "Murder Act,"
since they feared it would allow soldiers charged withmurder to avoidprosecution.
Americans were divided over how to respond to the Intolerable Acts. Some saw the Bostonians who dumped tea into theharbor as radicals whose actionsbesmirched Americans' reputation as
law-abiding subjects of the king. Others expressed outrage at the Britishpolicy thathad forced Bos¬
tonians to resort to such a dramatic protest. This
cartoon, The Able Doctor, Or America Swallowing the Bitter Draught (4.6), gives a different view of Bos¬ tonians from the lawless ruffians depictedinBos¬ tonians Paying the Excise-Man (4.5).Here the British
prime minister,LordNorth,brutally accosts Amer¬ ica, a half-cladIndianprincess, forcing tea down her throat, while LordChief Justice Mansfield, the symbol of British law,pins her arms down.
Themost important consequence of the Intolera¬ ble Acts was the decisionby the colonies to convene a ContinentalCongress inPhiladelphia inlate 1774. All the colonies except Georgia sent representatives. Among the colonial leaders who attended were Pat¬ rick Henry,JohnAdams, and George Washington. Congress endorsed the Resolves of Suffolk County, Massachusetts, which denounced the Intolerable
Acts and asserted the intention of colonists to nul¬
lify such a manifest violation of their "rights and lib¬ erties." The Congress also recommended that every town,county, and city create a committee to enforce
theboycott of British goods. The informalnetwork of committees that had opposedBritishpolicynow
acquired a quasi-legal status from Congress. Althoughmany Americans hoped that a peace¬
ful solution to the deepening crisis was possible, inMarch1774, the brilliant Virginia orator Patrick
Henry urgedhis fellow delegates in the Virginia legislature toprepare for the inevitable conflict that
loomedbetween the colonies and Britain. Although
4.1 TIGHTENING THE REINS OF EMPIRE 107
4.1.5 Lexington, Concord, andLordDunmore's Proclamation
no contemporaneous copy of his dramatic speech Exists, Henry's words were recounted many years later, assuming almost legendary status in Ameri¬
can culture.In response to British assaults, Henry
declared, "Give me liberty—or give me death!" Between the passage of the Sugar Act in 1764
and the meeting of the First Continental Congress in 1774, relations between Britain and America
had steadily deteriorated. As the chart (4.7) shows,
Britain had tried various revenue measures to raise
funds from the colonies. Americans, however,
remained opposed to taxation without representa¬ tion. Rather than subdue the colonies, British pol¬ icy only strengthened the resolve of Americans to defend their rights.
Living on the edge of the British Empire, colonists
had come to depend on their ownmilitias as their primary means of public defense. The laws of the individual colonies regulated these organizations of citizen soldiers. During the colonialperiod the militia was more than just a force available to pro¬ tect the colonists from hostile Indians or attacks
from the French or Spanish. Inan era before police forces, the militia also helped enforce public order,
putting downriots, rebellions, and other civil
disturbances.InJanuary 1775, Virginia's George Mason called on the colonists to put their militia in
good order. Mason declared that "a well regulated What was the most important consequence of the
Intolerable Acts?
4.7 British Policies and Their Con¬ sequences for Relations with the American Colonies
PolicyAct coruseguene.es
intensifies -problem, of land scarcity incolonies
Colonials articulate theory that taxation without representation is a violationof "their most essential rights as freemen"
Documents andprinted materials, -Riots inmajor urban areas, including legal doc.u-iM.tin-ts, newspapers, andplaying cards must use special stamped paper
Date
17&3 Proclamation
of17-6.3 Prohibits colonists from moving westward
Reduces duty on molasses, but provides for more vigorous methods of enforcement
17£>4 Sugar Act
-LJ-to5 stampAct harassment of revenue officers, colonial representatives meet
for .Stamp Act Congress
Colonial Assemblies protest, Slew yortepunished for failure to comply with law
1_J-G>5 Quartering Act Colonists must supply British troops with housing and
firewood
Britain reasserts its authority, while removing the obnoxious provisions of the Stamp Act
Nonimportation movement gains ground
30,000pounds of tea tossed into Boston harbor
Britain asserts its right to legislate for colonies inall cases/stamp Act repealed
'744 Declaratory Act/Repealof Stamp Act
1J-&-J- Townshend Acts New duties placed on glass, lead, paper,paint
Parliament gives Bast India
monopoly, but provides a subsidy to Bast India C.oiM.-pau,Lj that decrtn&es the price of tea for Americans
17-74- Coercive Acts Port ofBoston closed, (intolerable Acts) meetings restricted
1773 Tea Act
First Continental Congress meets and other colonies express support
forBostonians
Continental C-otn-Qrtÿs. adopts a Declaration ofRights asserting American, rights
town
1775- Prohibitory Act Britain decLares intention to coerce AM.tric.am-s into submission
108 CHAPTER 4 REVOLUTIONARY AMERICA: CHANGE AND TRANSFORMATION, 1764-1783 IH WMHBaaMHMI
reinforcements pouredinto Concord and the sur¬ rounding countryside. The British column was an
easy target for militiamen, who took up positions along the roadside and in the adjacent woods. A RhodeIslandnewspaper captured the views of Patriots whenit commented that British aggression marked the start of a "War which shall hereafter fill an important page inhistory."
Although the Britishhadmounted a direct assault on the Massachusetts militia, they opted for a stealthier plan for disarming the Virginiamilitia. Under cover of darkness a detachment of Royal Marines entered Virginia's capital of Williamsburg, seized the gunpowder, and destroyed the firing mechanisms on the muskets storedin the militia's
magazine (storehouse). When citizens of Williams¬ burg learned of the assault, they marched on the governor's mansion to protest. As word of the Brit¬ ishraid spread through the colony,militia ledby Patrick Henry planned to march on Williamsburg. LordDunmore, the royal governor, warned that if the militia entered Williamsburghe would "declare freedom to slaves andreduce the city of Williams¬
burg to ashes." At the last moment a compromise was worked out, and the governor made restitu¬
tion for the stolenpowder and damaged guns. Still,Dunmore's threat to free Virginia's slaves had shocked the colony.
Two weeks later colonists learned of LordDun-
more's Proclamation. Dunmore offered freedom to
any slave who joined the British forces inputting down the Americanrebellion. Within a month 300
slaves had joined "Dunmore's EthiopianRegi¬ ment," whose ranks would swell to 800 or more.
The uniforms of this emit included a sash embla¬ zoned with the motto "Liberty To Slaves." Virgin¬ ians complained that the British were "using every Art to seduce the Negroes," while others viewed Dunmore's decision as "diabolical." Many Virgin¬ ians who were wavering on the issue of American
independence now concluded that a break with Britain was inevitable, even desirable. Some Vir¬
ginians recognized that Virginia's slaves were seeking the same liberty that colonists claimed. For example, Lund Washington, who managedhis cousin George's Mount Vernon estate, including his slaves, observed that "there is not a man of
thembut would leave us, if they couldmake their
escape."
What was the impact ofLordDunmore’s Proclamation
on southern colonists?
"If we view the whole of the conduct of the [British]ministry andparliament,
Ido not see how any one can doubt but that there is a settled fix'dplan for inslaving the colonies, orbringing themunder arbitrary
government." Connecticut Minister, the Reverend
EBENEZER BALDWIN,1774
Militia, composed of gentlemen freeholders, and other free-men, is thenatural strength and only sta¬ ble security of a free Government."
The British, too,understood the importance of the militia to colonial resistance. Not only did they pose amilitary threat,but they were also indis¬ pensable to helpingmobilize Americans and orga¬ nizing their opposition to Britishpolicy.Disarming the militiasbecame apriority for the British. Their first target was Massachusetts, whichhadbecome a hotbed of resistance; the British dispatched troops to Concord inApril 1775 to seize gunpow¬ der and other military supplies. PaulRevere, an outspokenmember of the Sons of Liberty, was charged withriding fromBoston to Lexington and Concord to warn citizens that British troops were on the march.Revere got as far as Lexington before a Britishpatrol captured him. Fortunately for Revere he had already encountered another member of the Sons of Liberty that night,Dr. Sam¬ uelPrescott, who was returning from the home of
his fiancee. Prescott agreed to carry word that Brit¬ ish troops were marching from Boston. The alarm spread throughout the countryside. When the 700 Britishregulars finally arrived at Lexington's town
green, they faced 60-70 militiamen. Although the militia agreed to disperse, someone, it is not clear who, fired a shot, and the two sides exchanged fire. The Battle of Lexingtonmarked the first military conflict betweenBritain and America, and the colo¬ nists had demonstrated their mettle.
The British thenmarched to Concord, where
they confronted a larger andbetter organized militia detachment at theNorthBridge. The mili¬ tia stood their ground and exchanged fire with the British regulars, who were forced to retreat. While the British retreatedback to Boston, colonial
4.2 PATRIOTS VERSUS LOYALISTS 109
Patriots versus Loyalists4.2 A nl°c KATA’TJ o N By 1775, the rift between Britain and the colonies had grownprecipitously
large. Indeed, it was not just colonists who believed that if Britain continued on its present course it would end in disaster. A satirical British cartoon, The Political Cartoonfor the Year 1775 (4.8), published inLondon, vividly captured this view.It depicts King GeorgeIIIridingin a coachheading straight over
a cliff. Lord Chief Justice Mansfieldholds the reins of the carriage of state, which rides rough¬ shod over the Magna Carta—a legal text closely linked with the Rights of Englishmen—and the British Constitution, another symbol of liberty. The cartoonist's symbolism suggested a view that wasbecoming increasingly popular in the colonies: Americans couldno lon¬ ger expect the political and legal system of Britain to protect their liberty. Although some Americans were persuaded that Britain was intent on trampling their liberty, other colonists remained loyal to the crown. For Patriots it was becoming increasingly clear that they could no longer count on the legalprotections that had safeguarded their liberty for generations. Loyalists,by contrast, disputed this claim. For those loyal to GeorgeIII, liberty couldbe maintained only by upholding English law. Loyalists viewedPatriots' actions as lawlessness, not affirmations of liberty.
as
they were not the "untrained rabble" the British hadportrayed and that they couldbecome a for¬ midable fighting force. The painter John Trumbull immortalized thebattle inhis painting The Death
ofGeneral Warren at the Battle ofBunker Hill.For a discussion of thispainting andhow it reflected the realities of a battle inwhichneither side won a
clear victory, see Images as History: Trumbull's The Death of General Warren at the Battle of Bunker
Hill (page 110).
Despite the armed confrontations at Lexing¬ ton, Concord, and Bunker Hill, the Continental
Congress hadnot abandonedhope of reconcilia¬ tion withKingGeorge III. InJuly 1775, Congress
The Battle of BunkerHill4.2.1 Two months after Lexington and Concord, the
two sides clashed againinCharlestown, across ;he Charles River fromBoston. American forces
had duginat Bunker Hill andnearby Breed's Hill,prepared to hold off the BritishinBoston. The main fighting actually took place at Breed's Hill, which was closer to the harbor. The British
underestimated the colonists' resolve to hold their
ground. Although the British took Bunker and Breed'sHills, they hadpurchased their victory at a steep cost indead and wounded. Evenmore
important, Americans had shown the British that
4.8 The Political Cartoon for the Year 1775
GeorgeIIIrides next to Lord Chief Judge Mansfieldin a carriage heading toward the
I edge of a cliff. The carriage crushes the
Magna Carta and the BritishConstitution,
symbols of the rule
3? of law, while flames
engulf Bostonin the
background.
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112 CHAPTER 4 REVOLUTIONARY AMERICA: CHANGE AND TRANSFORMATION, 1764-1783
drafted the "Olive Branch" petition, asking George III to intervene on their behalf. The kingrejected the American appeal. With that rejection the time for reconciliationpassed, and the supporters of American independence in the Continental Con¬ gress gained momentum. Thepush for indepen¬ dence opened a division withincolonial society between colonists who supported independence and those who remained loyal to the British.
What was the “Olive Branch”petition?
life.He wasunabashedly democratic at a time when many,including those most eager to separate from Britain, viewed democracy as a danger tobe avoided at all cost. Common Sensebecame ablueprint for those who wished to experiment withdemocratic govern¬ ment, althoughnot everyone who ardently supported Americanindependence appreciatedPaine's ideas.
"There is something absurd insupposing a Continent to be perpetually governed
by an island." THOMAS PAINE, Common Sense, 1776
4.2.2 Common Sense and the Declaration of Independence
InJanuary 1776, Thomas Paine, a recent immigrant to America fromEngland, wrote apamphlet that argued forcefully for Americanindependence.In Common Sense, Painenot only attacked recent Britishpolicy,he framed a stingingindictment of monarchy and defended a democratic theory of representative government. After stating the "sim¬ ple facts,plain arguments, and common sense" of thematter,Paine concluded that separation from Britainwas the only action that made sense for America.Paine's work was printedina cheap for¬ mat that allowed artisans, farmers, and others with little money to purchase a copy.He wrote inplain, forcefulprose, avoidingliterary and classical allu¬ sions that wouldhave requiredknowledge of Latin. Thebook was a phenomenalpublishing success.
Common Sense didmore than simply fuelAmer¬ icans' desire for independence;it helped change the framework inwhichAmericans thought about politics itself.Before Paine'spamphletmost Amer¬ icans,even those whobelieved that reconciliation withBritain was impossible, stillmaintained a respectful attitude towardGeorge in.Most Ameri¬ cans had grownup ina culture that venerated con¬
stitutionalmonarchy,butPaine's savage critique of
this institutionhad aliberatingimpact.Paine called monarchy "ridiculous." After demonstrating that historyproved thatmonarchy was incompatible with liberty,Paine turned to the currentBritishmonarch GeorgeHI,whomhe equated withsavagery itself. He denounced theking forhis assaults onAmerican liberty,noting that "evenbrutes donot devour their
young." Those who supportedreconciliation with Britain foundPaine's scathing attacks onGeorge HIappalling.Paine also gave a voice tomany who wished to radically transformAmericanpolitical
InJuly 1775, a monthafter Congress drafted the "Olive BranchPetition," pleading withGeorgeIII to abandon the "cruel" policies of his ministers and "such statutes" as "immediately distress" the colo¬ nists, the king declared that the Americancolonists were "inopen and avowedrebellion." The Prohibi¬ tory Act,which the BritishParliament enacted into law inDecember 1775,banned all trade with the thirteencolonies. Word of thebanarrivedinAmer-
ica inFebruary 1776. Coming on the heels of Paine's indictment of British tyranny, thepolicy further inflamed American resentments against Britain.
After the adoptionof the Prohibitory Act, sup¬ port for independence gained ground.InMay Con¬ gress instructed the individual colonies "to adopt such Government as shall, in the Opinion of the Representatives of the People,best conduce to the
Happiness and Safety of their Constituents." Con¬ gress added a preamble five days later that affirmed
"the exercise of every kind of authority under the said crown shouldbe totally suppressed." Although Congress hadnot formally declared independence, ithadeffectively asserted that the colonieshad become independent statesno longer under the
authority of Parliament or the king. RichardHenry Lee of Virginia introduced a res¬
olution that "these United Colonies are, and of right ought tobe, free and independent states." Congress then debated the Lee resolution and onJune 11, 1776, appointed a committee to draft a formal decla¬ rationof independence. WithJohnAdams (Massa¬ chusetts) as its chair, the committee includedRobert
Livingston (New York), Thomas Jefferson (Virginia),\_j Roger Sherman (Connecticut), andBenjaminFrank¬
lin (Pennsylvania). Adams designatedJefferson to
4.2 PATRIOTS VERSUS LOYALISTS 113
historians estimate that Patriots constitutedabout 40
percent of the whitepopulation,neutrals another 40
percent, andLoyalistsprobably about 20 percent.
Many prominent Loyalists had opposedBritish
policy toward the colonies,but refused to accept the decision for independence. Minister Samuel
Seabury captured the view of many Loyalists when he wrote: "To talk of a colony independent of the mother-country, is no better sense than to talk of a limb independent of thebody to whichitbelongs." The image of the dismemberment of the empire was apowerful one in the minds of colonials and Britons alike.In the 1760s, supporters of American
rightshadused suchimages topersuade Britain to change its policy toward the colonies. At the time
take the leadindrafting the formal resolution. On
June 28, the committee presented the congressio¬ nal delegates with the draft.Congress cut about a
quarter of the text andmade some other revisions to the document. OnJuly 4, 1776, Congress approved the final text of the Declaration of Independence, a
public defense of America's decision to declare inde¬
pendence fromBritain that was to beprinted and sent to the individual states. Copies of the declara¬ tion were then widely distributed.
Thomas Jefferson admitted that his text reflected the "sentiments of the day, whether expressed inconversation or letters,printed essays." The introductory paragraph explained the reasons for separating fromBritain. The secondparagraphpro¬ vided a powerful defense of the liberty and equality and affirmed that "allmen are createdEqual" and therefore entitled to "life, liberty, and thepursuit of happiness." A long list of grievances against GeorgeIII took up thebulk of the text. Printed as a
single broadside, the indented list of charges against GeorgeIIIwas immediately recognizable (4.9).
The drafters of the Declaration of Independence aimedit at both a domestic and a foreign audience. It made the case for independence to the American
oeople and announced to the British government the reasons for takingup arms. The declaration also sought tohelp American diplomacy.If Amer¬ ica were to fight the most powerfulnation on earth,
it wouldneedhelp from other Europeanpowers, such as Holland, Spain, and especially of Britain's longtime rival,France. Because a powerfulmon¬ arch thenruledFrance, the declaration refrained
from using the inflammatory antimonarchical rhet¬ oric favoredby Thomas Paine in Common Sense.
George Ill's misdeeds,not monarchy itself, were to blame for America's demand for independence.
What factors contributed to the popular success of Thomas Paine’s Common Sense?
IN CONGRESS, JULY *.7* A DECLARATION
BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN GENERAL CONGRESS ASSRMBLBD.
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4.2.3 The Plight of the Loyalists
The divisionbetween Patriots, colonists who sup¬
portedAmericanindependence, andLoyalists, those wishing to remainloyal to theking, drove a
deep wedge incolonial society. John Adams spec- - ulated that Americans were evenly divided among
Patriots,Loyalists, and those striving to remain neutral. Althoughit is difficult to establishhard fig¬ ures for how colonists divided over independence,
CHTRI.ES r
4.9 The Declaration of Independence
The Declaration of Independence was printed as a broadside. This single-sheet format made it easy to post inpublic places. The layout of the Declaration—the typography andparagraphing—guides the reader through the mainparts of its argument.
114 CHAPTER 4 REVOLUTIONARY AMERICA: CHANGE AND TRANSFORMATION, 1764-1783
"Wehold these truths to be self-evident, that allmen are created equal, that they are endowedby their Creator withcertain
unalienable Rights, that among these are Life,Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness."
Declaration of Independence,1776
BenjaminFranklin was a colonial lobbyist inLon¬ don, working to repealBritish taxes.He designed an engraving,Magna Britannia Her Colonies Reduced, to
appeal to Parliament, evoking thehorror of a possi¬ ble separationbetween the colonists and themother
country (4.10). Seabury's reassertion of thehorrors that would follow from the dismemberment of the
property also liable to confiscation? The story of Grace GrowdenGalloway illustrates the rapidreversal of fortune that couldbefall anyone who opposed the Patriots' sidein the AmericanRevolution. See Choices and Consequences: A Loyalist Wife's Dilemma.
The Loyalist cause appealed to many Amer¬ icans,not just wealthy men and womenlike Grace and Joseph Galloway.New York boasted a sizable Loyalist population, as didparts of the backcountry in the Carolinas. Some religious sects, particularly groups such as the Quakers who were pacifists, opposed the violence of war. Beginning withLordDunmore's Proclamation,many slaves had sensed that a British victory,not independence, offered them the best chance for freedom. As many as 100,000 slaves freed themselvesby running
away during the dislocation createdby the war.
4.10 Magna
Britannia Her Colonies Reduced
This image created
by Benjamin Franklinplays onthe among Americans unsure about independence. dismemberment of
empire tapped intopowerful fears and anxieties
Loyalists sufferedhardships during the struggle for independence.Insomeplaces wherePatriot feel¬ ings were strongest, individuals couldbe ostracized for refusing to support thePatriot cause.Legal disabil-
the empire as fatal to
boththe colonies and themother country. Franklinused this
image early in ities were also imposed onindividuals who refused to America's opposition take a loyalty oath,includingexclusion from service toBritishpolicy. Loyalists later used
the dismemberment
on juries and disarmament.Many states passed laws
seizingLoyalistproperty. A complicated issue aris¬
ing from these laws washow to deal withwomen married toLoyalists. Some womenbrought property fromtheir own family into their marriage. Was this
metaphor to per¬ suade Americans to oppose
independence.
What legalhardships andpenalties were imposed on
Loyalists?
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4.2 PATRIOTS VERSUS LOYALISTS 115
Choices and Consequences A LOYALIST WIFE’S DILEMMA
Before the struggle for independence, Grace Growden Galloway stood at the apex of Philadelphia society. Her husband, Joseph Galloway, was wealthy and influential inPennsylvania politics. Throughout the escalating conflict withBritain, Joseph Galloway supportedreconciliation, and when war broke out,he became aLoyalist. Realizing that he couldno longer count on the goodwill of his former friends andneighbors to protect him, Galloway andhis daughter fledPhiladelphia—perhaps the most ardent Patriot city outside New England—for British-controlledNew York in1776. The government of Pennsylvania confiscated Galloway"s property, but Grace Galloway was determined to protect the property she hadinherited fromher own family andhadbrought intoher marriage. She faced a difficult set of choices concerningher property:
Choices
Follow ner husband, daughter,
and other Loyalists into exile, ac¬ cepting that neither she nor her husband would probably ever re¬ cover their property.
Embrace the Patriot cause, stay, and avoid confiscation of her property and estate.
Stay loyal to her husband but take no public
stance on independence and remain in Philadelphia. Work actively to use every legal option to protect the properties that she had brought into her marriage.
t
Decision Grace chose to remain loyal to her husband, stay, and fight for her property. She hoped that by remaining in her home she could avoid eviction. She also concluded that the chances of defending her own property against confiscation would be easier if she stayed in Philadelphia.
iMu
*Consequences Eighteenth-century coach Grace endured great hardship while defending her rights but was ultimately evicted. Snubbed and shunned by many of her former friends and acquaintances, and driven from her home, she lived in a modest set of rented rooms. In her diary Grace recounts her struggles and the indignities she suffered, including the time she “saw My own Chariot standing at my door for the Use of others while I am forced to Walk.” She never rejoined her family and died alone in 1781, Her strategy did ultimately succeed. Although her husband's property was forfeited, her descendants were able to recover the property she brought into the marriage.
Continuing Controversies What does the situation facedby Loyalist wives who forfeited theirproperty tellus about the limits of the Revolution on women’s traditional roles in marriage?
The legal doctrine of coverture (femes-covert) meant women had no political will or legal identity once they married. Yet, this notion was in tension with the Revolution's emphasis on individual autonomy and individual liberty. This issue came before American courts in Martin v. Commonwealth (1805). The Martin case dealt with facts very similar to those faced by Grace Gal¬ loway in her struggle against Pennsylvania. InMartin, the case not only dealt with the specific facts of how to settle a confiscated estate, but the lawyers raised broader questions about the nature of women’s roles under America’s new republican system.
The Attorney General of the State of Massachusetts used the Revolution’s new conception of women as inde¬ pendent political actors and argued that a woman’s choice to stay or flee during war was hers alone.
The lawyer for Martin’s Heir defended the traditional view that a wife had no legal will of her own, and therefore the state should not have treated her decision to leave as one she freely made.
The court ruled in favor of Martin's one and only heir, holding that Martin’s decision to leave the state had been her hus¬ band’s, not her own, and therefore the state did not have the right to seize her land.
116 CHAPTER 4 REVOLUTIONARY AMERICA: CHANGE AND TRANSFORMATION, 1764-1783 mmmmmmmmmammmmmB NMnnHI
America at War4.3
m The Britishhad reason to be confident when they contemplated their mil¬itary advantages over the colonies at the start of the war. Britain's navywas the most powerfulin the world and its army was formidable. Thepopulation of the BritishIsles was more than four times greater than that ofthe colonies. Americabegan the war withonly a citizen's militia.Fighting a powerful army meant that America wouldhave to create a professional force. Congress appointed George Washington the commander of the new Continental Army.
AlthoughBritain's population was muchlarger than that of the colonies, the relative size of the two armies in the field was not that lopsided. At the start of the conflict British General Howe enjoyed something like a two to one advantage over General Washington.Numbers alone donot tell the whole story. British supply lines were stretched thin and American forces were supplementedby militia forces, whichnot only increased the size of the Patriot forces, but forced the British to deal with fightingboth a conventional army and a nonconventional one as well. Even if the British were able to defeat the American armed forces in the field and gaincontrol of America's cities, conquering andpacifyingall thirteen colonies wouldbe vir¬ tually impossible. The British also never grasped that they were fighting a new type of war: not a struggle against another European power,but a battle against a decentralized indepen¬ dence movement.
4.3.1 The War in the North Army under the leadership of George Washington underscored this fact and led the British to change their tactics. Rather than employing the army to subdue a rebel population, the Britishprepared for a sustainedmilitary conflict. Realizing that Patriot sympathies inNew England were strong, the Brit¬ ishretreated toNew York, a colony withmany Loyalists.New York not only provided a safer base of operations,but the British also believed that if
they couldholdNew York they would cut New England off from the rest of America.
Although determined to defendNew York,
Washington suffered a major defeat at Brooklyn Heights inAugust 1776. Washington then retreated to Manhattan,but BritishMajor General Sir Wil¬
liamHowe soon drove the Americans fromNew
York. Retreating south throughNew Jersey, Wash¬
ington eventually crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania.During the winter,however,
Washington's ranks dwindled as many militiamen returnedhome. These citizen soldiers had repulsed the immediate threat. They would also protect the
countryside andprevent Loyalist pockets from forming outside of British-controlled territory,but
they were ill suited to sustainedbattle. Washington lamented their unpredictable coming and going: "come in,you cannot tellhow" and "go, you can¬
not tell when, and act you cannot tell where." The
Stiff resistance at Breed'sHill and Bunker Hill
had convinced the Britishmilitary that the colo¬ nialmilitias were not anundisciplinedrabble that wouldretreat if confrontedby a well-trained professional army. The creation of a Continental
"To place any dependance uponMilitia, is,assuredly,restingupon a broken
staff
____ Men accustomed to unbounded
freedom, andno controul, cannot brook the Restraint which is indispensably necessary
to the good order and Government of an Army;without which, licentiousness,
and every kindof disorder triumphantly reign. TobringMen to a proper degree of Subordination, isnot the work of a day, a
Month or even a year." GEORGE WASHINGTON to the President of Congress,
September 24,1776
4.3 AMERICA AT WAR 117
"The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot,will in this crisis, shrink from the service of his country;but he that stands itNOW
deserves the love and thanks of men and women." THOMAS PAINE, The American Crisis (1776)
militia's lack of discipline and long-term commit¬ ment to fight was a constant source of frustration to Washington and Americanmilitary leaders. Still element of thisplanwas a coordinatedeffort to cap- the militia remained vital, contributingboth to the ture American cities, including the rebellion'spoliti- military andpolitical success of the war effort.
Believing that he had decisively defeated Wash- British also sought to isolate ardently PatriotNew ington, an overconfident Howe establishedhis base England fromthe rest of thenation.ABritisharmy
camp inNew York City andplanned to enjoy the under GeneralJohnBurgoynemarched south from winter holidays.
Realizing that America desperately needed a
victory, Washington launched a surprise attack on Christmasnight 1776. He ordered that Thomas Paine's inspirational essay The American Crisis be read tohis troops. Paine enjoined Americans not to abandonhope. Leadinghis soldiers across the partially frozenDelaware River under cover of darkness, Washington overwhelmed an outpost mannedby Germanmercenaries at Trenton. A week
later, Washington won another daringvictory at Princeton.Howehad squanderedhis advantage and allowed Washington to regroup and score two
important victories. Washington shrewdly aban¬ donedhis early strategy of fighting a conventional war.He now realized thathis primary goal was to wear downhis opponents and avoid a decisive
defeat. Such a strategy played to America'snatural advantages and would eventually force the British
to accept that they couldnot conquer America. To
commemorate Washington's victory at Princeton, the trustees of PrincetonCollege commissioned the eminent Americanpainter Charles WilsonPeale to paint Washington at the Battle of Princeton (4.11). The portrait replaced apainting of George HI, dam¬
aged during thebattle whena cannonball removed the king'shead.
British strategy shiftedin1777.Howe decided to makemore effective use of Britishnavalpower.Akey
cal center,Philadelphia, which fell inSeptember. The
y
4 ' < 0
A
i n.
4.11 Washington at the Battle of Princeton
In this painting the officer behind Washington is posed in the same position as General Wolfe inBenjaminWest's painting, The Death ofGeneral Wolfe. Washington,by contrast, stands firm,a symbolof the virtuousnew republic that rises from the noble sacrifice depicted in thebackground.
118 CHAPTER 4 REVOLUTIONARY AMERICA: CHANGE AND TRANSFORMATION, 1764-1783
cn 'f4.12 Northern Campaigns Although the British won important victories around New York City, Washington's triumphs at Trenton and
Princetonhelpedrestore Americanmorale. The turning point in the war in theNorth,
however, was the defeat of the British at Saratoga, which helpedpersuade the French to increase their support for the American cause.
it j.
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Jh- E-ÿ> British Patriots
British victories
Patriot victories
(T) William Howe withdraws from Boston to Halifax, 1776 @ Howe brothers capture New York, 1776 (§) Washington retreats, then re-crosses the Delaware, 1776-1777 (4y William Howe sails from New York, moves on Philadelphia, 1777
(§) Washington meets Howe at Brandywine and Germantown, 1777 (§) Gates forces Burgoyne’s surrender at Saratoga, 1777
/
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Canada.Burgoynehoped to join forces withHowe movingup theHudsonRiver fromNew York City.
But Howe moved against Philadelphia instead, and anAmerican force under GeneralHoratio
Gates defeated Burgoyne at Saratoga,inupstate New York (4.12). Inaddition to providing Ameri¬ cans with an important victory andmoraleboost, the British defeat at Saratoga persuaded the French to commit troops andnaval forces to aid the colo¬
nists.Despite this impressive victory, the Americans had failed to retake Philadelphia, and the belea¬
guered Continental Army took up quarters at Val¬
ley Forge,Pennsylvania,in the winter of 1777-1778. In1778,France and America signed a treaty
promising to fight untilAmerican independence was secured. The active entry of France inMarch
1778 changed the dynamics of the conflict.Rather than simply providingmoney andmunitions, France was now at war withBritainandcommit¬
ted tohelpingAmerica winindependence. Spain soon joinedFrance as an opponent of Britain and attackedBritish outposts in the Mississippi valley andFlorida. Within two years Britaindeclared
war onHolland,whichhadbecome animportant source of supplies for the American war effort. The
great WesternEuropeanpowers werenow at war.
What hadbegun as a colonial war for independence fought exclusively inNorthAmericahadmush¬
roomedinto a global conflict involving the Medi¬ terranean,Africa,India,and the Caribbean.France
attacked Britain's wealthy Caribbean sugar islands, forcing the RoyalNavy to divert resources away
4.3 AMERICA AT WAR 119
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British victories
Patriot victories
Williamsburg
Yorktown
_.x- <y
% (T) Clinton and Cornwallis force surrender of Charleston,
May 1780
2) Cornwallis bests Gates at Camden and moves north, August 1780
(3) Morgan meets British at Cowpens, defeats Tarleton, January 1781
4) Cornwallis February 1
,5) Greene confronts Cornwallis at Guilford Courthouse, March 1781
6 After a retreat to Wilmington, Cornwallis moves to Virginia, April 1781
7) Washington moves south, pins Cornwallis at Yorktown, August 1781
8) French Admiral de Grasse from West Indies, defeats the British fleet, September 1781
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economically than the North. Initially the British
strategy seemed to pay off. In 1780,British troops scored impressive victories at Savannah (Georgia), Charleston (South Carolina), and Camden (South
Carolina). But they couldnot consolidate their
power in the region. The colonialmilitias harassed
Loyalists and sustained the Patriot cause. The British were especially vulnerable to hit-and-run
operations by commanders such as South Caroli¬ na's Francis Marion. Nicknamed the "Swamp Fox,"
Marion would attack out of nowhere and then
disappear into the swamps before the British could
retaliate.
The war in the South changed dramatically in1781when GeneralDanielMorgan defeated
the British forces at Cowpens (South Carolina).
American forces also inflicted heavy losses on the British at Guilford Court House (North Carolina).
Although the British still controlled Savannah and
Charleston, the British commander, Lord Corn¬
wallis, thenmoved to Virginia and established a
well-fortifiedbase at Yorktownin the winter of
1781 (4.13).
Cornwallis's retreat to Yorktownproved to be
a strategic blunder for the British that Washington turned to America's advantage. Before Saratoga,
4.13 Southern Campaigns
Although the British scored impressive victories in the South
in1780, especially at Charleston and Savannah, American
forces recovered and forced Cornwallis to move to Virginia in
1781. This proved tobe a strategic error, since it allowed the French fleet to cut off Cornwallis and enabled Washington to
trap the British at Yorktown.
from America. In the Mediterranean a joint French
and Spanish force besieged the British fortress of Gibraltar. Britainhad to divert resources fromNorth
America to protect these possessions. Fighting a war
onmultiple fronts drained British resources.
Why was Saratoga a major turningpoint in the
American war effort?
4.3.s The Southern Campaigns andFinal Victory at Yorktown
In1779-1780, the British shifted their attention to the South, where there was considerable Loyalist sympathy. They also saw the South, with its cash
crops of tobacco, indigo, and rice, as more valuable
120 CHAPTER 4 REVOLUTIONARY AMERICA: CHANGE AND TRANSFORMATION, 1764-1783
the large Frenchnavy hadnotplayed a significant part in the war, and America's own smallnavy was no match for the superior British fleet. With their naval superiority the British were confident that establishing a base at Yorktownmade sense. With the guns of the Britishnavy at their disposal, andnew supplies coming fromNew York and London,Yorktown seemed like a strategic loca¬ tion to regroup. This decision would turn out to be a major disaster for the British.Early in the fall of 1781, the French dispatched a formidable fleet under the command of AdmiralPaul de Grasse from the Caribbean toNorthAmerica. With the arrival of the Frenchnavy, the balance of power at sea shifted, giving the Americans a naval advan¬
tage. Washington seized the opportunity, asking the large French army in theNorthunder the Comte de Rochambeau to joinAmerican troops in an assault on Yorktown. When de Grasse's fleet forced a British squadron that was supposed to help Cornwallis to withdraw, the Americans and
French trappedhiminYorktown. AlthoughFrench support was indispensable, this fancifulFrench
image of the victory at Yorktownportrays this historic moment as though the Americans hardly figured init (4.14).
Outnumbered and withhis land and sea
escapes cut off, Cornwallis surrendered in Octo¬ ber 1781. Washington then appointed General BenjaminLincoln to receive the British surren¬ der, offeredby a subordinate of Cornwallis.
The British defeat at YorktownprovidedAmer¬ ican diplomats with a strongbargainingpositionin negotiating a peace treaty withBritain. The Treaty of Paris (1783) officially ended the war between the
newly createdUnited States andBritain. The treaty recognized Americanindependence, acknowl¬ edged America'sborder withCanada, and recog¬ nized American fishingrights off Newfoundland.
What role did the French navyplay in the victory at Yorktown? What was the Treaty of Paris?
4.14 Defeat of Cornwallis at Yorktown
AFrench artist's fanciful depiction of the American andFrenchvictory at
Yorktown focused entirely on the Frenchnavy and army. Amedieval-looking walledcity in the background also signifies his lack of familiarity with the events.
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4.4 THE RADICALISM OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 121 HMH
The Radicalism of the AmericanRevolution
The AmericanRevolution encompassed two interrelated struggles. The Rev¬ olution wasboth a colonial war for independence and a revolutionary strug¬ gle to change American government and society. Thus the war was both a struggle for home rule—the right of Americans to govern themselves—and a war for who should rule at home, a contest to determine the nature of American government and the structure of society. The AmericanRevolu¬
tion set inmotion a social andpolitical transformation that affectednearly every aspect of American society. The Declaration of Independence had articulated the twinideals of equality and liberty. Some Americans took the Declaration'sbold affirmation of liberty and equality to be an endorsement of more thancolonial independence. For them these words were revolu¬ tionary. The Declaration inspired them to undertake a radical transformation of American politics and society.
The first constitutions draftedby the states in1776 included language that echoed the Declaration's affirmation of liberty and equality. Few Americans doubted the importance of this affirmation;how far to take it,however,proved controversial. The Pennsylvania Consti¬ tution went further than any other state constitution inembracing a democratic conception of equality—at least for white men.
Not every group inAmerica benefited equally from the promise of the Revolution. Afri¬ can slaves,Indians, and women were either excluded from or not included fully in the Rev¬ olution's promise of equality and liberty. Although the promise of the Revolutionremained unfilled for many inAmerica, oppressed groups throughout Americanhistory would use it to seek the full rights of citizenship.
f]
&
4.4.1 Popular Politics in the Revolutionary Era
to attack corruption and inequality inNorth Car¬
olina. Husband fused his religious rhetoric with a class-conscious critique of the eastern elites who dominated state politics.He noted that "obedience to just laws, and subjection to slavery" were not the same. Resistance to unjust authority was legit¬ imate because "God gave allmen a knowledge of their privileges, and a true zeal to maintain them." Incontrast withHusband's views, the royal
governor andhis supporters among the clergy asserted that "subjection to lawful authority," not resistance, was the "plain andprincipal doctrine of Christianity."
In1770, 1,000 Regulators marched on the court¬ house inHillsborough. The protesters not only shut down the court but also publicly whipped a court official who was notorious for charging excessive fees to process legal documents. The
angry crowd also punished lawyers whose high fees angeredbackcountry residents. Such fees fell heavily onpoor folk andblocked their access to
British taxation was not the only set of policies that produced violent resistance during the Revo¬ lutionary era. Colonists also opposedunfair taxes
imposedby their own colonial governments. The colonial elites who dominated government also came under attack. In the Carolinas, a movement
sought reform of colonial government. The Reg¬ ulators, as their name implied, sought to regulate societyby eliminating corruption andbringing the rule of law to places that lacked it. The Regulators resented planters and merchants who livednear
the coast and were eager to tax western farmers, but were not willing to share politicalpower with
them. Thus inbackcountry North Carolina, Reg-
opposed taxes, including those enacted to.. __
Jpay for a lavishnew palace for the royal gover¬ nor. Some Regulators, such as HermanHusband,
combined religious themes with democratic ideas
122 CHAPTER 4 REVOLUTIONARY AMERICA: CHANGE AND TRANSFORMATION, 1764-1783
the courts. The protestsprompted the governor to dispatch the militia, which defeated the Regulators andrestored order. Although the Regulators were not victorious, their class-conscious rhetoric and critique of power and corruption resonated in the Carolina backcountry.
Who were the Regulators?
subordination to, andbe governedby, the civil power."
The early declaration of rights generally pre¬ ceded thebody of the first constitutions. Before settingup the actual structure of government, these texts made clear the limits of government
authority. Among the rights most frequently sin¬ gled out for protection were basic liberties such as freedom of the press, freedom of religion, and the right to trialby jury. The declarations of rights also stated foundational ideals and republicanprecepts such as the notion that government rested on the consent of the governed, and aspirationalbeliefs such as the idea that no free government could survive without virtue. The inclusion of written bills of rights in the first state constitutions was an important political and legal innovation andit is one of the AmericanRevolution's most enduring legacies to the world.In contrast to America's eighteenth-century constitutions,modern consti¬ tutions are typically much longer and the list of rights expressly protected also tend to be lengthier, focusingmore on social and economic rights, such as a right to employment or a right to a clean envi¬ ronment (4.15).
Not everyone inrevolutionary America
enjoyed theblessings of liberty equally. In the South slaves were excluded from the protections embodied in these written guarantees of rights. The situation of free blacks in the North andmid- dle-Atlantic states was more complex. Freedom of religion extended to free blacks,but other rights such as bearing arms were typically restricted to white men of an appropriate age to serve in the militia, typically between 16 and 60. Women's sta¬ tus was also complex. Although a womanmight claim a right to freedom of worship,married woman were treated as havingno independent legal existence outside of marriage. (For more on
this> see Chapter 10.) Themost important right gained as a result of
independence was the right of Americans to gov¬ ern themselves. Representation was a key issue in America's opposition to Great Britain. The question of how far to extend the logic of the idea of rep¬ resentationproved tobe one of the most contro¬ versial issues raisedby the AmericanRevolution.
Pennsylvania's constitution adopted the most democratic frame of government of all the states.
The architects of itsnew democratic government
4.4.2 Constitutional Experiments:Protecting Rights and Testing the Limits of Democracy
When the Continental Congress directed the states to draft new constitutions, they became laborato¬ ries for constitutional experimentation.Different visions of constitutional government were set against one another in this vibrantpublic debate. Withina year of independence more thanhalf the thirteen states had drafted and implementednew writtenconstitutions. Virginiabroke new ground by framing a detailedDeclaration of Rights that became a model for some of the other states. Only about half of these new state constitutions drafted
in1776 included a formal declaration of rights. Massachusetts didnot adopt anew constitution until1780, andit pioneered a number of constitu¬ tional innovations that eventually became essential features of American constitutionalism, including a functional separation of powers and effective sys¬ tem of checks andbalances between the different branches of government.
The chief architect of the Virginia Declaration of Rights was George Mason, aninfluentialPatriot leader. The Declaration asserted that life, liberty, andproperty were fundamental rights and that "allmen areby nature equally free and indepen¬ dent." Some Virginians worried that this language might encourage slaves to revolt. Another delegate calmed these fearsbypointing out that the militia wouldbe more thanadequate toprotect Virginia fromits slaves. Indeed, the Declaration of Rights expressly affirmed "That a wellregulatedmilitia, composed of thebody of the people, trained to arms,is theproper,natural, and safe defense of a
free state; that standing armies,in time of peace, shouldbe avoided as dangerous to liberty; and that, inall cases, the military shouldbe under strict
4.4 THE RADICALISM OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 123
Rights Provisions Pptrand Present • f >, /. / \ //'//v ‘Percentage of_ /" ’ ' Protefcfed in > Contemporary World
Protected in the Original Contemporary Constitutions Protecting
State Constitutions World the Right as of 2006 (1776-1780) Constitutions (N=188)
/
V
Specific Right Protected by Constitution
Freedom of Religion Yes* Yes 97% ......
Yes* Yes 97%Freedom of the Press
Right of Privacy .. .
No** 95%Yes
m No Yes 82%Right to Work iP
Right to Unionize or Strike No Yes 72%
nszrRight to HealthyEnvironment 63%No Yes
2%Right to Bear Arms Yes* Yes
4.15 Protecting Rights in Eighteenth-Century and Modern Constitutions
This table shows the kinds of rights protected in modem constitutions. Unlike the eighteenth-century state constitutions
drafted shortly after the AmericanRevolution,modern constitutions typically protect a variety of social and economic rights, such as a right to work and unionize. Modern constitutions are also far more likely to protect the right of privacy than the
right to bear arms; indeed, America is one of a very few countries in the world with a constitutionalprovisionprotecting the
.ight to bear arms. SOURCE: Information on world constitutions adapted from David S. Lawt & Mila Versteegt, THE DECLINING INFLUENCE OF THE UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION 87 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 762 (2012). Information on the first constpap.asp
’Protected in at least ten of the original thirteen state constitutions.
’’Although the original state constitutions and federal Bill of Rights do not contain a provision protecting privacy, modern courts have interpreted the Bill of Rights to protect some aspects of privacy.
+ The right to bear arms was expressly protected in the constitutions of Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Massachusetts, and Vermont.
American state constitutions adapted from the Yale Avalon site, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/
ideas, similar debates occurred in the press in other
states. The traditional Whig theory of represen¬ tation assumed that only property owners could exercise the independent judgment necessary to
vote. Individuals without property wouldbe at the
mercy of the rich and powerful, who could influ¬ ence their votes on election day. Whig theory also viewed the possession of property as an essential
way of demonstrating that one had a permanent stake in society. According to the Whigs, only men with such an interest could act in the long-term interests of society. The Revolutionnurtured a far
more democratic vision of government. The anon¬
ymous author of the pamphlet The People the Best Governors asserted that "the people know best their own wants and necessities, and therefore are best
able to rule themselves." According to this view, a
were not members of a slave-owningplanter elite like the leaders responsible for creating Virginia's Declaration of Rights and Constitution,but were instead a coalition that included urban artisans
influencedby the ideas of Thomas Paine and back-
country farmers resentful of the old eastern colo¬
nial elites, and similar to the Regulators inNorth Carolina. EchoingPaine's Common Sense, the Penn¬
sylvania Constitution created a form of representa¬ tive government with a single legislature, a system known as unicameralism.
The Revolution prompted a public debate over how far to take the idea of democracy, including the requirements for voting. For example, any male
taxpayer who resided in the state of Pennsylva-
nia for a year could vote. Although Pennsylvania went further than most in implementing these
124 CHAPTER 4 REVOLUTIONARY AMERICA: CHANGE AND TRANSFORMATION, 1764-1783
produced interestinginnovations. John Adams played a leadingrole inhelping to draft it. Adopted in1780,it remains the oldest contin¬ uously functioning written constitutionin the world. Setting the terms for nearly all subsequent constitution-makinginAmerica,Massachusetts took revolutionary-era constitutional ideas innew directions. Massachusetts saw a constitution as the
supreme law that had to rest on the express con¬ sent of the people. Legislative bodies had drafted earlier state constitutions,but a special convention drafted the Massachusetts Constitution, whichit then submitted directly to the people for ratifica¬ tion.Massachusetts also took the unprecedented step of eliminatingproperty requirements for this special ratificationprocess. Thus even those white men who wouldnot meet the property require¬ ments for voting for the legislature under the pro¬ posed constitution could vote on the constitution. The notion that a constitutionhad to be submitted to the people directly for ratification was a radical innovation that quickly became an accepted feature of American constitutional life.
The Massachusetts Constitution was also the first to implement aneffective system of checks andbalances. While all the early state govern¬ ments supported the principle of separation of powers,making the powers of the legislative, executive, and judicial functions of government distinct, these constitutions hadnot built in the
checks andbalances that wouldmake this ideal a practical reality. To make separation of powers effective, the different branches of government had to be able to check one another's power. Mas¬
sachusetts went further than any other state in
achieving this goal. The Massachusetts governor had considerable power, including the right to veto acts of the legislature. This enabled the execu¬ tive to check the legislature. The legislature could check the governor throughits ability to override a veto by a two-thirds vote.Finally,Massachusetts made the governor an office directly electedby the
people,not appointedby the legislature as many other states had opted to do.
Another important experiment inconstitutional
government was the Articles of Confederation,
the constitution that Congress framed for the new
United States of America. Although Congress drafted the Articles in1777, the states didnot ratify them for another four years. The Articles didnot
create anational government,but rather "a firm
"Shall We Say, that every Individual of the Community,old and young,
male and female, as well as rich andpoor, must consent, expressly to every Act of
Legislation?"
JOHN ADAMS to James Sullivan,May 1776
propertied elite was not needed to act as a check on the people.
Those who rejected the radicalnotion of equal¬ ity implicit in democracy ridiculed the new, more democratic theories. The Reverend Charles Bull- man of South Carolina, for example, suggested that if these ideas were not checked, "Every silly clown and illiterate mechanic will take uponhim to censure the conduct of his Prince or Gover¬ nor." Among the Patriot elite no figure expressed greater reservations about the dangers of too much democracy, and of unicameralism, than
John Adams, who reluctantly conceded that Paine hadhelped rally Americans to the idea of inde¬ pendence,but also feared that Paine's work had "a better hand at pulling down thanbuilding" up governments. Indeed, Adams worried that Paine's "feeble" ideas about government would mislead Americans when the time came to draft
new state constitutions. Adams incorporatedhis own views on the matter into his short but influ¬
ential Thoughts on Government, whichhe wrote in response to a request fromNorth Carolina's Pro¬
vincial Congress, the body responsible for fram¬
ing its new constitution. Most states were unwilling to follow Pennsyl¬
vania's radicalmodel, opting to retain a property
requirement for voting and office holding.In
general,however, thenew property requirements the states adopted were lower than they hadbeen during the colonialperiod, so onbalance, the pool of eligible voters increased. Althoughnot a resounding victory for those who shared the demo¬ cratic views of Thomas Paine and the author of The
People the Best Government, the Revolution clearly led to a greater democratization of politics.
Althoughnot the most democratic experiment ingovernment, theMassachusetts Constitution
4.4 THE RADICALISM OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 125
provided opportunities for African Americans to escape bondage. For some, fleeing to the Brit¬
ishprovided the best chance for freedom. Other slaves seized on the ideas nurturedby the broader
revolutionary changes that accompanied the war for independence. The ideas of liberty and equal¬ ity intensified the burgeoningmovement for the abolition of slavery. Although the Revolution did not eradicate slavery, it didput it on the road to extinctioninNew England and the mid-Atlantic
regions. Slaves, eager to cast off their own shackles,
appropriated the Revolution's language of liberty. During the Stamp Act protests inSouth Carolina (1765), slaves staged their ownparade chanting "liberty." White South Carolinians viewed such activities as evidence of a plan for rebellion. To thwart the imagined threat, they mobilized the militia, which also served as slave patrols. Blacks inNew England faredbetter when they invoked the Revolution's ideals than didblacks in the South.In1773, 1774, and 1777, slaves petitioned the government of Massachusetts for their free¬ dom using the language of the Declaration of Independence, including the idea of natural rights and the notion that government rested on the con¬
sent of the governed. They asserted: "We have in common withall other men a naturel right to our freedoms without Being depriv'd of themby our fellow men."
In1781 another slave,MumBett, successfully sued for her freedom. A jury inwesternMassa¬ chusetts based its verdict on the language of the state's Declaration of Rights, which stated that
league of friendship" among the sovereign states.
— Thus ArticleIIaffirmed that "Each state retains ,ts sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, andright, which is not by this Confederationexpressly delegated to the United States, inCongress assembled." Because
fighting the British was the top priority,Congress cobbled together the Articles of Confederation without providingmany features that the individ¬
ual states hadincludedin their constitutions. Fear
of British-style government also shaped the minds of Congress. Having just cast off a powerful central government with a king, the Articles abandoned the idea of a single unified executive to enforce the law.Nor did Congress have the power to tax, another power that the Britishhad abused. The
Articles created a weak government whose ability to raise revenue, engage inmilitary actions, and conduct diplomacy depended entirely on the good¬ will of the states.
What was the Whig justification for havingproperty requirements for voting?
4.4.3 African Americans Struggle for Freedom
The great English literary figure Dr. Samuel
Johnson pointed out the hypocrisy of Americans claiming to be champions of liberty while enslav¬
ing Africans. Some slaves invoked the ideas of the
Revolution explicitly, whereas others voted with their feet and freed themselves. The dislocations
associated withAmerica's war for independence
The framers of our constitution of government—by which the people of this commonwealthhave solemnly bound themselves to each other—to declare—that allmen are bom free and equal;
and that every subject is entitled to liberty
____ Inshort,
without resorting to implicationinconstmcting the constitution, slavery is inmy judgment as effectively abolished as it canbe by the granting of rights andprivileges wholly incompatible
and repugnant to its existence. Supreme Judicial Court Chief Justice WILLIAM CUSHING, Quock Walker case (1783))
126 CHAPTER 4 REVOLUTIONARY AMERICA: CHANGE AND TRANSFORMATION, 1764-1783
"Allmen are born free and equal, and have cer¬ tainnatural, essential, and unalienable rights; among whichmay be reckoned the right of enjoying and defending their lives and liberties." After her victory,MumBett changed her name to ElizabethFreeman. In the case of Quock Walker (1783), Chief Justice WilliamCushing of the state's highest court invoked the same language from the Massachusetts Constitution and declared that this provision effectively abolished slavery. Vermont's 1777 constitution expressly prohibited slavery, the first constitution in the nation to take such a step. In the mid-Atlantic,Pennsylvania andNew York adopted gradual emancipation laws.
How did slavery finally endinMassachusetts?
cause. Colonialnewspapers lamented her fate, which was also memorialized inpoetry.In1780, a novel about her demise appeared, and the painter John Trumbullmade several sketches of McCrea's murder for a possible paintingbefore moving on to other projects. Joel Barlow, a close friend of Jefferson and important literary figure in early America,memorialized the event in one of his poems, andJohn Vanderlynportrayed the event in this dramatic painting (4.16), which was displayedin1804. Vanderlyn's representation of the light-skinnedMcCrea and the dark-skinned Indians underscores the role of the painting as a morality tale between good and evil. The Indians are depicted as cruel savages about to murder McCrea.
Pro-British tribes scorednotable victories on the western frontier during 1782. After these successes, many Indians were stunned to learn that the Brit¬ ishhad surrendered at Yorktown. Indians were excluded from the negotiations that ended the war.
Many viewed the Treaty of Paris (1783), which cededIndian country between the Appalachians and the MississippiRiver to theUnited States, as a betrayal.
Why didso many Indians side with the British during
the AmericanRevolution?
The AmericanRevolution inIndian Country
The struggle between Britain and the American colonies had enormous consequences for Amer¬ icanIndians. Althoughneutrality appealed to many Indians, avoiding entanglement in the conflict betweenBritain and America became
impossible. Faced with the need to make a choice,
many Indiannations sided with Britain, whose colonial policies, including the Proclamation of 1763,hadblocked American westward expansion. An American victory would mean more settlers streaming into Indian country and destruction of the habitats that Indians depended on for their survival.
The Declaration of Independence had under¬ scored America's deep-seated fear andhostility towardIndians. Among the complaints Jefferson leveled against the king was: "He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, andhas endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless IndianSavages, whose knownrule of warfare, is anundistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions."
Jefferson's description of Indians as "savages" engaged inacts of barbarismrallied Americans against the British.
One event that whippedup anti-Indian feel¬ ings among Americans was the murder of Jane McCrea inupstateNew York by Mohawk Indians.
Jane was traveling to meet her fiance, a British soldier, whenpro-BritishMohawks attacked
her. McCrea's political sympathies didnot pre¬ vent her frombecoming a martyr for thePatriot
4.4.5 Liberty's Daughters: Women and the Revolutionary Movement
Women took an active role in the revolutionary cause. One of the most outspoken female Patriots was Mercy Otis Warren, wife of Patriot leader
James Warren and sister of James Otis. Warren's gifts as a poet,playwright, and eventually historian allowedher to champion the American cause inlit¬
erary endeavors.Her satiricalplays mockedBritish
policy and leadingBritishpoliticians andmilitary figures. The fictionalnames of the characters in her plays communicated Warren's disdain for the
British.Her scathing satire mocked the actions of
GeneralHateall, Secretary of State Dupe, and Gov¬ ernor Rapatio. These sinister plotters against Amer¬ ican liberty were matchedby talented and virtuous
AmericanPatriots, whose names,Brutus and
Honestus, signified their commitment to ancient
Romanrepublican virtue. Women also served in the war effort. When
mustered into service, themilitia often depended
4.4 THE RADICALISM OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 127
4.16 Death of Jane McCrea
—John Vanderlynpainted this scene
iecades after the event occurred. He
took liberties withhistory.McCrea's fiance, the military figure rushing to
rescueher (circledinred), wears the
blueuniform of a Continental soldier.
Inreality McCrea was a Loyalist and
her fiance a British regular.
on support from women. An
eyewitness to such a mobiliza¬ tioninCambridge,Massachu¬
setts, in1774 noted that women
"surpassed the Men for Eager¬ ness & Spirit in the Defense of
Liberty by Arms." Womennot
only providedmoral support, "animating their Husbands & Sons to fight for their liberties," but also helped "making Car¬ tridges." Some womenbecame
"Molly Pitchers," who hauled water and carried supplies to
soldiers. Deborah Sampson disguised herself as a man and
served in the ContinentalArmy. Aphysician discovered Samp¬ son while treating her for fever. The Continental Army also had camp followers—women,
including the wives of soldiers, who washed, cooked,nursed,
and tended to other needs of
soldiers. The Revolution's emphasis on liberty and
equality boostednotions of gender equality. Abigail Adams, wife of John Adams, demanded that her husband "remember the ladies" and
work toward greater legal equality for women (see Competing Visions: Remember the Ladies,
page 128). A few women even demanded a
measure of political equality, at least for women who ownedproperty.
One supporter of this idea was Hannah
Corbin, sister of Patriot leader RichardHenry Lee. While Abigail Adams was a model of female
propriety, Corbin's unconventional lifestyle made her acutely aware of the inferior legal sta¬ tus of women. After her husband died at age 35,
Corbin managed their plantation. Her husband's
JI
.
1 3
\
will stipulated that if she ever remarried, Corbin would lose control of the estate. Corbin was
unwilling to accept the choice of remaining a widow or losing control of her property. Reject¬
ing contemporary moral codes, she began a common-law relationship with another man
(living together as husband and wife without
being legally married). The fact that they were not legally married allowed her to preserve con¬ trol of her estate. The defiant and independent Corbin later asked her brother why women who ownedproperty were prohibited from voting. Lee couldprovide no reasonable response. He even conceded that in theory, allowing such women to vote was plausible,but noted that "it has never been the practice either here or in
128 CHAPTER 4 REVOLUTIONARY AMERICA: CHANGE AND TRANSFORMATION, 1764-1783
Competing Visions REMEMBER THE LADIES A strong supporter of independence, and an articulate and forceful personality, Abigail Adams believed that the AmericanRevolution provided an opportunity for women to gain much-needed legal reform.This was particularly needed in property law, where women were considered legally dead once they married.
In this spirited letter written shortly before Congress declared
independence from Britain, Abigail made her displeasure with
the inferior legal status of women clear to her husband.
In a dismissive reply, Adams nevertheless revealed how the
Revolution's ideas about equality permeated American society.
John Adams to Abigail Adams, 14 Apr. 1776
As to your extraordinary Code of Laws, I cannot but laugh.
We have been told that our Struggle has loosened the bands of
Government every where. That Children and Apprentices were dis¬
obedient—that schools and Colleges were grown turbulent—that
Indians slighted their Guardians and Negroes grew insolent to their
Masters. But your Letter was the first Intimation that another Tribe
more numerous and powerful than all the rest were grown discon¬
tented.—This is rather too coarse a Compliment but you are so
saucy, I wont blot it out. Depend upon it, We know better than to
repeal our Masculine systems.
Abigail Adams to John Adams, 31 Mar. 1776
I desire you would Remember the Ladies, and be more gener¬
ous and favourable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such
unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands. Remember all Men
would be tyrants if they could. If particular care and attention is not
paid to the Ladies we are determined to foment a Rebellion, and will
not hold ourselves bound by any Laws in which we have no voice,
or Representation.
IF
. -
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H/f*9 m LA
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fr- :vfrrij
JK % , m rW
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John AdamsAbigail Adams
4.4 THE RADICALISM OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 129
4.17 Benjamin and Eleanor Ridgely Laming
Charles WilsonPeale's portrait of Benjamin and
Eleanor Ridgely Laming evokes the ideal of
companionate marriage,inwhichhusbands and wives enjoyed a more intimate and egalitarian
relationship withinmarriage.
-
f5? -
S'
.
mk 4ÿ %
7
/I
family life. Lucy Knox, wife of General Henry Knox, told her husband a year after the Declara¬ tion of Independence to "not consider yourself as commander in chief of your own house," but
recognize that "there is such a thing as equal command." She viewed marriage as an egali¬ tarian relationship between husband and wife in which the two lived together as companions. Scholars describe this as companionate mar¬
riage. The Revolutionnot only altered ideas
about marriage but also changed attitudes about patriarchal authority, a fact reflected in the portraiture of the day. Charles Wilson
Peale's portrait of Benjamin and Eleanor Ridgely Laming (4.17) breaks with the con¬
vention of separate portraits of husbands and wives. Not only has Peale placed the couple together in the same portrait,but their posture in the painting emphasizes their emotional inti¬
macy and physical closeness. Benjamin leans into his wife, who affectionately holds his arm.
Marriage in this rendering is an emotionalbond of equals; on Peale's canvas the relationship between husband and wife has been infused
with a republican vision of liberty and equality.
England" and speculated that "Perhaps 'twas thought rather out of character for women to
press into those tumultuous assemblages of nen."
The most dramatic example of how Revolu¬ tionary ideology transformed the legal status of women was the brief enfranchisement of women
inNew Jersey. In 1776 a pseudonymous author writingunder the name Essex recommended
that "widows,paying taxes, should have an
equal right to a vote, as men of the same prop¬ erty." Early drafts of New Jersey's constitution included gender-specific language,but the final requirements for voting containedno such restriction. By the 1790s propertied womenhad
the right to vote in seven counties within the state. By the dawn of the new century, the right to vote was extended to allpropertied women in the state, and many took an active role in the
contentious presidential election of 1800. As par¬ tisanship increased and electoralpolitics became more contentious, the legislature decided to strip women of their right of suffrage. In1807 women
lost the right to vote inNew Jersey. Although the Revolution didnot usher in
the legal or political changes sought by Adams and Corbin, the ideas of equality espoused ay the Revolution did influence marriage and
What justification was used to support female
suffrage in revolutionary-era New Jersey? '-'K
Chapter Review
TIMELINE
i* m* 1764Sugar Actjtfi £J/A British tax molasses, sugar,and other items. Colonies protest
being taxed without their consent.
i-*=4k."'1 "
kr*m F: B%3 1765Stamp Act Colonial protest intensifies against Britain's new policies
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Concord andLexington These early battles demonstrated the colonists' capacity to use military force to protect their rights
Olive BranchPetition Congress makes final attempt to persuade the king to address American grievances
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Paine states the case for American independence in a
pamphlet that becomes an instant best seller
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Pennsylvania Declaration of Rights and Constitution
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Constitution Massachusetts introduces
a range of legal innovations including the idea of special
ratification conventions to approve its constitution
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Why It Matters
This periodinAmericanhistory matters because . . .
•The ideas of liberty and equality articulated during the Revolution shaped the way Americans think about politics for the next two centuries.
•It had a profound impact on the institution of slavery, settinginmotion a process of gradual abolitionin the middle Atlantic and eliminating slavery inNew England. Although slavery remained entrenched in the South, states such as Virginia didmake it easier for citizens to free their slaves, an improvement over earlier restrictions on manumission.
•The new state constitutions drafted by the states shaped the legal andpolitical environment in which the new AmericanRepublic functioned for the next generation.
Learning Outcomes
Images as History Contextualize and
Competing Visions Use primary sources to recognize the essential competing visions that shaped the debate over the limits of democracy in the era of the Ameri¬ can Revolution.
Choices and Consequences Explore the choices made by Patriots and Loyalists and the consequences of those actions.
Historical Argument Formulate historical arguments about the ideas, values, and beliefs of Americans in the Revolutionary era.
Historical Literacy Demonstrate knowl¬
edge of the key events, evaluate the historical people, institutions, connections, and chronology of the Revolutionary War.
meaning and signif¬ icance of political cartoons during the American Revolution.
Review Questions
3. How did Jefferson's argument for independence in the Declaration differ from Paine's argument in Common Sense?
4. How did the Massachusetts Constitution depart from the earlier models of Virginia and Pennsylvania?
1. What arguments didcolonists use to oppose the Stamp Act?
2. How did Paul Revere's representation of the Boston Massacre inhis famous engraving stir up resentment against the British? How didRevere manipulate the events to present themin the worst possible light?
Key Terms Declaration of Independence, a public defense of America's decision to declare independence from Britain that was to be printed and sent to the individual states. 113
Patriots Colonists who supported American independence. 113
Loyalists Colonists who remained loyal to the king and Britain. 113
Treaty of Paris (1783) Treaty between the newly createdUnited States of America and Britain that officially ended the war between the two and formally recognized American independence. 120
British officials charged withcapital crimes to be tried outside the colonies. 106
Lord Dunmore's Proclamation Official announcement issuedby LordDunmore,
royal governor of Virginia. It offered freedom to any slave who joined the British forces in putting down the American rebellion. 108
Common Sense Thomas Paine's influential
pamphlet that forcefully argued for American independence, attacked the institution of monarchy, and defended a democratic theory of representative government. 112
Declaration of Independence OnJuly 4, 1776, Congress approved the final text of the
Stamp Act Legislation that required colonists to purchase special stamps andplace them on all legal documents. Newspapers andplaying cards had tobe printed on special stamped paper. 102
Nonimportation movement Aboycott against thepurchase of any importedBritish goods. 103
Intolerable Acts Legislation passed by Parliament to punish Bostonians for the Boston Tea Party.It closed the Port of Boston;
V annulled the Massachusetts colonial charter and dissolved or severely restricted that colony's political institutions; and allowed
131