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nzhou1025Critical Thinking and Article/Research Analysis Guidelines
(Based on: Paul R. & Elder, L. (2014) Critical Thinking: Concepts & Tools. www.criticalthinking.org)
Why Critical Thinking?
The Problem:
Everyone thinks; it is our nature to do so. But much of our thinking, left to itself, is biased, distorted, partial, uninformed, or down-right prejudiced. Yet the quality of our life and that of what we produce, make, or build depends precisely on the quality of our though. Shoddy thinking is costly, both in money and in quality of life. Excellence in thought, however, must be systematically cultivated.
A Definition:
Critical thinking is the art of analyzing and evaluating thinking with a view to improving it.
The Result:
A well cultivated critical thinker:
· Raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely;
· Gathers and assesses relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively;
· Comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards;
· Thinks open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
· Communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems.
Critical thinking is, in short, self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-corrective thinking. It requires rigorous standards of excellence and mindful command of their use. It entails effective communication and problem solving abilities and a commitment to overcoming our native egocentrism and sociocentrism.
Analyzing & Assessing Research
Use this template to assess the quality of any research project or paper.
1. All research has a fundamental PURPOSE and goal.
· Research purposes and goals should be clearly stated.
· Related purposes should be explicitly distinguished.
· All segments of the research should be relevant to the purpose.
· All research purposes should be realistic and significant.
2. All research addresses a fundamental QUESTION, problem, or issue.
· The fundamental question at issue should be clearly and precisely stated.
· Related questions should be articulated and distinguished.
· All segments of the research should be relevant to the central question.
· All research questions should be realistic and significant.
· All research questions should define clearly stated intellectual tasks that, being fulfilled, settle the questions.
3. All research identifies data, INFORMATION, and evidence relevant to its fundamental question and purpose.
· All information should be clear, accurate, and relevant to the fundamental question at issue.
· Information gathered must be sufficient to settle the question at issue.
· Information contrary to the main conclusions of the research should be explained.
4. All research contains INFERENCES or interpretations by which conclusions are drawn.
· All conclusions should be clear, accurate, and relevant to the key question at issue.
· Conclusions drawn should not go beyond what the data imply.
· Conclusions should be consistent and reconcile discrepancies in the data.
· Conclusions should explain how the key questions at issue have been settled.
5. All research is conducted from some POINT OF VIEW or frame of reference.
· All points of view in the research should be identified.
· Objections from competing points of view should be identified and fairly addressed.
6. All research is based on ASSUMPTIONS.
· Clearly identify and assess major assumptions in research.
· Explain how the assumptions shape the research point of view.
7. All research is expressed through, and shaped by, CONCEPTS and ideas.
· Assess for clarity the key concepts in the research.
· Asses the significance of the key concepts in the research.
8. All research leads somewhere (i.e., has IMPLICATIONS and consequences).
· Trace the implications and consequences that follow from the research.
· Search for negative as well as positive implications.
· Consider all significant implications and consequences.
Social Science Research: Designs, Methods
(Adapted from: http://www.cliffsnotes.com/sciences/sociology/sociological-research-methods/sociological-research-designs-methods)
Social Scientists use many different designs and methods to study society and social behavior.
Three popular social research designs (models) are
· Cross‐sectional, in which scientists study a number of individuals or cases at a single point in time
· Longitudinal, in which scientists study the same individuals or cases repeatedly over a specified period of time (AKA Panel Studies)
· Cross‐sequential, in which scientists test individuals or cases in a cross‐sectional sample more than once over a specified period of time (AKA Sequential)
Six of the most popular research methods (procedures) are the case study, survey, observational, correlational, experimental, and cross‐cultural methods, as well as working with information already available.
1. Case study research
On the positive side, case studies obtain useful information about the individuals or cases studied. On the negative side, they tend to apply only to individuals/cases with similar characteristics rather than to the general population. The small number of subjects limits the generalizability of this method.
2. Survey research
Survey research involves interviewing or administering questionnaires, or written surveys, to large numbers of people. The investigator analyzes the data obtained from surveys to learn about similarities, differences, and trends. He or she then makes predictions about the population being studied.
As with most research methods, survey research brings both advantages and disadvantages. Advantages include obtaining information from a large number of respondents, conducting personal interviews at a time convenient for respondents, and acquiring data as inexpensively as possible. Anonymous surveys have the added advantage of ensuring anonymity and thus prompting respondents to answer questions truthfully. Surveys can be administered in-person, by mail, phone, or online.
Disadvantages of survey research include volunteer bias, interviewer bias, and distortion. Volunteer bias occurs when a sample of volunteers is not representative of the general population. Subjects who are willing to talk about certain topics may answer surveys differently than those who are not willing to talk. Interviewer bias occurs when an interviewer's expectations or insignificant gestures (for example,
frowning or smiling) inadvertently influence a subject's responses one way or the other.
Distortion occurs when a subject does not respond to questions honestly.
3. Observational research
Because distortion can be a serious limitation of surveys, observational research involves directly observing subjects' reactions, either in a laboratory (called laboratory observation) or in a natural setting (called naturalistic observation). Observational research reduces the possibility that subjects will not give totally honest accounts of the experiences, not take the study seriously, fail to remember, or feel embarrassed.
Observational research has limitations, however. Subject bias is common, because volunteer subjects may not be representative of the general public. Individuals who agree to observation and monitoring may function differently than those who do not. They may also function differently in a laboratory setting than they do in other settings.
4. Correlational research
A sociologist may also conduct correlational research. A correlation is a relationship between two variables (or “factors that change”). These factors can be characteristics, attitudes, behaviors, or events. Correlational research attempts to determine if a relationship exists between the two variables, and the degree of that relationship.
A social researcher can use case studies, surveys, interviews, and observational research to discover correlations. Correlations are either positive, negative, or nonexistent. In a positive correlation, the values of the variables increase or decrease (“co‐vary”) together. In a negative correlation, one variable increases as the other decreases. In a nonexistent correlation, no relationship exists between the variables.
People commonly confuse correlation with causation. Correlational data do not indicate cause‐and‐effect relationships. When a correlation exists, changes in the value of one variable reflect changes in the value of the other. The correlation does not imply that one variable causes the other, only that both variables somehow relate to one another. To study the effects that variables have on each other, an investigator must conduct an experiment.
5. Experimental research
Experimental research attempts to determine how and why something happens. Experimental research tests the way in which an independent variable (the factor that the scientist manipulates) affects a dependent variable (the factor that the scientist observes).
A number of factors can affect the outcome of any type of experimental research. One is finding samples that are random and representative of the population being studied. Another is experimenter bias, in which the researcher's expectations about what should or should not happen in the study sway the results. Still another is controlling for extraneous variables, such as room temperature or noise level, that may interfere with the results of the experiment. Only when the experimenter carefully controls for extraneous variables can she or he draw valid conclusions about the effects of specific variables on other variables.
6. Cross-cultural research
Sensitivity to others' norms, folkways, values, mores, attitudes, customs, and practices necessitates knowledge of other societies and cultures. Sociologists may conduct cross‐cultural research, or research designed to reveal variations across different groups of people. Most cross‐cultural research involves survey, direct observation, and participant observation methods of research.
Participant observation requires that an “observer” become a member of his or her subjects' community. An advantage of this method of research is the opportunity it provides to study what actually occurs within a community, and then consider that information within the political, economic, social, and religious systems of that community. Cross‐cultural research demonstrates that Western cultural standards do not necessarily apply to other societies. What may be “normal” or acceptable for one group may be “abnormal” or unacceptable for another.
7. Research with existing data, or secondary analysis
Some sociologists conduct research by using data that other social scientists have already collected. The use of publicly accessible information is known as secondary analysis, and is most common in situations in which collecting new data is impractical or unnecessary. Sociologists may obtain statistical data for analysis from businesses, academic institutions, and governmental agencies, to name only a few sources. Or they may use historical or library information to generate their hypotheses.
Take an article you have been assigned to read for class and complete the “logic” of it using the template below. Copy each question and answer it fully in your assignment.
(Title = FULL CITATION OF ARTICLE)
1. The social science discipline of the article is ______________________. (The article falls within which of the three disciplines?) How do you know this? (Clearly state the evidence and reasoning you used to determine the discipline of the article.)
2. The main purpose of the article is ______________________. (State as accurately as possible the author’s purpose for writing the article.) Explain.
3. The most important information in the article is ____________________. (Figure out the facts, experiences, data the author is using to support her/his conclusions.) Explain.
4. The main inferences/conclusions in this article are ______________________. (Identify the key conclusions the author comes to and presents in the article.)
5. The key concept(s) we need to understand in this article is (are) _________________. By these concepts the author means _________________. (Figure out the most important ideas you would have to understand in order to understand the author’s line of reasoning and explain.)
6. If we take this line of reasoning seriously, the implications are ___________________. (What consequences are likely to follow if people take the author’s line of reasoning seriously?) Explain.
7. The main hypothesis or hypotheses being tested is/are ___________________. (Clearly identify independent and dependent variables and the predicted relationships between them.)
8. The social science research design of the study is ___________________. (Which of the three methods are being used by the researcher?) Explain.
9. The social scientific research method(s) being used is/are ___________________. (Which of the seven methods are being used by the researcher? More than one may be used.) Explain.
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