humanity
junyuguo118
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- During the years from 1760 to 1830 the Industrial Revolution, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution changed the Western world so fundamentally that many historians mark it as the beginning of the modern era.
- The start of the Industrial Revolution created the factory system, which would replace agricultural as the economic basis for society.
- The American Revolution demonstrated that government by the people was a workable alternative to kingship.
- The French Revolution swept away centuries-old monarchies and redistributed political power across Europe.
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- Industrialization in England saw the substitution of machines for manual labor (the steam engine was invented by James Watt in 1769). This allowed the replacement of animal and human power with new sources of energy.
- New and large amounts of raw materials (iron ore, coal) were available locally and from England’s colonial possessions.
- Money to invest was available because of the surplus capital generated, the relatively long period of peace, and sound government economic policies.
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The changes in the cotton cloth industry illustrate the phases of the Industrial Revolution. The demand for cotton cloth was higher than could be provided by the “putting out” system of cottage production.
Innovative industrialists developed the factory system locating power looms and flying shuttles in one location located near a stream, and steam engines drove the textile machines.
Workers, displaced from their agricultural jobs by enclosure needed jobs and began working at the factories in horrible conditions at low pay.
Towns grew near the factories, where the workers lived in generally miserable conditions and the working class had no real choice but to work and live with little regard to the basic amenities of human existence.
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- The major classical economists of the time rationalized the misery of the working class.
- Adam Smith, in his “Wealth of Nations” (1776) advocated a “laissez-faire” (hands-off) policies by the government to allow the free market to regulate prices and wages, arguing that it would result in an improved standard of living for everyone.
- Thomas Malthus, in his “Essay on the Principle of Population,” (1788) that famines, plagues, and wars were necessary to limit the ever increasing population.
- David Ricardo, in his “Principles of Political Economy and Taxation” (1821) argued that laborer’s wages would always hover around the subsistence level and that workers would never be able to improve their standards of living beyond that level.
- In short, the wealthy rationalized the suffering of the poor as “necessary” and perhaps, “deserved”.
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- Elizabeth Bentley, Report on the Bill to Regulate the Labour of Children, 1832
The poet William Blake called England’s new factories “dark, Satanic mills.” Blake’s image was less poetic license than a statement of truth. In 1832 the British House of Commons convened a parliamentary commission to study factory conditions, and its report confirmed the hellish environment in which men, women, and children worked. An interview with Elizabeth Bentley, a former child laborer, dealing with conditions in about 1815, was part of the commission’s final report. (Page 467 of textbook)
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- The American Revolution-Great Britain, despite being the winner of the Seven Year’s War (called the French and Indian War in the American colonies), was left with a very expensive war debt. England had a national debt of 130 million pounds from the war.
- In order to generate more income they made major changes in their colonial policy. For over 150 years they had practiced “salutatory neglect”, allowing the American colonies to generally govern themselves independently, and were only interested in mercantile interests.
- The colonists, as good British citizens, held that they could only be taxed by their elected representatives (the colonies had no representation in Parliament) and that such taxes were a violation of their rights as British citizens.
- The British, on the other hand, hardly viewed the colonists as true British citizens, and failing to recognize their rights, attempted to force the colonists into submission.
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- In 1774 the colonists convened the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia and objected to the violation of their rights. In 1775 armed conflict between British troops and the colonists broke out in Massachusetts. In July 1776, the Second Continental proclaimed the American goals in the Declaration of Independence.
- Relying on the works of Locke and others, Thomas Jefferson, the Declaration’s main author, outlined how Britain had broken its “social contract” with the colonies. by violating their unalienable rights of “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness and insisted on a government by consent of the governed.
- The open warfare against Great Britain would continue until 1781 and in 1783 Great Britain signed the Treaty of Paris which recognized the United States as an independent nation.
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- The first attempt at national government in the United States, the Articles of Confederation, were a failure because the national government was too weak and ineffective.
- To realize their democratic goals two new ideas were developed in the U.S., the written constitution and the Constitutional convention.
- In 1787 a Constitutional convention was convened and a written constitution was developed, relying largely on the works of Locke and Montesquieu, with the powers of government separated into three separate branches (executive, legislative, and judicial) and incorporating a Bill of Rights to protect the unalienable rights of the people.
- The new U.S. government failed to address the issue of African slavery or to give rights to women, but it was the most democratic society of its day and the first successful democracy since the city-state of Athens in the 5th century B.C.E.
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- When Louis XVI took the throne in 1774 he was confronted by social unrest, economic inequality, and social injustice. The Economic situation was made worse by the huge national debt that was incurred aiding the American colonists in their fight against Great Britain.
- When Louis called the Estates-General together in 1789, they attempted to form a limited constitutional monarchy similar to Britain’s. The National Constituent Assembly was dominated by the well-to-do middle class. They abolished feudalism and introduced representative government, but limited the vote to property owners.
- They did, however, approve the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, that guaranteed natural and civil rights to citizens and adopted the slogan “liberty, equality, and fraternity,” however, class conflicts, the untrustworthiness of Louis XVI, and calls for more radical reform doomed these efforts to failure.
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From Constitutional Monarchy to Empire
- At this point the French Revolution entered its most violent stage that lasted from 1792-95. This phase was dominated by men from the lower bourgeois and the working class. The king attempted to flee France and was arrested and ultimately executed.
- In June 1793, the Jacobins seized control of the National Convention from the more moderate Girondins and instituted a series of radical measures, The French Republic was founded, and for a brief time Christianity was replaced with a state religion based on rational ideas.
- Full voting rights were given to all men, including blacks, and the slave trade was abolished, and women were given increased rights (many of these reforms would be swept away by the Napoleonic Code in 1804).
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Reign of Terror (1793–1794)
- The French government established the Committee of Public Safety, headed by Robespierre, in order to suppress internal counter-revolutionary activities and raise additional French military forces.
- The Reign of Terror, was a period of violence, incited by conflict between rival political factions, the moderate Girondins and the more radical Jacobins, and marked by mass executions of "enemies of the revolution".
- The guillotine (called the "National Razor") became the symbol of the revolutionary cause, strengthened by a string of executions. The death toll ranged in the tens of thousands, with 16,594 executed by guillotine and another 25,000 in summary executions across France.
- Most of the victims were noblemen and Girondians. The Reign of Terror ended in 1794 after the arrest and execution of Robespierre himself and 21 of his closest Jacobin associates.
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The Directory (1795-99)
- In August 1795, the National Convention, composed largely of Girondins who had survived the Reign of Terror, approved a new constitution that created France’s first bicameral legislature. Executive power would lie in the hands of a five-member Directory (“Directoire”) appointed by parliament.
- Royalists and Jacobins protested the new regime but were swiftly silenced by the army, now led by a young and successful general named Napoleon Bonaparte.
- Revolutionary France was engaged almost continuously in wars with Britain and a changing coalition of other major powers. The French conquered parts of Italy and Belgium and set up satellite states in Switzerland and the Netherlands.
- The many French successes led to the spread of the French revolutionary ideals into neighboring countries, and indeed across much of Europe.
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French Empire and the Rise of Napoleon
- The Directory was generally corrupt, lacked popular support, and was faced with financial crisis. Growing counter-revolutionary forces and a breakdown of law and order caused the Directory to turn to the military for help.
- In November of 1799 the charismatic French General, Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) staged a military “coup d’tat,” violently overthrowing the Directory.
- The Directory was replaced with a three-member Consulate, and Napoleon became first consul, making him France’s leading political figure. In June 1800, at the Battle of Marengo, Napoleon’s forces defeated one of France’s perennial enemies, the Austrians, and drove them out of Italy. The victory helped cement Napoleon’s power.
- In 1802, a constitutional amendment made Napoleon first consul for life. Two years later, in 1804, he crowned himself emperor of France in a lavish ceremony at the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris.
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Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
Bonaparte, First Consul (1804)
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French Empire and the Rise of Napoleon
- Napoleon worked to restore stability to post-revolutionary France. He centralized the government; instituted reforms in such areas as banking and education; and supported science and the arts.
- He sought to improve relations between his regime and the pope (who represented France’s main religion, Catholicism), which had suffered during the revolution.
- One of his most significant accomplishments was the Napoleonic Code, which streamlined the French legal system and continues to form the foundation of French civil law to this day.
- Napoleon was a dictator who embodied the concept of enlightened despotism. The French people lost political liberty but did receive internal stability and an end to the civil wars and improved economic conditions.
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French Empire and the Rise of Napoleon
- Shrewd, ambitious and a skilled military strategist, Napoleon successfully waged war against various coalitions of European nations and expanded his empire.
- In 1805 Napoleon achieved what is considered to be one of his greatest victories at the Battle of Austerlitz, in which his army defeated the Austrians and Russians.
- However, after a disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812, Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Leipzig (1813). Napoleon abdicated the throne two years later and was exiled to the island of Elba.
- In 1815, he briefly returned to power in his Hundred Days campaign. After a crushing defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, he abdicated once again and was exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena, where he died at 51.
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- After the defeat of Napoleon, Louis XVIII (the brother of the executed king) was restored to the throne in a constitutional monarchy.
- During the French Revolution a slave revolt took place on the French Island of Saint Domingue. Taking advantage of the distraction of the Napoleonic wars, they defeated both French and British forces and established the Independent Republic of Haiti in 1803, the first black republic in history, and the second in the New World.
- The Ottoman Empire generally lost a series of borderland wars with Russia and lost the Greek War of Independence (1821-30). The Ottoman Empire would continue to weaken throughout the 19th century.
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Restoration of the Bourbon Monarchy and Other Changes
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Changes in military weaponry- Cannon were now produced cast from solid metal with the barrels bored out, cannon parts were standardized, and artillery became more accurate, more powerful, more mobile, and safer to operate. This made cannon a very important factor on the battlefield.
The composition of armies changed as revolutionary France began the “levée en masse,” conscripting and mobilizing all of the able-bodied male citizens into the military. This resulted in the decline of mercenary armies, as other nations followed suit. This increased the concept of “total war” in a nation.
Navel warfare became more important, with Great Britain focusing on its naval power, building larger warships in a naval arms race. Britain would “rule the waves” with the most powerful navy in the world until after World War I.
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- French not as successful as they hoped in exporting revolution, but change did come to much of Europe. The victorious nations tried to restore Europe to its pre-revolutionary status with only limited success.
- Most of western continental European now had governments at least partially elected by citizens and civil law based on some version of the Napoleonic Code
- However, Prussia and Austria were basically untouched by democracy and representative government and Russia became more repressive and reactionary.
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- During the period of the French Revolution many embraced the high-minded, ethical and serious artistic style of “neoclassicism” with its Greco-Roman ideals of balance, simplicity, and restraint.
- During her brief life Jane Austen (1775-1817) wrote six novels that rank as the finest body of fiction of this period. Her works of romantic fiction, set among the landed gentry, earned her a place as one of the most widely read writers in English literature.
- The best known of her novels is “Pride and Prejudice” (1813), a gently satirical work that revolves around a shabby-genteel family trying to find suitable husbands for their daughters.
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- Jacques-Louis David founded neoclassicism in painting in the 1790’s and remained its consummate exponent until his death in 1825. As the official artist of the French Revolution, he rendered contemporary events in the ancient manner.
- David was a supporter of the Revolution, a friend of Robespierre and a member of the Jacobin Club. As a member of the National Assembly, he voted for the execution of Louis XVI. David was jailed when Robespierre was executed.
- David was a great admirer of Napoleon and the emperor held David in high esteem and often used him for portraits.
- Many of the great neoclassical painters of the time were students of David.
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Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres,
"The Envoys of Agamemnon,” (1801)
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Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres,
"Grande Odalisque” (1814)
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Jean-Antoine Gros
“Madame Pasteur"
(ca. 1795)
Gros was another gifted Neoclassical Painter who was a student of David
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Jean-Antoine Gros,
“Battle of the Pyramids, July 21, 1798, (1809)
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Jean-Antoine Gros
“Lieutenant Charles Legrand "
(1808)
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"The Sleep of Endymion” ,
(1791)
Pygmalion and Galatea,
(1819)
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Mademoiselle Lange as Venus, (1798)
Mademoiselle Lange as Danae, 1799
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- In contrast to the neoclassical, the Romantic Movement symbolized the unbound and untamed. Like Rousseau, the romantics liked to be guided by emotion and intuition.
- Partly a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, it was also a revolt against the aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific rationalization of nature.
- The Romantics generated a cult of nonconformity and embraced the exotic, the unfamiliar, and those who lived outside of middle-class society.
- Romanticism assigned a high value to the achievements of 'heroic' individualists and artists, whose pioneering examples, it maintained, would raise the quality of society.
- It’s emotionalism also had a strong effect on promoting nationalism.
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- “Sturm und Drang”, literally "Storm and Drive“ or translated as "Storm and Stress") was a proto-Romantic movement in German literature and music taking place from the late 1760s to the early 1780s.
- The movements authors, mostly from the middle-class objected to the formality, restraint, and tedium of rationalism. They valued free expression in language, dress and love and sought free expression for the extremes of emotion.
- They attacked the hypocrisy of organized religion, seeking God in nature. They celebrated peasant life and the unconventional, liberated mind.
- It also vouched for the individual imagination as a critical authority allowed of freedom from classical notions of form in art.
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- Goethe (1749-1832) was the greatest German writer of the Romantic period. In his “Sorrows of Young Werther” (1774), he presents a novel where the young hero commits suicide because of disappointment in love.
- His hero is a complex character, passionate, excitable, given to inappropriate outbursts, moved by the innocence of children, attracted to social misfits, and awed by God’s presence in nature.
- Goethe’s most famous work is “Faust” (1808-32) the story of a universal rebel, a man who will not let any moral scruple stand in the way of his pursuit of knowledge. In his restlessness, Faust turns to Mephistopheles (the Devil) and strikes a deal where his immortal soul will be forever condemned to hell, if the Devil can provide him with an adventure that he finds satisfying.
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- The English poet Lord Byron (1788-1824) typified the Romanticism throughout his short life and in his most admired poem, “Don Juan,” he presents the notorious seducer as a virtuous hero in a study of moral duality.
- Mary Shelley (1797-1851) created two of the most pervasive figures in Western culture, Dr. Frankenstein and his monster in her book “Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus” (1818).
- Shelley’s novel presented Dr. Frankenstein as a man driven by obsessive intellectual curiosity and the monster as a tragic symbol of science out of control.
- Frankenstein is infused with elements of the Gothic novel and the Romantic movement and is also considered to be one of the earliest examples of science fiction.
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Richard Rothwell “Mary Shelley”
(1839)
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- Romanticism in painting was a European-wide art style, in which artists of all countries shared many subjects (landscape scenes and literary subjects) and themes (love of the exotic and the cult of the hero).
- However there were national variations with this international style as reflected in the images created by the leading painters in England, Germany, France, and Spain.
- Romanticism in painting appeared first in England, manifesting itself as a part of a “cult of nature,” with two distinct types, the pastoral and the sublime.
- The pastoral specialized in landscape scenes that equated peasant life with the divine order. The sublime focused on devastating natural or man-made calamities, reflecting a world beyond mortal control.
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- Turner was an English Romantic painter who elevated landscape painting to eminence.
- However, Turner is of the “sublime” school and his paintings invoke the power and wonder of nature.
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Géricault (pronounced zhay-rih-KOH) was an early pioneer of
French Romantic painting.
Unfortunately he died in very young in 1824 at only the age of 33
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Théodore Géricault, “Wounded Cuirassier Leaving the Field of Battle, 1814”
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Delacroix (Pronounce del-uh-kwah) became the leader of the French Romantic school of painting.
He was a humanitarian who was often inspired by violent times.
This is a scene is set during the Greek Civil War showing a massacre by the Turks.
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Louis of Orleans Unveiling his Mistress,
(ca. 1825–26)
The Natchez, 1835
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Goya was a Spanish romantic painter and printmaker regarded both as the last of the Old Masters and the first of the moderns. Goya was court painter to the Spanish Crown. The subversive imaginative element in his art, as well as his bold handling of paint, provided a model for the work of artists of later generations
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Goya, Men Reading, 1819-1823
Women Laughing, 1819-1823
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Goya, “Milkmaid of Bordeaux (1825-7)
Goya, “Yard with Lunatics” (1794)
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- In philosophy Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), a German philosopher who is who is widely considered to be a central figure of modern philosophy was writing his most famous work “Critique of Pure Reason” (1781).
- Kant argued that fundamental concepts structure human experience, and that reason is the source of morality. His thought continues to have a major influence in modern contemporary thought, especially the fields of ethics, epistemology, and metaphysics.
- The German philosopher, Georg Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), espoused idealism in his view of human history as the record of the “world spirit” seeking to know its true nature. According to Hegel, the world spirit could only attain self-knowledge through a dialectical struggle, and all the world’s wars, riots, and revolts were merely evidence of spiritual growth.
- Hegel’s work had a tremendous impact on later Western though and revolutionaries, such as Karl Marx borrowed Hegel’s dialectical approach to human history.
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- The Romantic period music became more accessible to the middle class. Elite forms of patronage were replaced by marketplace economics.
- The most gifted composer of the Romantic period was Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827), a German who spent most of his life in Vienna. He personified the new breed of musician, supporting himself through concerts, lessons, and the sale of his music.
- Beethoven wrote music that was increasingly expressive and that showed more warmth and variety of feeling than earlier classical work. He remains one of the most famous and influential of all composers.
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Franz Schubert (1797-1828) was a Viennese composer famous for the beauty of his melodies and the simple grace of his songs.
Schubert is ranked among the greatest composers of the early Romantic era and is one of the most frequently performed composers of the early nineteenth century.
Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) was a French romantic composer. He specified huge orchestral forces for some of his works, and conducted several concerts with more than 1,000 musicians.
His influence was critical for the further development of Romanticism, especially in composers like Wagner, Korsakov, Liszt, Strauss and many others.
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- The Industrial Revolution changed the world and ushered in the belief in “laissez-faire” economics, regardless of how much pain it cause the working class.
- The American and French revolutions: written laws and constitutions, basic human rights, and government of and by the people.
- The Romanticism Movement rebelled against rationalism and instead took of view of life that focused on informality and the importance of feeling and imagination
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