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SchoolDazeCooperation, Conflict, and Marital Satisfaction: Bridging Theory, Research, and Practice
Debra G. Leggett, Bridget Roberts-Pittman, Sara Byczek, and David T. Morse
Abstract
The authors used fourth-wave data from 977 married respondents from the Mari tal Instability over the Life Course study (Booth, Amato, White, Johnson: & Edwards, 1998). An Adlerian theoretical structure was proposed for understanding problem-solving strategies that link to marital satisfaction. The respondents were split into a primary sample (n = 621) and a validation sample (n = 356). In both samples, cooperation, conflict, and the control variables of age, sex, education, and family income were analyzed via multiple linear regression. Cooperative behaviors indicative of social interest, like visiting friends or working around the home together, were positively related to marital satisfaction, and conflict behaviors, like engaging in serious quarrels or frequent disagreements, were negatively related. Implications for both researchers and practitioners were explored.
The study of marital satisfaction has led to an extensive body of knowledge over several decades of inquiry. Longitudinal studies (Gottman & Krokoff, 1989) as well as cross-sectional studies (VanLaningham, Johnson,
& Amato, 2001) have been conducted. Researchers have examined many specific facets of marital satisfaction including physiological and affective variables (Levenson & Gottman, 1985), communication patterns (Rhoades
Stocker, 2006), marital interaction (Matthews, Wickrama, & Conger, 1996), influence of psychopathology (Coyne, Kahn, & Gotlib, 1987; Halford
The Journal of Individual Psychology, Vol. 68, No. 2, Summer 2012
02012 by the University of Texas Press, PO Box 7819, Austin, TX 78713-7819
Editorial office located in the College of Education at Georgia State University.
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Problem-Solving Strategies
The current study is an investigation of problem-solving strategies from an Adlerian perspective using data from a 17-year, four-wave panel study of Marital Instability over the Life Course (Booth, Amato, White, Johnson, & Edwards, 1998). Tallman and Hsiao (2004) acknowledged that the field of marital research lacks a theory of marital problem-solving. The researchers noted the importance of studying newly-wedded couples, as resolution of problems early in the marriage may have a longstanding impact on the course of the marriage. They hypothesized that a link exists between marital satisfaction, mutual trust, and cooperative behaviors, and studied it over three waves (n = 278, 208, 189). The researchers found a statistically significant relationship between cooperative behaviors in one period and marital satisfaction in the next. The cooperative scores (based upon a proportion of positive to negative behaviors) were significantly lower for couples that were divorced by the end of the study and significantly higher for those that remained married. Through an examination of indirect effects, the researchers confirmed that processes set in motion early in a relationship regarding problem-solving behaviors predicted marital satisfaction over time. Their results demonstrated the importance of cooperative behaviors in the•resolution of marital conflicts.
Adlerian Theoretical Framework
Alfred Adler's work has had an enormous impact across psychology. His work has led to an understanding of personality formation and interpersonal functioning. Adler and his successors have made significant contributions for researchers and practitioners in areas such as parenting skills and marital assessment and counseling (Pew & Pew, 1972).
Social Interest. Several key Adlerian concepts are relevant to our conceptualization of marital satisfaction. First, according to Adler, individuals are social beings and place great importance on feelings of connectedness and a sense of belonging. This is the concept of social interest. Adler (in Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956) explained that each individual was strongly motivated by Gemeinschaftsgefuhl, also known as social feeling, community feeling, fellow feeling, sense of solidarity, communal intuition, community interest, social sense, and social interest. In Adler's conception of the life task of love (or marriage), social interest is conveyed through an attitude of concern and interest in the well-being of the other spouse (Ansbacher & Ansbacher; Tallman & Hsiao, 2004). Social interest was hypothesized as the underlying dimension of the lifestyle (Logan, 1990). Logan pointed out that
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186 Debra G. Leggett et al.
social interest and marital adjustment are theoretically related but noted the lack of research in this area. In the present study, the marital relationship was postulated to represent a primary source of connectedness and belonging for each member of the couple unit.
The Adlerian perspective of the human personality is the synthesis of the physical, emotional, intellectual, and spiritual dimensions into the "total person" (Eckstein, 1981). "Adler's assumption was that human behavior is motivated by social urges and that humans are inherently social beings" (Eckstein, 1981, p. 1). This idea of the gestalt individual includes the style of life, a term Adler used to encompass self, personality, a personal problem-solving method, an attitude toward life, a line of movement, a pattern, a technique, and the system by which an individual functions. In his discussion of social interest, Adler stated, "In the way in which an individual answers this problem [love], the degree of his cooperation can always be seen" (in Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956, p. 132).
Cooperation. Sicher (1991) asserted that cooperation learned within the family constellation plays an essential part in development of the lifestyle. Counselors must consider the effects of cooperation and conflict on childhood development and determine how these attributes follow the individual throughout the lifespan. Adler proposed that "the really successful husband or wife is formed in the first four or five years of childhood" (Smith, 1929, p. 213). If Adler was correct that individuals grow and become a product of their social environments, marriage counselors should consider a possible relationship between cooperative and conflictual marital interactions and the satisfaction level of marriage.
Cooperative behaviors have been conceptualized as a vital part of a relationship. Harrison (1993) examined the relationship among Adlerian lifestyle themes, cooperation, and marital satisfaction. She concluded that even in couples with disparate lifestyle themes, cooperative negotiation was a central variable in marital satisfaction. Similarly, Tallman and Hsiao (2004) suggested that cooperative behaviors predicted marital satisfaction. Sanderson and Cantor (2001) described types of cooperative activities engaged in by couples that desire greater intimacy. The activities included spending time together, completing household tasks, giving social support to each other, and creating a greater sense of interdependence through consideration of the other's feelings.
In "Adlerian Marriage Therapy," Carlson and Dinkmeyer (1987) point out that "many couples have learned to cooperate through fighting" (p. 328). They further articulated Adler's concepts into an approach to marital therapy that undergirds the social development aspect (Dinkmeyer & Carlson, 1993): "The marriage relationship is understood as an interpersonal social system in which input from each partner either (a) improves the relationship or (b) stimulates dissonance and conflict" (p. 145), both representing a
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style of interaction. For the purposes of this study, cooperation is measured by spousal interaction over (a) eating meals together, (b) going shopping, (c) spending time with friends, (d) sharing household tasks, and (e) going out together.
Conflict. According to Thomas and Marchant (1993), individuals are not equipped to enter marriage as social equals. The autocratic tradition of western culture does not prepare couples to resolve conflicts through mutual respect and social equality. Individuals learn to approach conflict with the goal of winning instead of mutual agreement. Therefore, power struggles can occur when one partner tries to gain superiority over the other. The struggle for superiority contributes to a lack of mutual respect, which leads to marital conflict.
Many facets of marital conflict have been studied including disagreement over household tasks, level of cooperative behavior in resolving disagreements, and the relationship between negative behaviors and depression. When examining the relationship among behaviors, outcomes, and level of distress, researchers asked couples to respond to scenarios describing household responsibilities, leisure-time management, and interpersonal distance between spouses (Koren, Carlton, & Shaw, 1980). In considering these conflictual situations, nondistressed couples responded to their partners' influence efforts resulting in more satisfaction, whereas distressed couples did not experience this favorable outcome. Tallman and Hsiao (2004) examined the relationships between conflict, cooperative behaviors, and marital satisfaction. In this study the researchers expanded the theoretical literature regarding interpersonal problem-solving in marriage. They demonstrated how cooperative behaviors are effective problem-solving strategies. Lastly, Du Rocher Schudlich, Papp, and Cummings (2004) related verbal hostility resulting in insults or physical aggression, defensiveness, withdrawal, and displays of negative affect to depression in spouses, which is the result of discouragement.
The current study focuses on an Adlerian approach, which includes both positive and negative aspects to the problem-solving strategies demonstrated within couple interaction (Gottman, Markman, & Notarius, 1977; Morton, Alexander, & Altman, 1976). Marital conflict has been characterized as a type of couple interaction that is measurable based upon behavioral facets. Behaviors, based upon self-report or observation, are coded and entered into regression models to determine whether they will predict marital distress or satisfaction (Booth et al., 1998; Booth & Johnson, 1985; Booth, Johnson, White, & Edwards, 1984; Du Rocher Schudlich et al., 2004; Koren et al., 1980). In this study, conflict was measured by the severity and frequency that couples disagree and quarrel over household tasks and whether these quarrels resulted in physical abuse. The authors of the current study theorize these interaction styles as problem-solving strategies.
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186 Debra G. Leggett et al.
In this study, lifestyle is investigated from a proposed Adlerian mari
tal quality model. Specifically, the influence of attitudes, conflict, and
Problem-Solving Strategies. Problem-solving strategies are behaviors developed out of the individual's lifestyle and attitudes (Carlson & Dinkmeyer, 1987). In their approach to marital therapy, Carlson and Dinkmeyer postulated how individuals' behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes motivate them to choose a particular interaction style, one of either cooperation or conflict. This style leads to the development of cognitive organization about how life is supposed to be and further leads to the development of personal goals. If these theoretical factors are shown to be related to marital satisfaction, the implications for counselors and counselor educators would be tremendous. Not only would it help identify problem areas for clients, but the findings could also inform the direction counselors take in the counseling process and have implications for the training of future marriage counselors.
The Model. Based on an Adlerian construction, the authors hypothesize a model of factors that illustrate how marriage is influenced by individual behaviors. The primary Adlerian factors of this model are lifestyle, attitudes, problem-solving strategies, and goals (Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956). It is not possible in one study to address how all of these factors may influence marital satisfaction. Therefore, in this study, only one aspect of the model is addressed, namely the problem-solving strategies of cooperation and conflict.
Related Literature
The relationship between types of interactions (cooperative or conflictual) and marital satisfaction is the main area investigated in this study. Sanderson and Cantor (2001) investigated similar factors and found that people who thought that intimacy goals and interactions were important experience more satisfaction due to the belief that their partners have similar outlooks. This finding is similar to the postulation that lifestyle, or the basic attitude toward life, is vital for attraction (Dreikurs, 1969) and further demonstrates Adler's concept that conflict is based in the clash of lifestyles. Sanderson and Cantor provided some evidence that the amount of cooperation within marriage may lead individuals to view their relationship as being more satisfactory. Similarly, Harrison (1993) demonstrated that similarity of lifestyle themes was related to marital satisfaction. Additionally, a salient finding was that cooperative negotiation contributed greatly to satisfaction even when lifestyles differed.
A succinct quote addressing marriage and social interest from the writings of Adler is relevant to the current study:
To some degree we have been trained to work alone, to some degree, to work in a group. But we have generally had little experience of working two by two
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In this study, lifestyle is investigated from a proposed Adlerian mari
tal quality model. Specifically, the influence of attitudes, conflict, and
. . . for a full solution of this cooperation of two, each partner must be more interested in the other than in himself. This is the only basis on which love and marriage can be successful. (Adler in Ansbacher & Ansbacher, 1956, p. 432)
Adlerian psychologists stress that encouragement skills include demonstrating concern for each other through active listening and empathy, communicating respect for and confidence in one's partner, focusing on each other's strengths, assets, and resources, and seeing the humor in life experiences (Watts & Pietrzak, 2000). Although researchers have supported the connection of Adlerian constructs related to social interest, such as cooperation and conflict, as well as marital satisfaction (Dinkmeyer, 2007; Kopp, 2007; Tallman & Hsiao, 2004), a direct measure of social interest has not been found that links these concepts.
Kopp (2007) discussed the importance of teaching couples how better to resolve conflicts and power struggles that inevitably occur in marital relationships. Kopp suggested several techniques that relate to social interest, including the importance of presenting consequences—not punishments—when partners hurt or disappoint one another. The author stresses the importance of not letting one disagreement affect the entire relationship but instead remaining calm and directive and recognizing that the goal is not to coerce one's partner into thinking the same as the other. Although Kopp did not directly talk about cooperation and conflict, he did discuss other related Adlerian constructs that appear to fit into these factors. Dinkmeyer (2007) made similar suggestions but focused more on communication and recognizing that all behavior is up for interpretation and partners can view the same event very differently, which could lead to a lack of cooperation.
Logan (1990) compared lifestyle themes and social interest to level of marital adjustment using direct measures. After theorizing that social interest and marital adjustment were related, as they shared similar characteristics, she found a significant relationship existed between the two. Couples with high social interest had higher adjustment scores than those with low social interest. Interestingly, there was no difference between couples with similar levels of social interest and those with differing levels in marital adjustment. This finding has unique practical significance, as it demonstrates that even one member of a couple with higher social interest contributed to higher marital adjustment. Logan concluded that increasing social interest was an important factor in increasing marital functioning.
Research Problem
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190 Debra G. Leggett et al.
190 Debra G. Leggett et al.
In this study, lifestyle is investigated from a proposed Adlerian mari
tal quality model. Specifically, the influence of attitudes, conflict, and
cooperation on problem-solving strategies will be determined. The research hypotheses are that (a) level of cooperation will relate positively to level of marital satisfaction and (b) level of conflict will relate inversely to level of marital satisfaction.
This analysis used cross-sectional data from the 1992 wave. A priori selection of cooperation and conflict for the independent variables and marital satisfaction as the dependent variables stemmed from Adlerian theory and previous research. Multiple linear regression was used to examine the statistical significance of the proposed relationships. This method examined the strength of the association between cooperation and conflict and marital satisfaction. While cross-sectional data and correlational methods cannot establish causation, the findings can justify further investigation.
Method
Participants
The data were from the study of Marital Instability over the Life Course (Booth et al., 1998). The respondents were between 17 and 55 years of age at the time of the interview, and were interviewed by telephone starting in 1980 and subsequently in 1983, 1988, 1992, and 1997. Random-digit dialing was used during the first wave to select a national probability sample of 2,034, which comprised a 65% completion rate for eligible households. With respect to age, race, household size, presence of children, housing tenure, and region, the original sample was found to be representative of the population of the United States as compared to estimates made by the U.S. Census Bureau in 1980. The 1992 wave included 1,189 respondents, of which 977 cases included information for all the independent variables being analyzed for this study. Due to the large number, cases with missing data were dropped from the analysis.
Measures
Marital Happiness. Marital happiness measures the positive aspect of marital quality based upon perceived individual feelings. The marital happiness scale is composed of 11 Likert-type scale items. The first eight are on a five-point scale, each scored from 0 (least happy) to 4 (most happy). The last three items are scored on a three-point scale: very happy, pretty happy, and not too happy. The items reflecting the amount of happiness were: (a) extent
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190 Debra G. Leggett et al.
190 Debra G. Leggett et al.
of understanding received from spouse/partner; (b) amount of love received; (c) extent of agreement about things; (d) sexual relationship; (e) spouse/ partner as someone who takes care of things around the house; (f) spouse/ partner as someone to do things with; (g) spouse's faithfulness; (h) evaluation of marriage/relationship as very happy, pretty happy, or not too happy; (i) compared to other marriages/relationships, respondent's is better, same, or not too good; (j) comparing the marriage/relationship to three years ago, it is getting better, staying the same, or getting worse; and (k) strength of feelings of love the respondent has for spouse/partner. Higher scores on this scale indicate greater perceived happiness. Reported Cronbach's alpha for this scale was .89 (M = 27.80, SD = 4.42; Booth et al., 1998).
Spousal Interaction. The spousal interaction scale is used to estimate the amount of cooperation experienced by the respondents. This is a summated scale with five items: (a) eat main meal together; (b) go shopping together; (c) visit friends together; (d) work around home together; and (e) go out together. The five items are reverse coded and then summed together. Higher scores indicate higher levels of interaction or cooperation. Cronbach's alpha for this scale equals .68 (M = 14.79, SD = 3.00; Booth et al., 1998).
Spousal Disagreement. The spousal disagreement scale is used to approximate the amount of conflict between spouses to gain the upper hand. This is a summated scale with four items: (a) disagreements over share of housework done by respondent; (b) frequency of disagreements with spouse/partner; (c) number of serious quarrels with spouse/partner within the last two months; and (d) arguments involving physical abuse. Higher scores indicate higher levels of disagreement or conflict. Cronbach's alpha for this scale equals .52 (M = 3.93, SD = 2.33; Booth et al., 1998).
Method of Analysis
Multiple linear regression and correlation were utilized to analyze the data. There were 1,189 participants in the fourth wave: 746 female and 443 male respondents. The data for 212 respondents were incomplete for the categories used in this analysis, so these cases were dropped, leaving 977 valid cases for which descriptive statistics were computed. See Table 1 for summary statistics for each of the control variables, including sex, age, education, and family income.
The data from the 977 remaining participants were split randomly. The primary sample for the analysis used approximately 60% of the data. Descriptive statistics on the primary sample are shown in Table 2, along with the correlation matrix.
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190 Debra G. Leggett et al.
Table 1 Participant Characteristics
Characteristic
M
SD
Age at time of survey (years)
46.8
9.0
Years of education
14.2
2.7
Family annual income
$47,518
$16,023
Note. N = 977. Incomplete data for 212 respondents.
The regression model summary using all six independent variables (cooperation, conflict, and the four control variables) yielded an .R coefficient of .623 and R2 = .39, SEE= 3.36. When only the control variables (age, sex, education, family income) were used in the regression model, the multiple R was .095 and the R2 was .009. Therefore, inclusion of cooperation and conflict scores in the regression model increased the explained variation from 0.9% to 39%. This difference was statistically significant, F (2, 614) = 191.75, p < .001. Based on the primary sample, approximately 38% of the variation in marital satisfaction can be explained by differences in cooperation and conflict scores after statistically controlling for age, sex, education, and family income. Therefore we estimate that 39% of the variability in marital happiness is directly predictable from the variability in the independent variables. The next step was to examine the cooperation and conflict scores individually in the full regression model. We hypothesized that higher levels of cooperation would relate positively to higher levels of marital satisfaction. Based on the test of the unstandardized regression coefficient, this hypothesis was supported (t = 10.209, p < .001; see Table 3). Theoretically, this demonstrates that the Adlerian construct of cooperation is statistically significantly related to marital happiness. Conflict was tested in a similar manner. The research hypothesis stated that higher levels of conflict would cause lower levels of marital satisfaction through a negative relationship. The data also supported this hypothesis (t = —13.779, p = .000; see Table 3). The statistically significant t tests demonstrated the significance of the slope and intercept of the proposed theoretical model, which demonstrated a significant positive relationship between the cooperative behaviors demonstrated through marital interaction and overall satisfaction with marriage.
Among the four control variables, the control variable of age was a statistically significant predictor of marital happiness at p < .025 significance level. There was a negative relationship between age and marital happiness. This finding confirms the social-psychological perspective that individuals
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Table 3, Regression Analysis Summary for Theoretical Variables Predicting Marital Happiness in Primary Sample
Variable
B
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R2
R2
AR2
Step 1
.01
.01
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.28
—.03
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.02
—.08t
Education
.06
.06
.04
Income
.08
.00
.03
Step 2
.39
.38
.38**
Cooperation
.49
.05
.33**
Conflict
—.87
.06
—.46**
Note. N = 621 respondents that answered all categories correlated. SEB+ = Standard Error of B.
**p < .001, tp < .05. All tests are one-tailed.
in relationships experience disenchantment with the passage of time. Further longitudinal studies are needed to see if the decline continues, if marital satisfaction levels off after an initial decline, or if this relationship is an artifact of using cross-sectional data (as suggested by VanLaningham et al., 2001). The other control variables of sex, education, and family income did not significantly influence marital quality.
Validation
To determine whether the regression model would hold up, the remaining 40% of the data were analyzed using the same model. Descriptive statistics are shown in Table 4 with the correlations.
The regression model summary, again using all six independent variables (cooperation, conflict, and the four control variables) yielded an R coefficient of .617 and R2 = .38, SE = 3.62, F (6, 349) = 35.753, p = .000. When only the control variables (age, sex, education, and family income) were used in the regression model, the multiple R dropped from .095 in the primary sample to .059, and the R2 dropped from .009 to .003, which makes sense due to the decrease in sample size. Thus, in the validation set, inclusion of cooperation and conflict scores in the regression model
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Table 5 Regression Analysis Summary for Theoretical Variables Predicting Marital Happiness in Validation Sample
Variable
B
SEB+
R2
R2
AR'
Step 1
< .01
< -.01
Sex
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.40
-.04
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.02
-.111-
Education
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.08
.05
Income
.06
.00
.02
Step 2
.38
.37
.37**
Cooperation
.55
.07
.36**
Conflict
-.77
.09
-.41 **
Note. N = 356 respondents that answered all categories correlated. SEB+ = Standard Error of B.
**p< .001, tp < .05. All tests are one-tailed.
increased the explained variation from 0.3% to 38%. Once again, this difference was statistically significant, F (2, 356) = 110.01, p < .001. Based on the validation sample, approximately 37% of the variability in marital happiness is directly predictable from the variability in the scores of the independent variables of cooperation and conflict after statistically controlling for age, sex, education, and family income. This is down one percent from the primary sample.
For the validation set, cooperation was again predicted to relate positively to higher levels of marital satisfaction. This hypothesis was supported (t = 7.87, p = .000; see Table 5). Theoretically, this provides some validation that cooperation is related to marital happiness. Conflict was tested through the correlation of the disagreement scale and the marital happiness scale for this set. The proposed negative relationship held up, and the hypothesis was affirmed (t = -8.97, p = .000). The correlation matrix is reproduced in Table 4. The regression analysis summary for the validation set is given in Table 5.
Computing R 2 from the unstandardized regression coefficients of the primary sample gives a result of .39, or 39%. Performing the same computation for the validation sample gives a result of .38, or 38%. The pattern is similar for both samples. The Adlerian constructs of cooperation and conflict are statistically significant in both.
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Discussion
Although decades of research have been devoted to the study of marriage and its dissolution, the divorce rate remains high. Reviewing the research to date has revealed components of marital interaction (Matthews et al., 1996), conflict resolution, and problem solving (Gottman et al., 1977) without a clear theoretical basis for understanding this issue. Communication and communication patterns have been studied (Rhoades & Stocker, 2006); however, clinical practice has shown that just teaching communication skills does not improve the marital relationship. From an Adlerian perspective, communication style is important; however, the authors of the current study urge practitioners to also consider other key aspects of Individual Psychology. The lifestyles of both of the individuals in the couple impact therapeutic outcomes as well as the attitudes and goals that are intertwined with their private logic, mistaken beliefs, and purposive behavior (Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987). In the present study, the authors explored the link between the problem solving strategies demonstrated through cooperation or its antithesis, conflict, and marital satisfaction.
Tallman and Hsiao (2004) suggested the need for a theoretical approach to marital problem solving, and this study began such inquiry. The main purpose was to test the hypothesized relationships between the Adlerian constructs of cooperation, conflict, and marital satisfaction in hopes of making this theoretical link. To test the predicted inverse relationships on marital satisfaction, the authors used data from the fourth wave of the 1 7-year, four-wave panel study of Marital Instability over the Life Course (Booth et al., 1998). After controlling for age, sex, education, and socioeconomic status, there was still a significant positive relationship between level of cooperation and perceived marital happiness. Theoretically, if cooperation can be utilized as a problem-solving strategy, marital happiness may be expected to increase. On the other hand, a significant negative relationship was shown for the level of conflictual, disagreeing behaviors with perceived marital happiness. The theoretical model, which proposed a link between cooperative behaviors and marital satisfaction, was supported. While expected, this result helps confirm the need for cooperation in marriage, the importance of which can be better integrated into counselors' understandings of marriage.
Adler encouraged cooperation to address conflict that emerges from the clash of lifestyles. The current study confirmed this important assertion through the strength of the relationship between cooperation and marital satisfaction and the alternative result of unresolved conflict, which emerges from divergent lifestyles. These findings further clarify that issues such as money, sex, education, and age are not central, as they do not significantly affect marital satisfaction. Rather, helping couples find ways to increase
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cooperation as a problem-solving strategy is recommended to increase marital satisfaction and reduce conflict.
Therefore counselors need to consider phenomenology (clients' perception of the lifestyle), social embeddedness, purposive behavior, social equality, mutual respect, and love and affection as basic principles of Adlerian family counseling (Christensen, 1993). Discovering the attitudes and assumptions underlying these strategies provides a challenge for a couples counselor. Encouraging couples to assess values and priorities, or in other words, identifying the individual and couple's lifestyle or philosophy of life through therapeutic encouragement, can aid progress toward cooperation. Negotiation is a valuable part of cooperation, and couples can learn this skill (Harrison, 1993) and "negotiate a common way of being in the world together" (Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987, p. 19).
Though individuals experience cultural change from birth throughout life, encouraging an atmosphere that increases cooperation and decreases instances of conflict between partners in the marital relationship can facilitate greater perceived marital quality through purposive behavior. Social embeddedness in the marital relationship may also improve social connection to the community and increase social interest, while cooperation could encourage selection of mutual goals through social equality. When couples counselors utilize communication and interactional training, an understanding needs to be developed of the private logic that underlies the conflict (Sherman & Dinkmeyer, 1987).
The Adlerian principles provided in this theoretical framework can be included in couples counseling and is an important aspect for counselor educators to include in curricula for future counselors. Future research can help determine how other Adlerian constructs from the proposed model could be useful in explaining marital quality and helpful in developing preventive interventions.
References
Ansbacher, H. L., & Ansbacher, R. R. (Eds.). (1956). The Individual Psy chology of Alfred Adler: A systematic presentation in selections from his writings. New York: Harper & Row.
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