Religion
pinechang
The World's
Religions
HUSIDN SMITH
.. ... HarperSanFrancisco
A Dtf1fUOn of HUl't'rllilinsPlobluhm
UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON ROESCH LIBRARY
TIl E WO RLD'S RE l.I G IONS: A Completely Revised and Upda ted Edit ion a/Th e Religions of Man. Copyrig ht © 1991 by Huston Smith. Origi· nal cop)'Tight © 1958 by I lusto n Smith; copyright re newed in 1986 by Husto n Smith. AU ri ghts reserved. Printed in the United Stales of Am e rica. No part of th is book may be used or re prod uced in any mann e r wh atsoever with o ut wri tt e n penniss io n except in th e case of brie f quotati ons e mhodi CfI ill c riti cal articl es aud review:'>. For infor- malion address Ilarpc rCollins Publishers, 10 Eas t 53rd Stre et . New York , NY 10022.
Library of Congress C ata logi ng.in-Publication Data
Smith , Huston. Th e wo rld 's rel igio ns I Hus ton Smith.
p. e m. ney. and upd ated e d. of : Th e religions of man . 1958. In cl ud es bibl iogra phical refe re nces and index. I. Religio ns. I. Smith. Ilusion. Religio ns of man.
Bl..80.2.S645 1991 291-dc20
IS BN O·06·25{)799·0 ISBN O· 06-2508 U.J (pbk.)
II. Titl e.
90·56449 CIP
91 92 93 94 95 M-V 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
TIlis editio n is prin ted 0 11 aci d·free paper thai mee ts th e Ame ri can Nati o nal Standard s Institute 7..39.4 8 Shll1dard .
VI. Islam
We can begin wi th an anomaJ y. Of all the non-Western religio ns, Islam stands closest to the West-closcst geographicall y, and also closest ideologically; for religiously iI stands in the Abrnhamic family of reJigions, whi le philosophically It builds 011 the Creeks. Yet desp ite thi s mental and spatial proximity. Islam is the mos t difficult religion for the West to understand. "No part of th e world ," an American columnist has wri tten, "is more hopelessly and systematical ly and stubbo rnl y misunderstood by us th an th at complex of religio n. cul- ture an d geogr.lphy known as Islam ."!
This is ironic, but the irony is eas iJ y explained. Proximit y is no guarantee of concord- tragical ly, more homic ides occu r within fam- ilies than anywhere else. Islam and the West are neighbors. Co mm on borders have give n ri se to border disputes, which. beginning with ra ids and cou nterraids. have escalated into vende ttas. blood feuds. and all -out war. TIlcre is a happi er side; in times a nd places C hris- tians, Muslim s, and Jews have li ved togethe r hann onio usly-o ne thinks of Moorish Spain , But for a good part of the las t fourteen hun - dred ye:us. Islam and Europe have Ix.aen a t war, and people se ld om have a fair picture orth ei r e nemi es, l Islam is going to be an interes t· ing religion for this book to negotiate.
Mistakes begin with its very nam e. Until recen tl y it was called Muhammadanis m by the Wes t, which is not on ly inaccurate but offe nsive. It is inaccurate, Mu slim s suy, because Muh ammad djdn't c reate this re ligion; God did - Muhammad was mere ly Cod's mouth- piece. Beyo nd this, til e title is offenSive beca use it conveys the impression that Islam focuses on a man rather than on God, Th name
H'
!l! TilE WORLD'S RELIGIONS
C hristiani ty afte r C h rist is appropriate, th ey say, fo r C hri stians be li eve that C hrist was Cod. But to cal l Islam Muhammadanism is like calling Chris ti anity S1. Pau lism . Th e proper name of th is religio n is Is lam . De ri ved from the roo t &-I-m, which means primarily-peace- but in a secondary sense "surrende r: its fu ll co nnotatio n is -the peace that comes when one's life is su rre nde red to Cod. - This makes Islam - togethe r with Buddhism, from btulh, awake ning-one of the I",{o religio ns that is namt.>d after the attribute it seeks to c ultiva te; in Is la m's case, life's total su rrender to Cod. TIlOse who adh ere to Islam are known as Mu sli ms.
Background
"Around the name oflh e Arabs, - wri tes Ph ilip !'I itli , "gleams that halo whic h belongs to th e world -co nq ue rors. Within a century afte r the ir ri se thi s peopl e beca me th e mas tcn of an e mpire ex te nding from the shores of th e Atl anti c Ocea n to til e confines of C hina, a n e mpire greater th an that of nome at its ze nith. [n thi s pe riod of unprece- de nted expansio n, th ey ass im ilated to th eir creed , speec h. and even ph ys ical type, mo re a li e ns th an any stoc k before o r since, no t exce pt- ing th e He ll e ni c. th e Roman . th e Anglo-Saxon , or the Ru ss ian.- 3
Central in this Arab rise to grea tn ess was the ir religion. Islam . If we as k how it came int o being . the outside r's answer po ints to socio- religious c urre nts that were playing over Arabia in Muh am mad 's day and uses th c m to cxpl ai n what happened. Th e Muslims' an swer is diffe re nt. Islam begi ns not with Muh ammad in sixth-ce ntllry Arabia. th ey say. but with Cod. "'In th e begi nning Cod ... " the book a f Cene- sis te lls us. Th e Koran agrees. It diffcn on ly in using th e .... 'O rd Allah. Allah is fomle<! by joining th e de finite arlicl e al (meaning - the") wi th 11ah (Cod). Lite rall y. Allah means "the Cod." Not a god , fo r there is o nl y o ne. TIle Cod.
Wh e n th e mascu lin e plural e nd ing im is dropped from the He brew word for Cod, £Jolli",. the two words sound mu ch alike.
Cod crea ted th e wo rld , and afte r it hu man beings. Th e name o f the first man was Adam . Th e d esce ndants of Adam led to Noah , who had a so n nam ed Shem . This is whcre th e word Semite CQ lIl es from; lite rall y a Semite is a d esce nda nt of Shem. Like the JCINS, the Arabs consi d e r th e mselves a Se miti c people. The d esce ndan ts o fSh e m led to Abraham , and so far we arc still in the tradition of judaism and
ISI..AM "3
Ch ris ti ani ty. Indeed, it was the submissio n o f Abraham in hi s sup reme test-,,"'Ould he be willing to sacril1ce hi s SOli Isaac?-that appears to have provided Islam with ii'S name. Abraham married Sarah . Sarah had 11 0 so n. so Abraham , wan ting to continu e his line, took Il ab"llJ' for his second wife. I I agar bore h im a son, Ish mael , wll c rc upon Sarah conceived and likewise h ad a so n. named Isaac. Sarah th e n denmnded that Abraham banish Is h mael a nd Il agar from th e tri be. He re we CQ IIl C to the fint di verge nce betwee n the koran ic and bibl ical accounts. Acco rding to th e Koran Ishm ae l we nt to the place where Mecca was to rise. His desce nda nts. Oouri shing in Ara - bia, become Mu slims; whereas those o f Isaac. who re mained in Pal es tine, were He brews and became Jews.
The Seal of the Prophe,.
Following Ishmael's lin e in Arabi a. we come in th e latt c r half o f th e sixth ce ntu ry A.D. to Muhammad, th e proph e t through whom isl a m reached iI's d efinitive fonn . Muslims believe. There had hcen authe n- ti c prop he ts of Cad before him. but he was tll e ir c ulminati o n; h e nce he is call ed "The Seal o f til e Proph ets." No valid prophets will fol- low him .
nle \\-'Orld into whic h Muh amm ad WJ.S born is d esc ribed by sub. sC<lu e nt Mu slims in a single ,",'Ord : ign o ran t. Life und e r th e con d i- tions of the d esert had neve r been serene Peop le fe lt almos t 110 obligatio n to anyo ne o utside theil" tribes. Scarcity of material goods made brigandage a regional institution and the proof of viri lity. In the sixth ce ntu ry political deadlock and th e collapse o f th e magistrJ.te in the le ading city of Mecca aggrava ted this generall y c haotic situ atio n. Drunke n orgies were comm onp lace. and th e g'.mli ng impulse un co n- tro ll ed. The prevai li ng re ligion watched from the si de lin es. provid ing no check. Bes t d escribed as an animisti c polytlleism, it peopled the san d y wastes with beastly sprites called jim. or d e mons. Fantastic pcrsollifica li ons of dese rt terrors. th ey in spired neith e r exalted se nti4 me nts nor mor.ll restraint. Co nditions ge ne ral ly co uld h ardly h ave bee n bette r cal cu lated to produce a smolde ring unde rc ur ren t. whi ch e rupted in sudde n affrays and blood feuds. so me of which exte nded for half a ce nl.ury. nle tim es called for a delivere r.
He was born into the lea ding tribe of Mecca, th e Koreis h, in approximately A . D . 570, and was nam e d Muhammad, "hi ghl y
u.4 T il E WORLD'S RELIG IONS
praised." which name has since been borne by more male ch ildren than any other in the world. Ilis early life W'dS cradled in traged y. for hi s father died II few da)'!! before he was born. hi s moth e r when he wus six, and his grandr.'1ther, who cared for him after hi s moth e r's d ea th , when he was eight. Thereafter he W'.lS adopted into hi s uncl e's hom e. Thoug h th e lau e r's declining fortunes forced the young orphan to ",,.o rk hard minding his uncl e's Oocks. he was warmly received by his new family, TIle angels of Cod, we are told , had opened Muhammad's heart and filled it with lig ht.
TIl e description epitomizes hi s earl y characler as this comes down to us by tradition. Pure· hearted and beloved in his ci rcle. he was. il is said. of swee t IUldgelltIe disposition. I lis bereavemcnts hav· ing made him sens iti ve to human suffering in every form , he \NIlS ah. .. '3YS read y to help others. especiall y the poor and the weak. llis se nse of honor, duty, and fidelity won him , as he grew olde r, th e hig h and enviable titles of "TIl e True." "TIl e Upright.- "TIl e Trustwo rthy One." Ye l despite hi s co ncern for others, he remained removed from them in outlook and ways. isolated in a co rrupt and degen e rate soci· ety. As he grew from childhood to youth and from youth to manhood , the lawl ess strife of his co ntemporari es. the repeated outbursts of pointless quarrels among tribes frequenting the Meccan fairs. and the generaJ immoraJily and cynicism ofllis day combined 10 produ ce ill the prophet·to-be a reaction of horror and disgust. Sile ntl y. brood· ingly, his thoughts were turning inward ,
Upon reaching maturity he took lip th e caravan busin ess. and at tIl e age o f twenty· fi ve e nte red tIle service of a .... 'Calthy widow nam e d Khadija . His prude nce and integrity impressed her greatly. a nd gradually their relation d eepe ned into affection, the n love. Though she ,",~dS fifteen years his senior, they ,",'Cre married and tile mat c h proved happy in every respect. During a long. desolate period that lay ahead , in wllich no one would believe in him, not even himself. Khadija W'd.S to remain steadfastly by his side. consoling him and tending hope's thin flam e. "Cod," tn&dition was to record . "comforted him tIlrough he r, for sh e made his burde n light."
FollOWing his marriage .... 'Cre fifteen years of prepar.1tion be· fore his ministry was to begin. A mounto'lin on the outskirts of Mecca, known as Mount I-lira, contained a cave, and Muhammad. needing solitude. begrul to frecluent it. Peering into th e myste ries
ISI..AM us
of good and eYiI. unable to accept the crud eness. superstition. and fratricide that were accepted as no rmal , "this great fiery heart, see thing. Simmering like a great furnace of tllOughts.," was reaching out for Cod.~
The desertjirlll were irrel evant to this quest. but one deity was not. Named Allall ,5 he was worshiped by the Meccans not as th e onl y Cod but as an impressive olle non ethe less, Crea tor, supreme provider, and determiner o f human d esti ny, he was capable o finsp ir· iug authentic religious feeling and genuine devotion. Certain COli· le mplatives of tile time. c alled II(Hli/lJ, worshiped AUall exclus ively, and Muhammad was one of their numbe r. Through vigils. oOen last· ing the entire nig ht. Allall's reality became for Muhanunad increas- ingly evident and a",'Csome. Fearful and ..... 'Ollderful . real as lire. real as death, real as th e un iverse be had ordained, Allah (Muha mmad was co nvinced) W'dS far greater than his cou ntryme n supposed. This Cod. whose majesty overflowed a desert cave to fill all heaven and e arth , was surely nol a god or even tIle greatest of gods. lie was what his uame lite rally claimed: li e was the Cod, One and only, One without rivul. Soon from this mountain cave was to sound th e greatest phrase of the Arabi c language; th e deep, electrifying cry that WdS to raJly a people and explode Ihe ir p<J\\'Cr to th e limits of the known world: LtJ illJJw illlJ 11lJhl There is no god but Codl
But first tile prophe t must receive, around 610, his commission. Graduall y, as Muhammad's vis its tu the eave became moro compel. ling. lhe command thai he later saw as pred es tined look form , It was the same co mmand that had rallen earlier on Abraham , Moses. Samuel, lsaiall , and Jesus. Wherever, whenever. tIlis call co mes, its fonn may differ but its essence is th e same. A vo ice fall s from heaven sayi ng, "You are th e appointed one." On th e Night of Power, as a strange peace pervaded c reation and allnalure was turned toward its Lord, in the middle of that n ight, say th e Muslims. th e Book W'J.S opened to a ready soul. Some add that on the anniversary of that Night it is possible to hear tlJe grass grow and the trees speak , and that those who do so become saints or sages. for Oll the annual return of that Night one can see through the fingers of Cod.'
Oll that first Night or Power, as Muluunmad lay on the fioaroftlle cave, his mind locked in deepest contemp lation. tIlere came to him un angel in the form of a man. Th e angel said to him : "Proclaiml~l
216 TIlE WORLD'S Rt: I.IGIONS
and he said: MI am not a proclaime r"; wh e re upon , as Muhammad was him selr to report, Mthe Angel took me and whelmed me ill his embrace ulltil he had reached the limit or my endurance. Then he released me and said again. 'Proclaim !' Again I said: ' I am not a proclaimer: an d again he wh e lmed me in his embrAce. When again he had reached the limit or my e nduran ce he said 'Proclai ml: a nd when I agai n protcsted, he whe lmed me ror a third tim e, this time saying:
Proclaim in tile ,wme of your Lord who created! Created marl from a clot of b/OO(1. Proclaim: Your Lorel is tile Most Cenerous, WIlD teaches by tile pen ; Teaches man wlwt lie knew Plot." (Kor.m 96:1-3)
Arousing rrom h is tran ce. Muhammad relt as irthe words he had he ard had bee n brand(.>(1 on hi s sou!. Terrified, he rushed home and rell into paroxysms, Coming to him selr, he told Khadija that he had become eithcr a prophet or Mone possessed-mad ,M At first she resiste<1 this disjunction, but on heari ng his ru ll slory she became his first co nvert - which, Muslim s o ne n remark , in itself speaks well ror his authenticity, ror ir anyon e understa nds a man's tru e characle r it is his wire. MRejoice. 0 dear hu sba nd , and be or good chee r," she said, "Yo u will be the Prophet or thi s peop le."
We can imagine the spiritual anguish. the menta! doubts, the waves or misgivings that rolJov.'Cd in the wake or the experien(.'t!. Was the \loice really Cod's? Would it come again? Above all , what would it require?
It retumed repeatedly. an d its command was always the same- to proclaim , MO thou. inwrapped in thy mantle. arise and wam, and gloriry thy Lord," Muh ammad's lire was no more his own, From that time rorth it was given to God and to humanity. preaching with unswerving purpose in the race or re le ntless persecution , insult. and outrolgc, th e words that Cod was to transmit ror tv.'Cnty-three years.
The col1tent or the revelation will be reserved for laler sections. I·Je re we nced on ly speak or th e response it drew and note that its appeal throughout was to human rcason as vecto red by re lig iolls d iscernment .
ISLAM '" In an age c harged with superna turalism, when miracles were
accepted as the stoc k-ill -trade or the most ordinary saint, Muham- mad rerused to pander to human c redulit y, To miracle-hungry ido laters seeki ng signs and portents, he cut the issue clean: Mead has not sent me to .... ,ork .... ,onders; He has sent me to preach to you. My Lord; be praised! Am I more than a man sent as an apostle?" s From first to last he resisted C\.'Cry impulse to inflate his own image. " Incvcr said that Cod's treasures are in my hand, th at I knew the hidden things. or that I was an angel , I am on lya preacher or Cod 's .... ,o rds, the bringer o r Cod's message to mankind _'" If signs be sought. let them be not o r Muhammad's greatness but orCod's, and ror th ese one need only open one's eyes. The heavenly bodies holding their swirt, silent course in th e vault or heaven, the incredible order or the universe, th e rain Ilmt ralls to relieve the parched earth , palms bending with goldcn rruit , ships that glide across the sea.~ laden with goodness- ca n these be the handiwork or gods or sto ne? What rools to cry ror signs when creation tokens nolliing e lse! In an age or c redulity, M1Ihammad taught respect ror tllC wor ld's incontrovertible o rd e r, a respect that wa.~ to bring Muslims to science berore it did C hri stia ns. AI)art rrom his nocturnal a. .. cent through th e heave ns, which will be mc ntiollt..a, he claimed only olle miracl e, that or the Koran itselr, That he with his (JINn resources cou ld have produced such truth - this was the one naturalistic hypothesis he co uld not accept.
As ror the reaction to his message, it was (ror all but a rew) vio- le ntly hostile. 111e reasons ror Ule hostility can be reduced to lhree: (I) Its un comprom ising monotheism threatened polytheistic beliers and the consi derable revenue that was comi ng to Mecca rrom pil- g rimages to its 360 shrines (one ror every day orthe lun ar year); (2) its moral teachi ngs demanded an end to the lice ntiousness ulat citizens cl ung to; and (3) its social content challe nged an unjust order. In a society riven with class distinctions, the new Prophet was preaching a message Ulat was intensely democrAtic. He ..... as insisting that ill the sight or his Lord all people were C<lual.
As such a teaching suited ne ither their tastes nor lheirprivilcges, the Meccan le aders were detenninoo to have none or it . They began their nUnck with ridicule: pinpricks or laughter, petty insults, and hoots or d e rision , When these prove d ineffecti ve, th e ir words turned uglier-to abuse, calu mny, vilification, and the n overt threats, Wh en
2!8 TIlE WORUYS IlEUGIONS
these too failed, they resorted to open persecution. TIleY covered Muhammad and hi s followers with dirt and filth as they were praying. They pelted them wi th ston es, beat the m with sli c ks, threw them in prison, and tried to starve them out by refusing to sell to tll e m. To no avai l; persecution onl y steeled th e will of Muhammad's followers. -Never si nce th e days when primitive C hristianity startled the wo rl d from its sleep, - wrote a scholar whose words assu me added \\.'eight because he was on the whole .a ~'C.re cri tic of Islam, 1md men seen the like aro using of spiriluallife-of faith that suffers sacrifices." lo Muhammad himself set th e patte Ol for tlleir fid elity. Un de r til e most perilous of circumstances, he continued to throw heart and soul inl"o hi s preaching, adjuring liste ners wherever he co uld fi nd the m 10 abandon their evil ways and prepare for the day of reckoning.
At first the odds were so heavily agai nst him that he made few converts; tluee long years of heartbrea king effort yielded less than forty. But hi s e ne mies co ul d do nothing to foreve r seal the hearts of th e Meccan.s agai l1 st hi s words. Slowly but stead il y, people of e nergy. talent, and ..... orth became convinced of til e truth of ltis message until, by tll e end of a decade, 5e\ICraJ hundred fam ilies were acclai ming him as Cod's authen ti c spokes man.
Tile Migration That Leei to Victory
Uy this tim e Ule Meccan nobili ty was alarmed. Wh at had begun as a pre te ntious prophetic clai m on th e part of a half-crazed ca mel dri ve r had tumed illto a se ri ous revo lutionary movement that was threate n- ing their very existence. Tiley were de te rm ined to rid th e mselves of th e trouble make r for good.
As he faced this severest c risis of his caree r, Muham mad \\"3Ssud- deilly wai ted on by a de legation of th e leadi ng ci ti7.cns of Ya thrib, a city 280 miles to Mecca's north. Th roug h I)ilgri ms and other visitors to Mecca, Muhammad's teachings had won a finn hold in )athrib. The cit y was faci ng inte rnal rivalries that put it in need of a strong leader from wi th out, an d Muhammad looked like th e man . Afte r rece iving a delegation's pledge th at t.hey would worship Allah only, that tll ey would observe tllC prece pts of Islam , and that tll ey wou ld obey its prophet in all that W'dS right and de fe nd him a nd hi s adh e r- e nt s as tJl ey wou ld th eir wo me n and c hildre n, Muhamm ad rece ived a sign from Cod to accept tll C c harge. About seventy families
ISLAM
preceded him. When the Meccan leaders got wind of the exodus they did everything in Iheirpower to prevent his going; but, togeth e r with his close compa nion Abu Bakr, he eluded tJl eir watch and set out for Yathrib, laking refuge on th e way in a crevice south ohhe city. Ilorsemen scou ring tll e cou ntrysid e ca me so close to discovering them that Muhammad 's companio n was muve<l to despair. "We are onl y two.," he munnured. - No, we are three," Muhammad answered, "for God is with us." The Koran a~ ... ees. - I-Ie was with the m; it observes, for th ey were not discove red. After th ree days, when the searc h had slackened, they managed to procure two ca mels and make tJl eir hal"Mdolis way by unfrequen ted paths to th e ci ty of their destination.
T he year was 622. The migration , known in Arabi c as the lIijra, is regarded by Mus lims as th e turning poin t in wor ld history and is the year from whi ch they date their calendar. Yathrib SOOIl ca me to be known as Medinat al-Na bi, tJle Ci ty of til e Prophe t, and th e n by con- tractio n simply to Medina, - th e city."
From the mom e nt of llis arrival at Medina, Muhammad assumed a di ffe re nt role. From prophecy he was pressed into administration. The despised preache r became a maste rful politician; the prophet was transformed into statesman. We see him as the mas ter not merely of tll e hearts of a ha ndful of devo tees but of tll e collective life of a ci ty, its judge and general as well as its teacher.
Even his detmctors co ncede that Il e played his new ro le bri l- lian tl y. Faced with problems of exlmordi nary complexit y, he proved to be a remarkable sta tes man . As th e supreme magistrute, he con- tinued to lead as unpretentious a life as Il e had in the days of his obscurity. He lived in an ordinary clay house, milked his own goals, and was access ible day and night to th e humbl est in his co mmunity. Ofte n see n me nding hi s own clothes. "no emperor witll hi s tiaras was obeyed as thi s man in a cloak of hi s own c1outing.~" Cod, say Mus- lim hi storian s. pu t before him th e key to th e treas ures of thi s wo rld, but he refused it.
Tradition depi cts his admi nistrati on as an ideal ble nd of justice and mercy. As chief of state and trus tee of the life and li berty of his people, he exercist.'Ci the justice necessary for order, meting ou t punishme nt to those who were gui lty. When th e injury was tow.U"d himself, 011 th e othe r ha nd , he was ge ntl e and merCiful even to his e ne mi es. In all. the Medincse found him a mast e r whom it W'olS as
230 Til E WORL.D·S RELIGIONS
difficu lt not to love as not to obey . .... or he had, as one biograp he r has written, "the gill of illnucllci ug IlH:!II, and he had the lIobility only to in flue nce for the good." ll
For th e re main ing hm years of hi s life, his personal hi story merged wi lh lh al of th e Medi nese comm onweal th of whic h he was th e ce nte r. Exercising superb statecraft, he weld ed the fi ve he te r· ogeneous and co nfl icting tribes oflhe city, th ree of whic h we re Jew· ish , into an orderly co nfederation. The task was not an easy one, but in th e e nd he succeeded in aW.lke nin g in th e citi ze ns a spi rit of coope ration unknown in the city's hi slOry. !-lis reputati on spread and people begau to {l ock frolll every pari of Arabia to see th e Illall who had wrought this "miracle."
There followed th e struggle with the Mcccans fo r Lhe mind of Arabia as a who le. In the second year of the Hijm Lh e Medinese wo n a spectac ular victory O\'Cr a Meccan army many tim es large r, and they inte rpreted the vic tory as a clear sign thai th e angels of heave n we re battling 0 11 their sid e. The followi ng year, however, witnessed a reve r· sal during whi ch Muh am mad himself was wo unded. The Mecca ns did not follow up th eir victory until two years laLer, whe n th ey laid siege to Med ina in a last desperate effort to force the Mu slims to ca pi tu late. The fail ure of this effort turned the tide permane ntl y in Muhammad's favo r; and within th ree years -eight years aft e r ltis Mibtratio n from Mecca- he who had le ft as a fugitive retu rned as conquero r. The ci ty that had treated him cruell y now lay at hi s feet, with hi s former persec ut ors at his mercy. TypicaJly, howeve r, he did not press his victory. In th e hour of hi s triumph the past was forgive n. Making his way to th e famous Ka'ba. a cubi cal te mpl e (said to have bee n built by Abraham ) that Muhammad rededica ted to Allah a nd adop ted as Islam's focu s, he accepted the virtual mass conversio n of th e ci ty, Himself, he re turned to Medina.
lWo years late r, in 11. .0, 632 (10 II .H ., Afte r the Hijm ). Muh amm ad di ed with vi rtuall y all of Ambia under his control. With all the power of armi es and police, no oth e r Arab had ever succeeded ill uniting his cou ntrym e n as he had. Before th e centu ry closed his followers had conquered Armenia, Persia, Syria. Pales tine, Iraq, North Afri ca, and Spain. and had c rossed th e Pyre oees into France. But for their defea t by Charl es Martel in the Battle of Tours in 733, th e e ntire Wes te rn wor ld might today be Muslim. Within a brief span of mortal life, Muhammad had "called forth out of unpromising mate ri al a nation
ISI..AM 231
never united before, ill a country th at was hithe rto but ageogr.:lphica1 expression; es tabli shed a re lig ion which in vas t areas superseded Christianit y and Judaism and s till claims the adhere nce of a good ly portion of th e hum an race; ancll aid Ule bas i~ of an el~pi re tha~ was soo n to e mbrace wit hi n its far·[lung houndanes UIC fairest prOVinces of the the n civili1.ed \o\.'Orld.- 13
In Tile 100: A HlJllking of the Most Injluential Persons in lIistcry, Michael Hart places Muhammad first. lIis "unparaJleled combina· tion of secular and religio us inOu e nce entitles Muhammad to be co n· sid e red th e mos t influe ntial single fi gure in hum an history: Hart writ es. 14 Tile ex plallatioll thai Mu slims ~rjve for that ve rdict is sim- ple. The e ntire wo rk , th ey say, W'olS th e wo rk of Cod.
The Standing Miracle The ble nd of admiration, respe<: t, a nd affection th at th e Muslim feels fo r Muh ammad is an impressive fac t of history. They sec him as a man who e K]>c ri e nced life in exce ptional range. Not onl y W'olS he a she p· herd , me rc hant. he nnit. exil e. soldie r, lawmaker, prophe t· pries t- king, and mys ti c: he was also an orpha n, for many years th e husband of one wife mu ch older than himself. 8. many times bereaved father, a widower, aJld fin all y th e husband of many wives. sume mu ch younge r than himself. In all of th ese ro les he was exemplary. Mllilis is in til e minds of Muslims as th ey add to th e me nti on of hi s name Ul e be nedi ction , "Blessings and l)Cuce be upon him ." Even so, th ey neve r mistake hjm fo r th e earthl y cente r of their faith . That placc is reserved for the bi ble of Islam , th e Kord n.
LiteraJl y, th e word al--qur 'cm in Arabi c (a nd he nce "koran,,,) means a recitation . Fulfilling th at purpose, th e Koran is pe rh aps th e most recited (as well as read) book in th e world. Certain ly, it is the world 's most me morized book, and possibl y th e onc that exerts the most influence 0 11 th ose who read it. So great W'olS Muhammad 's regard for its co nte nts that (as we have see n) he conside red it tile ouly majo r miracl e Cod worked th ro ugh him -Cod's ~standing miracle,- as he called it . That he himself, unsc hooled to the e xte nt that he was un le ttered (llmmi) and could barely write hi s name, cou ld have pro- duced a book th at provid es the ground plan of all knowk-dge and at lhe same tim e is grammaticall y pe rfect and without poeti c pee r - thi s, Muhammad, and with him all Muslims, arc co nvi nced defies
231 TilE WO Rl.D·S IIELIGIONS
beliCf. lie put the poi nt in a rheto ri cal question: " Do )''O U as k for a greate r miracle th an this. 0 un beli eving peopl e, than to have yo ur language chosen as the language of that inco mparable Book, olle piece of which puts all you r go lde n poetry to shame?"'
Fo ur-fifths the le ngth of the New Testamen t, the Koran is divided inlo U4 chap te rs or 8urolu, whic h (with the exceptio n of the short first chapter th at figures in th e Mus lim's daily prayers) are ananged in o rde r of decreasi ng length. Thus Surah T""O has 286 verses, Surah TIl ree has 200, d~lIto 5urah One Hundred Fo urtee n, whic h has on ly six.
Mu slims tend to read the Koran Iiterdl ly. TIl ey conside r il th e earthl y facsi mil e of an Uncreated Koran in almost exactl y th e way that C hri st ians co nsider Jesus to have been th e human incarnation of Cod. The comparisol1 that reads. "Ir Chri st is Cod incarnate, the Korall is Cod inlibriate~ (from fiber. Latin for book) is ine legant but not inaccunlte. Th e created Koron is th e insmntiation, in le tters and so unds. of th e Koran's limitlcss essence in its Unc rea ted Form . Not thai th ere are two Korans, of co urse. Ba th er. th e crea ted Koran is th e fomlal crys talli :r.a Uon of th e infinite reality of til e Unc reated Koran. T .... ,o levels of reality are openlti ve here. 11le re is th e Di vin e Reality of th e Uncreated Koran. and tll efe is th e earthl y reality of til e creal(.-d Koran. Whe n the created Koran is said to he a miracl e, th e miraclc referred to is th e presence of the Uncreated Koran within tile let ters and sou mis of its created (and th erefore necessarily in certain ways ci rc um scribed) manifestation .
The wo rds of the Koran came to Muhammad in manageab le seg. ments over twent y- three )'eaJ"S through voices tl13t see med at first to vary and sometimes soun ded like .. th e rt!\:emera ting of be ll s. ~ but which gradunllycon dc nsed into a si ng le voice that identified itself as Cabriel's. Muhammad had no co ntro l over til e Dow of the revelation: it descended on him ind epe nde nt of his wi ll . Wh e n it arrived he was changed into a special state that was ex te mnll y disce mibl e. Both his appearance and th e sound of his voice would c hange He repo rted thllithe words assaulted him as if they were solid a nd heavy: "For We shall c harge th ee with a word of weight" (73:5; all such references in this chapte r are to sura}, and verse[sJ in th e Koran). Oncc they descended while he W"olS riding a ca mel. Th e anima} sought vain ly to suppo rt til e added weight by adjusting its legs. By th e time th e reve- lation cea.~ed, its bell y was pressed agaillst til e earth and its legs
ISI ...... M
sp layed out. Th e words that Muhamm ad exclai med in tllCSC ofte n trance- like sta tes were me morized by his followers and recorded o n bones, bark , leaves. and scraps of parchment, wi th Cod preservi ng their accuracy throug hout.
TIl e Koran co ntinues til e Old and New Testamenls. Cod's earli e r rt:\'elations, and presents itself as their c ulminati on: '''We made a cov- e nant of old with th e C hildren of Israel [andl yo u have nothing of gu idance until you observe the Torah an d the Gospel" (5: 70. 68). TIlis entitles Jews and Ch ristians to be included with Muslims as "Peop le of the 8ook.~ (Because the co ntext of the koran ic revelation is the Middle East, re ligions of o the r lands are not mentioned, but the ir existen ce is implied and in princi ple validated. as in th e following verses: ~Tu eve ry people we have sent a messenger ... , [Some] We Ilave mentioned to you , and [somel we have not mentio ne d to YOUR [10:47, 4:1641). Neverthe less. Muslims regard th e Old and New Thsta- me n ts as sharing two defects from which th e Koran is free. For ci r- c um stantial reaso ns th ey record only portions of Truth. Second, the Jewish and Christian Bibles were partiall y co rrupt ed in transmission, n fac t that explains the occasio nal di screpancies that occur bcl .... :een their accounts and paralle l o nes in til e Koran . Exe mptio n from these two limitati ons makes the Koran th e fin al and infallible revelation of Cod's win . Its seco nd c hapte r says explic itl y: "This Is the Scrip tu re whereof th ere is nO doubt. ~
From th e ou tsid e things look otllCrwise, for from without the Koran is all but im pe ne trabl e. No o ne has ever c url ed up o n a rainy weekend to read til e Koran . Carlyle confessed th at it was "as toilso me reading as I ever unde rtook; a wearisome, co nfused jumble, cru d e, inco ndile. Nothing but a sense of dut y could carry any European through til e Ko ran _" Sir Edward Cibbon said muc h th e sa me: "l1l e Europea n will peruse with impatience its en dless incoherent rh ap- sody of fable and precept, and decl ama ti on, whi ch seldo m exci tes a se ntiment or Illl idea, which somet im es craw ls in th e du st, a nd is sometimes los l in the c1ouds.~L:I How are we 10 und ers tand the dis- crepancy of th e Koran as read from within and from wi thout ?
Th e language in whic h it was proc laimed, Arabi c. provides an initial clue. "No people in the world,~ writes Philip Hit ti. "are so moved by th e word , spoken or written, a.~ th e Arabs. Il ardl y all Y lan- guage seems capable of exercising over th e minds of its users such irres istibl e inlluence as Arabic." Crowds in Cairo. Damascus. or
!34 TilE WOltLO'S RELICIONS
Baghdad ca n be stirred to the highest e moti onal pitc h by sta te. mell ts that. whe n translated, see m ba.nal . The rh ythm , melodic cade nce. ul e rhyme produce a powerful hypnotic efrect. Thus the power of th e koranic reve lation li es not only in th e literal meaning of its words bu t also ill th e lan,!,'Uage in whic h this meaning incorpo. mted, including its soun d. TIle Koran was from the first a vocal phe nom e non; we re me mbc r that we are to ~ recj(e" in th e name or th e Lordi Because cont e nt an d co ntaine r are here inseparabl y rused, transla tions cannot possibly COllvey the emotion, the rervor, and the mystery that the Koran holds in Ule origi na1. This is why. in sharp co ntrast to C hristians, who have tran slated th ei r Dib le into every known sCri pt. Muslims have preferrt..>d to teach others the lun . guage in whic h they believe God spoke finall y with ill co mparab le rorce and direcln ess. lIl
Langu age, hov."e\'e r, is not th e oll ly barrie r th e Kor.m presents to outsiders. ror in cont e nt too it is like no oth e r re ligious text. Unlike Ul e Upani shads, it is not exp li citl y me tap hysic al . It docs not ground its theology in dramati c narratives as th e Indian epics do. nor in hi s- tori cal ones as do th e l-I e breoN sc riptures; nor is God revealed in human ronn as in th e Gospe ls and th e Blltlgaoad-Cita . Confining ourselves to th e Semitic sCri ptures, ",'0 ca n say that whereas the Old and New Tes taments are directl y hi stOri cal and indirectly doctrinal, th e Koran is direc Uy doc tri nal and indirec tl y histo ri cal. Because th e {)\'erwhe lmi ug thrust or the Koran is to proc laim th e unity, omn ipo- tcnce, omn iscie nce, and me rcy orCoo -and co rrelatively th e total dc pe nde nce or hu man lire upon him- hi stOrical racts are in its case me rely re rerence points that have scarcely any interes t in th e m- selves. Th is explains wh y th e prophets are cited witJl out any chrono- logical ord er; why histo ri cal occ urre nces are so meti mes recoullted so elJipticaily as to be unintelligib le witJlOut co mm e ntn ri es; and why the biblical stories U}atth e Koran rerers to are prese nted in a n unex- pec ted , abbreviated, and dry mann er. They are stripped or UlCir e pic c haracte r and inserted as didac ti c examples or th e infinitely vario us things Ulat declare Goo's praise. Wh e n th e Lord-servant relati ons hi p is the essen tial point to get across, all else is bUI comm e ntary and allu sion.
Pe rh al)S we shall be less inclined to rault tJle Koran ror tJl e stra nge face it prese nts to rore igne rs ir we note that rorcign scriptu res prese nt th ei r own proble ms to Muslims. 10 speak onl y or th e Old an d
ISLAM !l5
New Testaments, Musli ms express disappointment in fi nding th ai th ose texts do nol take tJl e roml or Divi ne speech and merely report th ings that happened. In th e Koran Cod speaks In the first person. Allall describes himself aud ma kes known hi s laws.. The Muslim is thererore inclined to co nside r each individual se nte nce or th e Holy Book as a separa te reve lation and to experience th e words th e m- selYes, eve n the ir sou nds, as a means or grace. ~The Qu r'an docs not document what is oth er than itself. It Is not about the truth: II is th e Imth."n By contrast th e Jewis h and Christian Bibles seem more dis- tant rrom Cod ror placing religjo us meaning in reports or even ts ins tead or Cod's direct pronounce me nts.
The KOnin's di rect delivery crea tes, ror Ul e reade r. a final prob- lem that in oth e r sc riptures is eased by greater usc or narr..I.ti ve and myth. One di scerning co mm e nta tor a u the Koran puts th is point as rollows: "The seemillg inco herence or the tex t has its cause in th e inco mm e nsurable disproportio n between th e Spiri t [U li c rea ted Koran] and th e limited resources or human language. It is as though th e poverty·stricke n coagula tio n whi ch is th e language or mortal man were unde r the ro rm idable press ure orUle Heavenl y Word bro- ken iolo a thousa nd rragme nts. or as irGod in ord e r to express Ii th ou· sand trutJl s, had bul a doze n words at hi s co mmand a nd so was co mpelled to make use or allusions heavy with meaning, or ellipses, ab ridgeme nts and symboli cal synthcses."'8
Putting compariso ns behind us, it is imposs ible to ovcrcmpha- si7.e th e cen tral positio n or Ihe Koran in Ul e elaboration or allY Islamic doc trine. With large portions memorized in child hood , it regul ates th e inte rp reta ti on and evaluation or every eve nt. It is a me morandum ror th e raithful. a re mind e r ror dail y dOings, and n repository or revealed trutJl . II is a manual or definition s and guaran- tees, and at tJl e sa me time a ro.'\d map ror th e wi ll . Finally. it Is a col- lectio n or maxims to meditate on in priva te, deepening e ndl essly one's se nse or th e divi ne glory. "Pe rfect is th e Word or your Lord in Imth and justicc~ (6:11 5).
Basic Theological Concepts
With II rew strikin g exceptions, whi ch will be noted. the basic limo- logical concepts or Isla.m are virt uall y idenlicaJ with those or Jud aism
236 TilE WORLO'S RELICIONS
and Christianity, its fo re runn ers. We shall co nfin e ou r attention in this sectio n to four tha t are th e most important: Cod, C rea ti on, the Iluman Self, and the Day of Judgme nt .
As in the oth er histori cal religi ons, everything in Islam ce nters on its re li gious Ultimatt; Coo. Cod is immaterial and th e refore invisi - bl e. For th e Arabs th is cas t no doubt on hi s rea lity, for th ey never succumbed to the te mptation -sore ly reinforced by modern materi- alistic attitudes-to regard on ly th e visible as th e real; one of th e tributes the Koran pays to Muhammad is that "he did no t begrudge th e Unseen. M As dese rt dwellers, th e no tion of invi si ble hands thai drove th e blasts tllat swept the desert and fonned the d ecep ti ve mirages that lu red the traveler to his destruction was always with th e m,
Thus the Koran did not introdu ce th e Arab to th e un see n world of spirit , nor even to mon oth e ism , since ce rtain sensitive souls known as hafiiJs had already moved to tllat position before Muhammad. Its illJl OVdtion was to re move idols from tllIi:: re ligious scene and focus the divi ne in a single invis ibl e Cod for everyo ne. It is in thi s sense that th e indelible co ntributi on of Islam to Arabic re ligion Wd..S mo noth e ism .
We mu st immediate ly add that Muslims see mon otll e ism as Islam's co ntribution not sim ply to th e Arabs but to re lig ion in its e ntire ty. Hinduism's prolific images are take n as proof that it never arri ved at th e " 'Ors hip of th e sing le Cod, Judai sm was correc tl y instruc ted through its Sliema - "He ar 0 Israel , th e LQrd our Cod, the Lord is OneR_but its teac bings were co nfined to the peop le of lsmel. Christians. for their part, compromised th e ir mo noth eism by d e ifying C hrist. Islam honors Jesus as a proph e t and accept's his vir· brill birth; Adam's and Je!;us' so uls are the on ly two that Cod crea ted directly. I' Th e Koran drJ.W5 th e lin e at th e doctrin e of tile In carna· tion and th e Thnil'y, howeve r, see ing th ese as inve ntion s that blur til e Divine/human distinction. In til e ",'Ords of th e Koran: "Th ey say tile Cod of mercy has begoHen a so n. Now have yo u uttered a grievous thing .... II is not proper for God to have c hildre n- (3: 78, 19:93), Mu slim s lire not fond of parental images for Goo. even when emp loyed metaphori cally. To speak of human beings as "Cod's c hil - dren
M
casts Cod ill too human a mod e. It is anthropomorphic. Turning to the korani c d epiction of Cod's nature, th e Ilrst thing
that strikes us is its awesomeness, its fear-i nspiring power. Ve rse 7:143 co ntain s th e korani c account o f Moses' request to see Cod.
ISLAM 237
Wh e n Cod showed himself instead to a neighboring mountain, tllereby "sending it crashing down , Moses fe ll dO'Nn senseless,-so
Power of this order-it is infinite, fo r God is o mnipote nt-i nspires fear, and it is fair to suy that Muslim s fear Allah , Thi s. however, is not cring ing fear in the face or a capricious tyrJ.nt. Rather, Muslims argue, it is th e only appropriate emotion-uny otlle r invol ves denial in the technical, psychologicaJ se nse of th e wo rd -when human be ings face up to th e magnitud e of the co nseque nces that follow from being on the right or wrong side of an unco mpromisingl y moral universe; one, moreover. in which beliefs and co nvic tion s are deci- sive because th ey ge nerat e actions. Ir nihilism is the diss ipation of difference, a kind of moral leveling-ou t til rough e ntropy, Allah's uni - verse is its exact opposite. Cood and evil malte r. Choices have co nse- quences. and to disregard them would be as disas trou s as climbing a mountain blindfolded. Be lier ill tile Koran occupies th e decisive place it does because it is th e analogue to a mountain eer's assess· ment of Moun I Everest: Its maj esty is evident, but so are the dangers it presents. Mi stakes could be disastrous. Korani c images of iJ eaven and he ll are pressed into full service here; but once we co me to terms with th e fea r that life's inbuilt precariousn ess inspires, o th e r lesser fears subside. The second, supporting root of th e word islam is peace.
It is important to remember this last point. beca use th e hol y dread that Allall in spires led early Western stude nts of til e Koran to think that it outsLrips Cod's me rcy, Allah was seen to be a ste rn and wrathfuljudgt; domineering and ruthless. This is a clear mi sreading; Coo's co mpas sion and mercy are c ited L92 times in th e Koran , as agai nst 17 refe re nces 1'0 his wrath and vengeance. He who is Lord of the worlds is also
the Holy, the Peaceful, tile Faitliflll, the Guardian over His ser- oonts, tile Shelterer of tile orphan, tile Guide of the erring. tlte Deli verer from every a.Dliction, the Friend of the bereaved, tile Consoler of tile aJIlicteJ; in His hand is good, and He is the (!pl8r- ous Lord, the gracious, tile Jloorer, the Near-at- Iland, the Com. ... passiofJa te, the MerciJul, tlte Very-forgiving, whose love for man i.J more tcnder Own IIwt oj the mother·hird for her young. II
Thanks to Allah's mercy, th e wo rld of the Koran is finall y a world of joy. There is air, and sun , and co nlldence-not only in ultimate jus· ti ce hut also in help along the way and pardon for th e conlrite.
,
238 T il E WO RI.O'S RE I.I G IONS
By the noonday brightness, mid by tile n ight when it darkens, you r Lord has not fOnJa ken you, neither has He been du,>l.easetl, SUITly the lIereafter sllOlI be better for you than tlte IHlSt; a,ld in the end lie will be IXJlmteofl.s to you. and you will be satisfied. Did lie not find you an orpllO n, a,id give you a ' IOrlte; erring. a,1d gu ided yOU; ' leedy, and enriched you? (93 :1-8)
Stand ing benea th Cod's grac ious s kies. the Muslim ca n at any mome nt lin heart a nd so ul directl y in to the divi ne prese nce. there to rece ive bo th stre ngth a nd guidance ror liIe's troubled course. The access is ope n beca use, th ough til e hum an and th e di vi ne are infinitely diffc rent, no barrie r se para tes the m.
Is fie 1101 clcser tlian the vei n of your rleck? l ou "eed lIOt ra ise your voice, Jor lie k",ows the secret whis7Jer, and what is yet more Iluiden . ... lie Imows what is j n tile kmd arid ill the sea; '10 leaJ fillls but He knows it; ' lOr is there (I grain i'l tlte dark,less "ntler the emih , rlQr fI thins. I,tretm or sere, hut it is recorded. (6:12, 59)
From God we can turn to C reation as Our second th eo logi caJ conccpt. The Koran abounds in lyri caJ desc ripti ons or th e na tural world. I-Ic re, though, th e point is that that world is nol prese nted as e me rging rrolll the di vin e by so me process or inbuih e manati on, as Hindu texts suggest. It .... as created by a deliberate act or All ah's will : --I Ie has crea ted the heavens and th e earthM (1 6:3). This raet carri es two im po rt an t co nsequ e nces. Fi rs t, th e wo rld or matter is both real aud important. Ilere in li es one of th e sou rces of Islamic scie nce. whic h during Eu ropc's Dark Ages nourished as nowhere else on earth . Second, being the han diwork or Allah , who is perrect in both goodn ess a nd po ..... er, th e mate riaJ world must likewise be good. Myou do not see in th e c rea ti on or th e All -me rcirul a ny imperfection. Return yo ur gaze. ... It co mes bac k to you dazziedM (67: 4). Here we meet a confide nce in th e mate rial aspects or life and existe nce that we will find shared by th e othe r two Semili caJl y originated religi ons, Judaism and Christianity.
Fore most am ong Cod's creations is tJl e human selr, whose nature, koranicaJl y defined . is Our third doctrinal subj ec t. "He has c reated man,M we read ill Sural116:3, and th e first thing that we not e about thi s c reation is its sound constitution. This cou ld have been infe rred , give n its Maker, bUI the Kurun states it explicitl y: "Surely
ISLAM 139
We have created hum anity or the best statu re M
(95: 4). TIle kor.mic word ror IlUm all nature in its Cod-established origi nal isfitra , and it has bee n stai ned by no catastroph iC fa ll . The closes t Isla m co mes 10 the Ch ristian doc trin e of origi nal sin is in its concept of gliajlah , or forge tting. People do forget their divin e origi n, and thi s mistake needs repea tedly to be corrected. But th eir rUlldame ntal na ture is unaJterabl y good, so they are e ntit led to self-respect and a heal thy sc1 r-image
With lire ac knowledged as a gi rt rro m its Crea tor, ..... e can turn to its obliga tions, whic h are two. The first or these is gra titud e ror th e li re tha i has bee n received. The Anlbi c ..... ord "in fidel" is actuall y shaded more tOW"dfd "o ne wh o lacks tll an kfuln ess
M th an one who di s-
believes. The more grntitude one reels, th e more na tural it reels to le t the bo unty th at has e ntered flow through on c's lire and on 10 oth ers, ror to hoard it wo uld be as unnatural as trying to dam a w.lterfa ll . The ingr.l le, th e Koran te lls us, "coversM or ~hidesR C od 's blcssin gs and th e reby rail s to e njuy th e link with th e C reat or that C\lery mome nt prOVid es.
The second standing hum an obligation recall s us to th e mim e or this religion . The ope ning paragraphs or thi s c hapte r inrormed us that islam means surrender, but we now need to probe tili s allribut'e mo re deepl y.
Thoughts of sUrTende r are so rrcighted wi th mi litary conll ota- tions that it requires conscious effort to noti ce that surre nde r can mean a wh ole hcarted giving of oneselr- to a ca use, or ill fri e ndship and love. William James shows how ce ntral surrc nde r is to all relibtio n.
\Vlli!fl aU is said and. done. we are in tile end absolutely derJe7ident on tile Ulliver:se; and. into sacrifICeS mid S1lrnm ders oj SOFfIe sort, deliberately looked at and accepted, we arn drown and. prnssed as into our on/y lJernlOllent poritions of repose. Now i ll tlaose da tes oj mind which Jail 5110" of religion . tile surrmider is S111)mittl.>ti to as all imlJO.ri t£on of necesrity, ond tile sacrifice is ulldergtme 01 tlll~ veri) best without complaint. In tile religious life, on til e contrary, lIurrerider and. sacrifice arn poriti vely eSJJOtlSed: cruetl unllecessary giV"I g.f-UIJ are added in order that the haPlJin fSS lIIay increase. lieligion thus makes easy and felicitous wlwt ;PI any case is necesllury.l1
140 T il E WORLD·S RELIC lOSS
To this accou n t or surre nde r's vi rt ues we can add in Islamic par· la nce th at to be a slave to All ah is to be freed from oth er ro no s of slavery- ones th at are degrad ing, such as slavery to greed, o r to a nx.j· ety. or to the desire for perso nal status. It also helps here if " 'C alte r· na te the word Ms urre nder" wi th Mco rn mit men t"; for in ad d ili on to be ing exe mpt fTOm mjli tary associations. co mm itm e nt suggests mov- ing tov"-Md rath e r than givi ng up. In th is reading Is lam e merges as a religion th ai aims a t total co mm it me nt; co mm itme nt in whi ch no th· ing is wi thh e ld fro m th e Divi ne. This cxpl ai ns why Ab raha m is by far the most important fig ure in th e Kora n, for he passed the u lt ima te test o f willi ngness to sacri fi ce h is own so n if thai was requi red.
1\0;0 final fea tures of the hum an se lf provide a filting tnm siti on to o ur final th eo logical doctrine, th e Day of Judg me nt , fo r it is th e re th at theycomc into sharpes t re lief. Th e two are th e soul's ind ivid ual - ity and its freedo m.
To begi n wi th the fi rst of these: Co ming to [s lam (as we d o in th is boo k) fro m th e "no self' of Buddhism and the social self of Confu· ciani sm, we are stru c k by th e stress the Koran pl aces on th e se Ws ind ividu ality: its uniqu e ness and th e respo nsib il ity th nt devolves o n it alo ne. In Ind ia the aU-pervad ing cos mic spiri t co mes close to swal- lowi ng th e indi vidual self. und in Ch ina the selfis so ecological thai where it begins a nd eu ds is hard to de te nninc. Islam and its St;:miti c alli es reverse thi s drift , regarding indi viduality as not onl y re al hut good in p ri nci pl e. Val ue, vi rtu e, and spi ri tual fulfillm en t come tilTOugh rea li zi ng th e poten ti al ities th at arc un iq uely one's own; in ways th ai are not inco nsequ e n tial , th ose poss ibilities d iffe r fro m those of every o the r so ul th a t eve r has li ved , o r eve r will li ve in th e future. As an impo rtan t Mu slim philosopher has wrill e n, ~This ine x- plicable finite ce ntre o f experi e nce is th e fu nda me ntal fac t o flh e uni · verse. All life is ind ividu al; there is no such thi ngas uni \o'CrsaJ life. God lIimselfis an indi vi du al; He is th e mos t uni que indi vidll al.- t3
Th e ind ivid uality of the human so ul is eve rl as ting, for o nce it is created it neve r di es. Neve r, though , is its d is tin ctn ess more acu te ly se nsed th an 0 11 til e Day o f Judg me nt. "0 so n of Adam , you will di e alone, and e nte r th e to mb alo ne, a nd be resurrected alo ne, and it is wi th yo u al one th at the recko ning will be mad e" ( Hasan al- Basri).
This recko ning and its co rre late, responsibility, lead direc tl y to th e iss ue of th e sou l's freedom , and it 1U1isi be admiU(.-o thnl in islam human freedom stands in le nsion with God 's omnipotence, wh ich
ISLA..\i 24 1
points toward predestina ti on. Is l am~c theology h.as ~nestled int e r· mi nabl y with thi s te nsion wi tllO ut rntlOnail y reso lvmg It. It concl udes tllat th e \.\o'Orkillgs o f th e Divi ne Decree remai n a mystery to hum ans. who neve rtheless are gran ted suffi cie nt freedom and responsibi lity 10 make gen uine mo ral and s piritual decisio ns. "'Wh oeve r gels to himse lf a sin , gcts it so le ly o n hi s own responsibili ty .... Wh oever goes astray, he him self be ars th e whole res ponsibility of wanderi ng"
(HU. 10,103). ." . As fo r the iss ue of j udgmen t Itself, Musli ms co nSide r It to be o ne
of the illusions o f mod e rnit y th at we can, as it .... 'ere, slip quie tl y away and no t be noticed SO long as \.\~ li ve (according to our own opinion) decent and harml ess li ves and do not draw atte ntion to o urse lves. It is th e teari ng away of al l suc h illusio ns of sec urit y tllat charac te rizes ti le doc trine of th e Las t Judg me nt and its anti ci patio n in the Ko ran. "W he n th e sun shall be folded up,. and th e stars shall faU . and whe n the mountai ns shall be set in mo ti on ... and th e seas shall bo il. ... T hc u shall every soul know wh al it has don e" (8 I, I}(l38im). It is again st this background th at th e Ko ran p rese nts li fe as a brief bul imme nse ly precio us op portu nity, o ffe ring a once-u nd-for-all c ho ice. Here in Ii.es the urgency th at info no s th e e n tire book. Th e chance to retu n! to hfe fo r (,."\ICII a single d ay 10 make good use of th e ir op portuniti es is so me- thing "th e losers." faci ng tJl ei r Reckoning, wo1lld tre asure beyond anyt hing they d esi red whil e th ey were still ali ve (14 :14).. .
Depe nd ing o n hoY.' it fares in its Rec koning, tile so ul Will rep!l1r to e ither the heavens o r the he ll s. whi ch in the Koran are desc ri bed. in vivid , concre te, and sensual im agery. Th e masses of til e faithful co n· sid e r th e m to be actual pl aces. whi c h is perhaps th e in evi tabl e co nse- quence o f suc h de pictio n. In tJl e heave ns we ure trealed to founta ins. cool shad es. and c has te houm in garde ns be neat h whi ch rivers flow; to carpets, cus hi ons. goblets of gold, and sumptuo us food a nd drink. In tJle he lls there are bumiJJgganne n ls, molte n drinks, maces of iro n, and fire that spli ts roc ks inl o fragm c nts. To say that th ese are nothing bu t symbols of th e posthumou s worlds- morc ri ghtl y regarded liS pos tllUm ous co nd iti ons of expe ri e nce- iS not to eltplaill the m away; bu t the object of the boo k is to present th e he reafte r in images or such vivid ness ~that th e hearts o f tJl 0se who do not believe in tJI C Ilcreafte r may in clin e to ie (6:ll3). The sharpness of th e contrast betwee n heaven and he ll is inte nded to pull th e hearer/read e r of the Koran o ut o f til e spiritual lelhargy th at gIIaJlali . fo rgetfulness. indu ces.
242 TilE WORLD'S RELICIONS
The devi ce "'Orks in periods of spiritual aWMeness and rebirth. In modem time s it may be less effecti ve for worldly-minded Mus - li ms , In d e fe nse of allegorical inte rpretations of th e image s, BberaJ Muslims quote th e Koran itself: -Some of the signs are 6mt - these are the basis of th e book-and others are figurative- (3:5). Also sup- porting less materialistic views of paradise is Mubammad's statement thai for tim favored. - 10 see Cod's face night and lnaming [is) a fe licity whic h will surpass all the pleasures of th e body, as the ocean sur- passes a drop of sweat." 14 Unde rlying the differences of interpreta- tion, lhe be li ef that unites a1l Muslims conceming the afterlife is that each sou l will be he ld accounhlble for its actions on earth with its futu re thereafter de pendent upon how well it has observed Cod's commands. "We have hung every man's actions around hi s nec k, and on the last day a wide-ope n book will be laid before himH (17: 13),
As a 6nal point : If all this talk ofj udgm e nl still seems to cast God too much in tile role of punisher, " 'e ca ll resort to verses in the Koran that remove Allah frum direct involvement altogether, There sou ls judge themselvcs. Wh at d eath bums away is self-serv ing d c fe nses, forcing o ne to see with total objectivity how one has lived one's life. In the uncompromising light of th at vision, where no dark and hidd e n comers are allowed. it is one's OWlJ actions that rise up to acc use o r co nfirm . Once the se lf is extrac ted from the realm oflies, th e falsities by whi ch it armored itself become like flames, and the life it tllere led like a shirt of Nessus.
Cod, Crea ti on, the Hum an Self, an d the Day of Judgment- th ese are the c hi ef lheologica.l pegs o n whi ch th e Koran's teachings hang. In spite of their importance. however, the Koran is Ma book whic h emp hasizes deed rath e r than ideaM (Muhammad Iqbal). It is to th ese deeds that we turn in the next two secLions.
The Five Pillars
If a Muslim were aske d 10 su mmari .. .e the way Islam co ull sels people to li ve, til e answcr might be: It teaches them to walk th e straight palh. The phra.~e comes from the opening surah of the Koran, which is repeated many times in th e Muslim's 6ve daily prayers.
J 11 tile Name of Allah the Mf,"rc/flli. the ComTJassio,wte: Praise be to Allah, Cnm tor of the worlds,
The Merciful. tile Compassionate. /luler of the day a!Judgment, TIIt .. 'e tkJ we worship, and Thee do we ask for aid. Cllid~ us in t"~ stroight potli ,
IS LAM '"
Tile path of those on w llOln ThOll liast ,JOUred jorih Tlly grace. Not the lJOth of dIOSe who have incurred Tlly wroth mid genie
as tray.
This sural. has been cal1ed th e heartbeat of the Muslim's response to God. At the moment, though, th e question is why "the slraigllt path'"? One meaning is obvious; a straight path is one that is lIot c rooked or corrupt. The phrase contains anoth e r meaning, how- eve r, wh ic h addresses something that ill Islanl is distinc tive. 11m straight path is aile that is straightforward; it is direc t and explicit. Compared with othe r religions. Islam spells out lhe way of life it pro- poses; it pinpoints it, nailing it down through clear injunctions, Every majo r ty pe of action is classi6ed on a sliding scale from th e "forbidde n," through lh e Nin differcn t,H to the "ob ligutory." This gi ves th e re ligion a flavor of de6niteness that is quite its own , Muslims know w!Jere they stand,
They claim this as one of their religion's stre ngths. Cod's revela- lion to hu mallkind. theysay, has p roceeded through four great stages. First , Cod revealed tim truth of monotheism. Cod's oneness, through Abraham , Second , God revea led the Te n Commandments through Moses. Third. Cod revealed the Gold e n Rule-that we are to do unto otlle n as we wou ld have them do unto us - tllrough Jesus. All three oftllcsc prophets were authentic mcs.'iengers; each introduced impor- tant features of the Cod-di rec ted Bfe. One question yet re mained , however: lIow shou ld we love our neighbor? Once life lJecarne com· plicated , instruc ti ons were needed to answer that qu estio n. and tile Koran provides tllem .. '"The g lory of Islam collsists in having e mbod- ied the beautiful sentiments of Jesus ill definite laws."u
What , then. is the co nt c nt of tllis straig ht path thai spell s out human duties? We shall divide ou r presentation into two parIs. In this section we shall co nsider the Five Pillars of Islam , tile principles that regulate th e private life of Muslims ill tlle ir de alings with Cod. I n the next section we sltall co nsider th e Koran's sociaiteac hin gs.
The first of the Five Pillars is Islam's creed. or confession of faith known as the SIIOJuulah. Every religion contains professions th at
24-4 TIlE \\fOIILO'S R~LlCIONS
orie nt its adh erents' lives, Islam's was tes no words. Brief, simple. and ex plicit, it consists of a single sen te nce: "l1lere is no god but Cod, and Muh amm ad is His Prophet.-11le first half of the proclamation announ ces th e caroinal principle of monotheis m. "There is no god but A1lah.- There is no god but the Cod. More directly still, there is no Cod but Cod, for th e word is not a co mmon 1I0 UJI embr.tci ng a class of objects: H is a proper name designating a uniqu e being a nd him onl y. The seco nd affirmation - th at "'Muhammad is Cod's prophet--registers the Muslim's faith in th e authe ntici ty of Muham · mad and in the validity of the book he transmitted.
At least once during his or he r li fetime a Muslim must say the SllDhatlall correctl y, slowl y, thoughtfully, aloud. with full understand· ing an d wi th heartfelt conviction, In actuality Mu slim s pronoun ce it one n, especiall y its first half, La iloilo iUa lIah , In every c risis and at every momen t whe n th e world threate ns to overwhelm th e m. not excepting th e approach of dea th , "There is 110 god but Cod" will spring 10 th ei r lips. "'A pious man , seized by rage, will appear sud· denl y to have been stopped in hi s trac ks as he re me mbers til e Sha - IlDdo" and , as it were, withdraws, putting a great distnnce between himself an d his turbul en t emo ti ons. A woman e rying out in c hild- birth will as suddenly fall sil e nt , remembering; and a stud e nt, bowed anxiously over hi s desk in an examination hall, will raise his head and speak th ese INOrds, and a barely a udible sigh of relief passes through the who le assembly. This is the ultima te an swer to al l qu es tion s.- tII
The second pillar of Islam is the canonical prayer. in whic h the Koran adjures the fa ithful to "be co nstn nt" (29:45).
Muslims are admollis h(.-d to be co nstant in praye r to keep th eir lives in perspcetive. 11le Koran co nsiders this the most djffi cu lt les- SOli people must lean\. Though they are obviously creatu res, having created neither the mselves nor their \\.'Orlds, they can' t see m to get th is straigh t and keep placing themse lves at th e cente r of th ing$, liv- ing as if th ey were laws unto themselves. This produces havoc. When we as k, theil, why Mu slims pray, a partiaJ answer is: in respo nse to life's nat ural impulse to give thanks for its exis ten ce. The deepe r answer. however, is the one wi th whie h thi s paragraph opened: to keep life in perspec ti ve- Io see it objectively, which invo lves ac knowl edging hum an crea tureliness before its C reator. In practi ce this comes down to sub mitting one's wi ll to Cod's (islam) as its right- ful sove reign.
ISLAM !4S
How often should Muslims pray? There is an accoun t in th e KorolU tha t speaks to this point.
O ne of th e crucial eve nts in Muhammad's life. we are told, was his re nowned Night Journey to Heave n. On a certain night in th e month of Ram adan , he was spirited 011 a wondrous white steed with wi ngs to Jerusalem and upward from th ere through the seve n heavens to the presence of Cod, who instructed him th ai MusLims were to pray fifiy times each day. On his way back to earth, he stopped in the sixth heaven. wbere he repo rted the ins tru ction to Moses, who was incred ul ous. "Fifty times a day'" he sa id in effect. "You've galla be kidding. Thai will never work. Co back and negoti- ate." Muhammad did so and ret urned with th e number reduced to forty, but Moses was not satisfied. - I know those people." he said. "'Co back.- This routine was repeated four mnre times. with th e number I'(.-'<iuced successively to thirty, twent y, tell , and then fi ve. Even this last fi gure stru c k Moses as excessive. ""Your people are lIot ca pable of observing five dail y prayers," he said. - I have tes ted me n before yo ur lime and have labored most earnes tl y to prevail ove r tim [sons of] Isra'i! . sago back to your Lord and ask Him to make things lighte r for your people.~ This time, however, Muhammad refused. "I have asked my Lord till I am asham ed, but now I am satisfied and I sub mit." 11le number remained fixed at fi ve.t7
The tim es of the 6ve prayers are likewise sti pulated: on arising. whe n th e sun reaches its zc nith, its mid·declin e, sun se t, and before re tiring. The schedul e is not abso lu tely binding. 11le Koran says explicitly. for exampl e, that "Wh e n you journey about th e earth it is no crime that }OOU come short in praye r if you fear th at tll ose who dis - believe wi ll attack you.- Under nonnal conditio ns, however, the fivefold pattern should be maintained. While in Islam no day of the week is as sharp ly set apart from the otllers as is th e Sabba th for th e JC\\.'S or SUllday for the Chris tians, Friday most nearly approxi mates a wee kl y holy day. Congregational worshi p is lIot stressed as milch in Islam as it is in Judaism and Christiani ty; even so. Musli ms are expected to pray in mosques when they can, and the Friday noon prayer is e mph asized in Illis respect. Visitors to Muslim lands tes tify that one of the impressive religious sights in tile world eo mes to view when. in a diml y lighted mosque, hundreds of Mu slims sta nd shoul - der to shou lde r. th e n repeatedly kneel and prostrate themselves toward Mecca.
2046 TilE WORLD'S IIELICIONS
Although Muslims first prayed in the direction of Je ru salem , a koroUlic revelatio n late r instructed them to pray in the direction of Mecca: an d the reali za tio n th at Musl ims throughout the wor ld do this creates a sense of participating in a wo rldwide fellowship. C\len whcn one prays in so litud e. Beyond this matter of d irec ti on the Koran says almost nothing. bu t Muhammad 's teachi ngs and practices moved in to structure the void. Washing. to purify the body and sym- bolically the so ul . precedes th e prayer. whi ch begins in dignified. upright pos ture but climaxes when the suppli can t has sunk to his or her knees with forehead touching the £l oor. This is the prayer's holi- es t mo me nt. for it carries a twofold symboli sm. On the one hand . the body is in a fetal position, read y to be rebo rn. At the same time it is crouched in the small es t possible space, sig nifying human nothing- ness ill th e face of the di vin e.
As for prayer's con ten t. its standard th e mes are praise, gratitude, and suppli ca ti on. TIlCre is a Mu slim saying that every time a bird drinks a drop of water it lifts it s eyes in gratitude t{)\\~.mI heaven. At least fi ve limes each day. Mu slims do likewise.
- The third pillar of Ish un is c harity. Material things are important in life, but some people have more than others. Why? Islam is no t concc rned with this theoretical qu es tion . In stead , it tuntS to the practical issue of what should be don e abo ut the disparity. Its answe r is simpl e. T hose who have much sho uld he lp lift the burde n of those who are less fortunate. It is a prin c ipl e Ihal twentieth-century democracies have embraced in sec ular mode in th ei r co ncep t of th e weLfare state. Th e Koran introduced its basic prin c iple in tJl eseve nth cen tury by)Jrescribing agraclua led tax on th e haves to relieve the cir· c um stan ces o f th e have- nots.
De wls aside, the fig ure the Koran set for this tax .... oas 2'A per· ce nt. Al ongsi d e the tithe o f Judai sm and C hristianity (whic h, being directed more to the maintenance of re ligi ous institutions than to tJle di rect re li e f o f human need, is not stri c tJ y co mparable). this looks modes t until ..... e discover that it refers not j ust to in come but to hold- ings. Poorer people owe nothing. bUI those in the middl e and upper in come brackets shou ld an nually di stribute among th e poor one. fortie th of the value of all they possess.
And to whom among th e poo r should this mon ey be given? This 100 is prescribc<i: to tho se in immediate need: to slaves in tJle process of buying their freedom ; to de btors unabl e to meet th e ir obligations;
ISt.AM
to strangers and ..... ayfarers: and to those wh o collcct and distribute the alms.
__ The fourth pillar of Islam is tJle observance of l\amadan . Iw.madan is a montJl in tJl e Islamic calendar-Islam's holy month. because during il Muhammad received his initial revelation aJld (ten years later) made his historic lIijrah (migration ) from Mecca to Medilla. To co mm emorate these two great o(.'casions, ab le-bodied Muslims (who are not ill or involved in crises like ..... aror unavoidable journt.')'S) fast during Ramadau . From the firs t moment of dawn to the setting of the sun, neither food nor driJdt nor smoke passes th e ir lips: aft e r sund own they may partake in moderation . As tJle Muslim cale n- dar is lun ar. Ramadan rotates arou nd th e year. When it falls ill tJl e winter its dcmands are not excessive. Wh e n. on th e other hand. it fa ll s during tJle scorc hing h eat of the summ er. 10 rcma in active duro ing th e long days without so mu ch as a drop of water is an o rdeal.
Why. th e n. does th e Koran req uire it? For one thing. fasting makes o ne thillk , as: every Jew who has observed the fast of Yom Kip- pu r will attest. For UJlotJler thing. fasting teaches self-di scip lin e; one who ca n e ndure its d e mands will have less diffi c ult y co ntrolling th e demands of appetites al o th e r times. Fasti ng underscores th e crea- ture's dependence 011 Cod. Hum an beings. it is said , a re as fm il as rose petals; neverthe less. they a.~'illme airs an d pretensions. Fasting calls one back to one's frailty a nd dependence. Finall y. fasting scnsi- tizes co mpassion. O nl y tJl ose who have been hungry can know what hunger means. IJeop le who have fasted for twenty· nine days witJIin the year will be apt to li ste n more care full y when nex l approach ed by someo ne who is hungry.
__ Islam's fifth pillar is piJgrimage. Once during his or her lifeti me every Mu slim who is physicaJly aJld ecOuo mical ly in a position to do so is expected to jo urney to Mecca, where Cod's climactic revelation was firs t disclosed. Th e basic purpose of the pilgrimage is to heighte n th e pi lgri m's d evoti on 1.0 God and his revealed will , but the prolCtice has fringe be.ne li ts as well. It is, for exampl e, a reminder of human eq ualit y. Upon reachi ng Mecca., pilgrims remme th e ir nonn al attire, whic h ca rri es marks of sociaJ status, and don two simple sheet-like garme nts. Thus everyone, on approaching Islam's ea rthl y foc us, wears th e same thing. Distinctio ns of rank and hi erarchy are re moved , and prince and pauper stand before Cod ill tJl e ir undivided humanit y. Pilgrimage also provides a useful selVice in inte rnational
248 TilE WQlU.O·S KELIG IONS
relations. It brings togeth er people from various countries, demon- strating thereby that they share a loyalty that transcends loyalty to their nations and ethnic groupi ngs. Pilgrims pick lip information about oth e r lands and peoples, and return to lIleir homes with better understanding of one ano th e r.
The Five PiUars of Islam consist of things Muslims do to keep the house of Islam erect. TIlc re are also things they should not do. Cam· bling, thieving, lying, eating pork, drinking intoxicants, and bei ng sexually promiscuous are some of these. Even Muslims who trans- gress these rulings ac knowledge their acts as transgressions.
With th e exception of charity, the precepts we have considered in this sectio n pertain to the Muslim's l>etsOnallife. We tllrn now to the social teachings of Islam,
Social Teachings
~o me n I listen to my words and take th e m to heartl Know ye that l.'Very Muslim is a broth er to every other Mu slim , and th at )'Ou are now one brotherhood ." These notable words, spoken by the Prophet during his "farewell pi lgrimage" to Mecca shortly before his death , epitomize one of Islam's lofiiest ideals and strongest emp hases. TIle intrusion of nationalism in the last two centuries has played havoc with this ideal on the poli tical level , but on the communalle ... t:J it has remained discernibly intact. ~There is sometliing in the religious cultu re of [slam which inspired, in eve n the humbl es t peasant or peddler, a dignity and II courtesy toward oth ers never exceeded and rarely equalled in other civili;r.ations, R a leading IsJamicist has wri tten."
Looking at the difference between pre- and post·Islamie Arabia, we are forced to ask whether history has ever witnessed u co mpara· lIl e moral advance among so many people in so short a time. Before Muh ammad lIlere was virtuall y no restraint on intertribal vio le ll ce. Glaring inequities in weaJth and possession were ac(:epted as the natural order of things. Women were re~rardcd more as possessions than as human beings. U.nther than say that a man cou ld marry an unlimited num ber of wives, it wou ld be more accurate to say that his re latio ns willl women were so cas ual that beyo nd the first wife or two tJley scarcelyapproximuted marriage al all , Infanti Cid e was commo n, especially of girls. Drunkcnness and largp-scale g'd.mb llng have
ISLAM 249
already been remarked upon. Within a half.·century there was effected a remarkable change in the moral climate on all of these counts.
Somethi ng that helped it to accomplish this near- mi racle is a feature of Islam lIlat we have already all uded 10, namely its cq> Jj cit- ness. Its basic objective in interpersonal relatio ns, Muslims will say, is precisely that of Jesus and the other prophets; brotherly and sist~rl y love. 11le distinctive thillgaboutlslam is not its ideal but the detailed prescriptions it sets forth for achi evi ng it. We have already encou~ tered its theory on tJlis point. If Jesus had had a longer career, or If lIle Jews had not been so socia ll y powerless at the tim e, Jesus might have systematized hi s teachings more. As it was, his work Mwas len unfinished. It was reserved for another Teac her to sys tematize tJle laws of mornlity."tiI The Koran is this later teac her, In addition to being a spiritual guide, it is a legal compendium. When its innu- merable prescriptions are supplemented by the only slightly less authoritative 'JUdith -tradition s based on what Muh am mad did or said on his own iniliative-"''C a re not surprised to find [slam the most socially expli ci t of the Semitic religions. Westerners who denne religion in tenus of personal experience wou ld never be understood by Muslim s. whose religion calls the m to estab li sh a specific kind of social order. Islanl joins faith to poli tics. religion 1.0 society, inseparabl y.
Islamic law is of enormous scol)C. II wi U be e nough for ou r pur- poses if we sum mari ;r.e its provisions in four areas of coll ec tive life.
1. Economic&. lslam is acute ly aware of the physica1 founda· tions of life. Unti l bodily needs are met, higher concerns can not nowe r. When one of Muhammad's follO"-'ers rail U I) to him cryi ng, ~My Mother is dead; what is the best alms I can give away for the good of he r soul?" the Prophet , thinking of th e he~t of the desert, answered instantly, MWaterl Dig a well for her, and give water to th e thirs ty.R
Just as the health of an organism requires that nourishment be fed to its every segme nt, so too a society's health requires that mate- rial goods be widely aud appropria tely distributed. 11lese, are th e basic principles of Islamic ecOllo mi cs, and nowhere do Islam s demo- c ratic impulses speak with greater fOfl:e and clarity, The Koran. sup-- plemented by had It", propounded measures that broke the barriers
2$0 T ilE WORLD'S RELICIONS
of econom ic caste and eno rm ously reduced the inj ustices of special interest gro ups.
TIle model that animates Mu slim eco nom ics is the body's cir- cu latory s)'5tem . Heal th requi res that blood flow freely a nd vigor- ously; sluggis hll ess call bring on illness, blood clots occasion death. It is not diffe re nt with th e body politic. in which we alth takes: th e place of blood as th e li fe-givi ng substance. As long as thi s analogy is hono red and laws are in place to insure th at wea lth is in vigoro us c ir- cu lati on, Islam does not object to tll e profit motive, econom ic com- petition, o r e ntrepreneurial ve nt ures - th e more imaginative th e latte r. the better. So free ly are these aJlowcd tJmt Some have gone so far as 10 c harac leri;r.e til e Kora n as -a busi nessman's boo k. - It does not discourage people from working hard e r than the ir ne ig hbors. nor object to suc h people bei ng rewarded with larger returns. It siml>ly insists tJlat aC{luisilivene$s and compe titio n be baJanced by the fair play that -keeps arteries ope n: and by co mpassion that is strong e noug h to pump life-givi ng blood - mat erial resources- into th e dr- cul atory sys te m's small est capillaries. Th cse "capillari es" are fed by tJl e Poor Due, whi ch (as has been noted) stipulates that an nuall y a portion of olle's holdings be distributed to th e poor:
As for the way to pra"ent "c1o tting,- til e Koran went after th e severes t econo mic c urse of the day- primogeniture -and fl atl you t- lawed it. By restri cti ng inhe ritance to the old est so n, this insti tutio n had co nee ntruted wCallll il' a limited nlllllberOr e normOU$ es tates. In banning th e pr.lctice, th e Ko ran sees to it tlmt inheritance is shared by all heirs, daughters as we ll as so ns. F. S. C. Northrop desc ribes the settlement of a Mu slim's es tate that he c han ced to witn ess. Th e ap pli- ca tion of Islamic law that afte rnoon resu lt(.--d in tJle division of some $53,000 among no less tJlrul seve nt y hei rs.
One verse in th e Koran prohibits th e hiking of interes t. AI th e tim e this "'as not on ly humrul e but e min en tl y j ust, ror loans were used til e n to tide the unfortunate over in limes of disaster: With the rise of ca pitalism, however, moncy has take n on a new mea ning. It now fUllc tions importa ntly as venture c apita!. and in this se tting bor- fO\ved mo ney mullipli es. This benefits th e borrower, and it is pate ntl y unjust to excl ud e the le nder fro m his or he r gain. The way Mus lims have accommodated to this c hallge is by making le nd ers in so me way partne rs in the ve nlure for whic h tJleir moni es are used. Wh en ca pital ism is approached in this manner. Muslims find no
IS I..AM 'S)
incompati bility between its ce ntrnl fea tu re, ve nture cap ital, and Islam. Capitalism's excesses-whi ch Muslims consider to be glar· illgl y ex hibited in tJle secular Wes t -are ano ther matter. 111e e<IUaJ- izing provisos of the Koran would, if dul y applied, offset tJl em.
2. Tile Statu. afWomen. C hiefly because it permits a plurality or wives, the. West ha.~ acc lised Islam of degrading wo me n.
Ir,,'C approach the qu es tion hi storicall y, comparing tJl e status of Arabian women before and after Ml1hulllmad, the chmge is pate ntl y raise. In th e pre-Islamic "days of ignorance," marriage arrangements were so loose as to be scarcely recognl:r.abl e. Women were regarded as little more tJl an c hattel, to be done witJl as fath ers or husbands pleased. Daug hters had 110 inh eri tance rig hts and .... 'ere ofte n bu ri ed ali ve in their infancy.
Addressing co ndition s in which th e very bi rth of a daughter was re!,':lrded as a calam ity, th e korani c reforms improved woman's statu s in calculabl y. l11 ey forbad e infanticide. Th ey req uired that daug ht ers be included ill inheritance- not equall y, it is tru e, but to half the proportion of so ns, whi ch seems just, in view of tJl e fac i that unlike so ns, daug hlers would 1101 ass um e finan ci al responsibility for tJl e ir households. In he r rights as citi;r.cn-educatioll, suffrage, ruld vocatio n - th e Koran leaves open th e possibil ity of woman's full eq ualit y witll man, an equality th at is beill g approxima ted as th e cus- tom s of Mus lim nations become mode mized.30 Ifin another cen tury wome n und e r Islam do not attai n th e social position of th e ir Wes tcrn sisters, a positio n to which th e latte r have bee n brought by industrial- ism and de mocracy ra the r LhWl re lig ion, it will th e n be time, Mu slims say, to hold Islam accou ntable.
It was in th e institutio n of marriage, however, that hlam mad e ils greatest cOl1tribution to women. It sanctified marriage, first , by mak - ing it the sole lawful locus of th e sexuaJ acl.31
To th e ad here nts of a religion in whi ch lh e pu nishme nt ror ad ul - tery is dea th by stoning a nd social dancing is proscribed , Westenl indict ments of Islam as a lascivious religion sound ilJ-direc ted . Sec- o nd , th e Koran require s that a womall give he r free conse nt before she may be wed: not even a sultan may marry without hi s bride's express app roval. Third, Islam lig ht t: ne d the wedding bond enor- mously. Thoug h Muhamm ad did not forbid divorce, he co un· te nanc(.-d it on ly as a las l resort. Asserting repeatedl y thai nothin g
252 THE WORLD'S RELIC IONS
displeased Cod more than th e disruption of marital vows, he instituted legal provis ions to keep marriages intact. AI th e tim e of marri age husbands are required to provide th e wife with a sum on wh ich both agree and whi ch she retai ns in its e ntirety should a divorce e nsue. Di vo rce proceed ings call fo r three di stin ct and sepa- rate periods, in each of which a rbiters drawn from both families try to reco ncil e th e two parties. Though such devices are inte nded to keep di vorces to a minimum, wives no less than hu sba nds are pennitted to instigate them .
Th ere re main §, howeve r, th e issue of po lygamy, or more prec ise ly po lygyny. It is true that th e Korau pennits a man 10 have up to four wives si multaneously. but th e re is a g rowing co nse nsus that a careful reading of its regu lations o n th e maUe r point toward monogamy as th e ideal. Supporti ng thi s view is the Koran's state me nt that Mi f you ca nno t de al C<luitably andjustIy with [more th an one wife], you sl1311 marry on ly one. M OLher passages make it clear that "equality" here refers not o nl y to mate rial perq uisi tes but to love and esteem. In phys ical arrangements each wife must have private qu arters, and this in itse lf is a limiting factor. II is t he second proviso, though -e<luality of love and esteem - th at leads jurists 1,0 argue that th e Koran virtu- ally e nj oi ns mon oga my, for it is almost impossible to di stri bute affec- ti on and regard with exac t e quality. This inte rpretatio n h IlS been in th e Mu slim picture since tIl e third ce ntury of th e J1ijrah . and it is gaining increas ing acceptance. 1b avoi d any possible mi sunders tand· ing, man y Muslims now inse rt in the marriage deed a clause by which the hu sband rormall y renoun ces hi s su pposed ri ght to a seco nd con· current spo use,. an d in point of rac l - with tIl e exce ption or Afri can tribes where polygyny is c usto mary- multipl e wives are seld om found in Islam today,
Neve rth e less, th e fuct remains that the Kor.u1 does perm it po ly- gyny; "You may marry two, three. o r four wives, but not more." And what are we 10 make of Muh ammad 's own multipl e marriages? Mus- lims take both ite ms as instances of Islam's ve rsatility in add ress ing diverse c ircumstances.
Th e re are c ircum stances in th e imperfect co ndition we know as human exis te nce wh e n po lygyny is moral ly pre fera ble to its alterna- ti ve. Lndividuall y, such a co nditio n mig ht ari se if, early in marriage. th e wife ..... ere to co ntrac t paralysis or another disabi li ty th at wou ld pfL'Ve nt sex ual union. Co ll ecti ve ly, a war th at decimated tbe mal e
ISLAM 253
populatio1l could provide an examp le, forcing (as thi s would) th e opHon betwee n polygyny and depriving a large proportion of women or moth e rhood and a nu clear ramily of any so rt . Id ealis ts may call for the exercise of he roic co ntine nce in such circumstances. bul heroism is neve r a mass option. The actual cho ice is betwee n II legalized po ly- gyn y in which sex is tightly joi ned to responsibili ty, and alte rn ati vely monogamy, whic h, be ing unrealistic,. fos lers prostitution, where men di sclaim responsibility for th e ir sex ual partners and th e ir progeny. Pressi ng th e ir case. Mu slims poi nt ol1tthal multipl e marriages are at leas t as co mmon ill th e West; tIle diffe re nce is tJlat they are succes- sive. Is Mse rial po lygyny,M Ih e Weste rn versio n, self-evide ntl y superior to its coeval form. when women have th e rig ht to opt o ut of tIle arrangemen t (through divorce) if th ey want to? Final ly, Mu slim s, tho ugh th ey have spoke n frankl y fro m th e fi rs t offemale sexual fulfill - me nt as a marilal right , do not skirt tIle vo latile qu es tion of whether the male sex ual dri ve is strange r than th e fe male's. "Hoggledy higa- mous. men are polygamous; IHigg ledy hogamus. wumen mo noga- mous," Doroth y Parke r wro te Uippantl y. Lfth e re is biological tmt h in her lime ric k, "rathe r th an allowing thjs sens uality ill tJle mal e to run riot, obeying nothing but its ow n impulses, th e Law of Islam sets down a polygynous framewo rk that provides a modicum of co ntrol. JIt] confe rs a co nscious mold on tIle formless instin ct of man in o rd e r to keep him witJlin th e stru ctu res of religion, "»
As for th e ve iling of women and th eir seclU Sion gene rall y, th e korani c injun c ti on is restrained. It says on ly to "Tell your wives and yo ur daug hters and th e women of th e beli evers to d raw th eir cloaks closely round them (w hen th ey go abroad). That will be beller, so tJU1 t they may be recognised and not annoyed" (33:59). Extremes that have evolved from thi s ruling are matters of local c us tom and are not religiously binding.
Somewhere in this sectio n Oil soci al iss ues the subject of penal - ties should be me nti oned, for th e impression is widespread that Islamic law imposes o nes that are excessive ly han;h. This is a reaso nabl e place to add ress this issue, for one of the most frequ e ntl y c il ed examples is th e punishmenl for adultery, which repea ls the Jewi sh law of deat h by ston ing- two oth ers that are typic all y me n- ti oned are seve ran ce of th e Uli e rs hand, and fl oggi ng for a num ber of offenses. Th ese sti pulations are indeed severe, but (as Mu slims see matters) tIlis is to make tile poiut that the injuries tb at occasio n these
t54 TilE WORLD'S RELIGIONS
penalties are li kewise seve re and will not be tolerated. Once this juridical point is in place, mercy mOYeS in to temper the decrees. MAve rt pe nalti es by doubt .M Muh ammad told hjs people. and Islamic jurisprudence legi timizes any stratagem that averts the penal ty with· out o utright impugn ing the Law. Stoning for adultery is made almos t impossi ble by th e proviso that four unimpeachab le witnesses mu st h ave observed th e act in detai l. MFloggi ngM can be tcchni cally fuL6L1 ed by using a lig ht sandal or even th e he m of a garment. and thi eves may retain th ei r hands if the tllcfi W'olS from ge nuine need.
3. &c~ IkI(JliQn& Islam stresses racial equality and "'has achieved a remarkable degree o f interracial coexis te nce. "33 Th e ulti. mate tes t in this area is wi lljngness to intermarry. and Musli ms see Abraham as modeling tJl is will ing ness In marrying Hagar, a black ","'Oman who m th ey regard as hi s seco nd wife rather than a concu' bin e. Under Elijall Muh ammad the Blac k Mu slim moveme nt ill Am e rica- it has had various na mes- was militant toward th e whites; but whe n Mal co lm X made hi s 1964 pil brrimage to Mecca. he di scov· e re d th at racis m had 110 precedent in Islam and could not be accom- modated to it.34 Mus lims like to recal l th at tJl e first mue::.:in. Hilal , W-dS WI EtJli opi 3-n who prayed regu larly fo r tJl e co nvers ion of the Koreish -"whites" wh o wert' persecu ting the early beli evers, mW ly of whom were black. Th e advances th at Islam co ntinues to make in Africa is no t un related to thi s religion's pri ncipled record o n this iss ue.
4. Th~ U.e of Forc~. Mu slims re port that tbe standard Wes tern stereotype that they e ncounter is tJmt of a man marching with sword o utstretc hed , folJowed by a long train of wives. Not surp ri sing ly, inas- mu c h as from the begi nning (a historian repo rts) Chris tian s have believed that "tJle two mos t important aspec ts of Mu hammad's life ... are his sexual li ce nce and his use of force to establish reli- gion ."~ Mus lims feel th at botJl Muh ammad and th e Koran have been maligned on these cou nts. Li cense was di sc ussed above. Here we turn to force.
Admit , tJl ey say, tJl at th e Koran does not co unse l turning the otJlCr c heek, or pac ifism . It teaches forgivc ness aJld th e return of good for evil when tJl e circumstances warrant -~turn away ev il wilh tJmt whi ch is better" (42:37) - but tJlis is dlfre re nt from not res isting
tSLAM ts5
eYil. Far from teCluiring the Muslim to turn him se lfin to a doormat for tJle ruthless. !.he Koran aJ lows punishment of wanton wrongdoers to the full exten t of the injury they impart (22:39-40). Ju stice requi res tJlis, th ey believe; abrogate reci p roci ty. which the principle of fair play requires. an d morality descends to impractical id ealism if not shee r sentim e ntality. Extend tJlis p ri nci ple of j ustice to coll ective life and \4'6 have as one insta ncejihatl, th e Muslim co ncept of a holy w.tr, in which tJl e martyrs who die are ass ure d of heaven . All tJlis th e Mu s· lim will affirm as integral to Isla m, but we are still a far cry from !.he familiar c harge tJl at Islam sp read primarily by the swo rd and was uph eld by the sword .
As an outstanding general. Muhamm ad left many traditio ns regard ing th e d ecen t co ndu ct of war. Agreements are to be ho nored and treachery avo ided; th e wounded are not to be mutilated. nor th e dead di sfigu red . Wom en, childre n, Wid the ol d are to be spared, as are orchard s. crops. and sac red objects. These. h(}\40'C'Ver. are no t th e poi nt. Th e important qu estion is th e de finition of a rig hteous W.1t. Acco rding to prevailing inte rpre tati ons of th e Koran . a rightcous war mu st e ither be de fe nSive o r to right a wro ng. ~Defend yourse lf 3l.rai nsl )'O ur e ne mi es. but do no t attack th e m fi~t: Cod hales th e aggressor" (2:190 ). Th e aggressive and unrele nting hostili ty of lhe idolaters forced Muha mmad to sei7.e th e sword in self-de fen se. or. toge th e r with his e nti re co mmuni ty and his Cod-e nlrusted fruth , be wiped from th e face of the earl h. Th at othe r t eache~ succ umbed und e r force and became martyrs was to Muh am mad no reaso n that he shou ld do tJl e sam e. Having seized th e swo rd in self-defe nse he he ld on to it to tJl e e nd. This mu ch Muslims acknowle dge; but th ey insist th ai whil e Islam has at tim es spread by the swo rd , it has mos tl y sp read by l>ersuasion and exampl e.
Th e crucial verses in th e Kor.rn bearing 0 11 co nversio n read as
follows :
Let tlJere be no compulsiofl in religion (2:257). 10 every one Iwve We g iven a law arid a way . ... And if Cod had pleased, he would have made [aU IlUman kind] one people [people of Oil#! relibW1J. But lie Iwtll done ot/'Moise. llwl lie mig/It try you in tlwl. which fie Iwtll severally l,tjoerl IInto you: wlwrefore ,)ress jonVlml in good works. UrllQ Cocl slwll ye retum, and He will tell yOU tlwl concern ing wllich ye d isagree (5:48).
156 TIlE WORLDOS RELIGIONS
Muslims point oul that Muhammad in co rpora ted illto hi s char- Ier for Medin a the princi ple of re ligious tolerdtio n that these verses an nou nce. 11ley regard that document as the first charter of freedom of co nscie nce in human history and th e authoritative mod e l for those of every subseq ue nt Musl im state. It decreed tlml "tll e Jews who attach themselves 10 o ur commomA'ealth (similar rights were latcr mentioned fo r C hri sti ans, th ese t'A'O bei ng the o nl y non· Mu slim reli- gions on the sce neJ shall he prolecled from al l insults and vexa tions ; they shall have an C<lual right with our own people to our assistance and good oflices: th e Jews ... and all others domiciled in Yathri b, shan . .. pra ctice their re ligio n as freely as the Muslim s. M Even con- <Iuered nalions .... 'ere penniUed freedo m of wors hip contingent onl y o n th e paym e nt of a special tax in li e u of the Poor Du e, from which th ey were exe mpt; th ereafte r every interference with their liberty uf consc ie nce was l'eb'1lJ'ded as a direc t cOlltrdvcntioll of Islamic law. If clearer indicalion than this of Is lam's stand all re ligious tolerance be asked , 'A'e h ave the direc t words of Muhammad: "Will you th e n fo rce me n to believe when be lief ca n co me only from Cod?,"3e Once, when adeputy of C hristian s visited him. Muhammad invited tllem to conduc t th e ir service In his mosq ue, adding, "11 is a place con- sec rate d to Cod.-
This much for tllOOry and Muhrunmad 's personal exa ml>l e. How well Muslims have lived lip to his principles of toleration is a qu es tion of hi story that is fur too compl ex to admit of a simpl e, objective. and definiti ve answe r. On tll e positi\.'tJ sid~ Muslim s point to the long cen- turies during which, in India. Spain, and th e Near East, C hri sti ans, Jews, and Hindus lived quietly and in freedom under Muslim rule. Even under the .... ,ors t m lers Chris tians and Jews held positions of illfluence and in general retained their rel igio us freed om . It was Chris ti ans, not Muslim s, we are remi nded , who in the fifieentll cen - tury expelled the Jews from Spain where, under Islamic rul e, th ey had enjoyed one o f their golde n ages. To press this exampl e, Spain and Anatolilt c hanged hands at about th e same time-Chri stians expelled th e Moors from Spain , whi le Mu slims conquered what is now Turkey. Every Mu sl,im W'dS driven from Spain, put to the swo rd . o r forced to co n\'Crt. whereas the seat of tlle Eas te rn Orthodox church remains in Istanbul to this day. Indeed , if co mparisons are whltt we wdnl, Muslims consid e r C hri stianity's record as th e darke r of the two. Who was it , they ask, who preached tlle Crusades in the
ISLAM 2:i7
name of the Prince of Peace? Who instituted the Inqui si tion , inven ted the rack and the stake as instrum e nts of religion. ruld plunged Europe inlo its devastating wars of re lig ion? Objective hi storia ns are of o ne mind in th e ir verdi ct that , to put tll e matter minimally. Islam's reco rd on th e use ufforce is no darke r th an tlmt of C hristianity.
Laying asid e co mpariso ns, Mu sli ms ad mit that tll ei r own reco rd respecti ng fo ree is not exem plary. Every religion at some stages in its caree r has been used by its professed adherents to mask aggreSS ion , and Islam is no exceptio n. Time and again it has provided d es igning ch ieftains, caliph s. a nd now heads of sta te with pretex ts for gratifying their ambiti o ns. What Mus lims deny ca n be summarized ill three points.
First, they deny that Islam's record of intolerance and aggression is greater tllan that of tll e other major re ligion s. (Buddhi sm may be an exceptio n here.)
Second. th ey den y that Wes tern hi sto ries are fair 10 !slum in their acco unts o f its use of foree. n Jihad. th ey say. is a case in poinl. To Westenlers it conjures scenes of screaming fanatics bei ng egged into war by promises that they will be instantl y transported to heaven if they are slain. In actualit y: (a)jIJwd literall y meaTlS exe rtion , tllOugh beca use war requires exertion in exceptional degree th e \\.'Ord is o ft e n. by ex te nsion, attached the re to. (b) The d efi nition of a ho ly war in Isl am is virtually ide ntical with th at of a just war in C hristi an ity. where too it is su metimes called a holy war. (c) C hri stianity. too. co n- si d ers those who di e in suc h wars 1'0 be murtyrs, and promises th e m salvatio n. (d) A luuJith (crulo nica1 saying) o f Muhammad ranks Ihe battle against evil within onc's own heart above battles against exter- nal e nemi es. "We have retunled from tll e lesser j ihad," th e Prophet observt.'<l, follOWing an e ncounter with the Meccan s, "to face t1l tl !,'Tealer j ihad," tl\e battle with th e enemy wit hin oneself
Third, Muslims deny that the blots in th eir reco rd shou ld be charged against th e ir religioll whose presi ding ideal th ey affinn in tllei r standard g reeting , as-saltmlll 'alo.ykulII ("Peace be upon you1.
Sufism We have bee n treating Islam as if it were monolitllic, whic h of course it is 110 1. Like every religious tradition it divides. Its main hi sto ri cal
!58 TIlE WORLD'S RELICIONS
division is between th e main strea m Sun n is r Traditionalists" (from 8Unrwh. tradition] who comprise 87 percellt of aU Muslims ) and the Shi'ites ~iteraJly -partisans- of Ali, Muhamm ad's son-i n-law, wholll Shi'iles beli eve should have directly succeeded Muhammad but who was thri ce passed over and who, when he was fi nall y appointed leader of th e Mu slim s, was assassina ted). Ceogmphi cally, th e Shi'itcs clus te r in and a rou nd lraC( a nd Iran, whil e th e Sunnis flank th e m to the Wes t (th e Middl e Ea.'it, Turk(.,)" and Afri ca) and to the East (through the Ind ian subco ntin e nt , whi c h includes Pakistan and Ban- glades h, 0 11 through Malaysia, and into Ind onesia, where alon e th e re are more Muslims t1lan in the e ntire Ardb world). We shall pass over this his torical split, whi ch turns o n an in -house dispute, a nd take up instead a division that has universal overtones. It is th e vertical di vi- sion between the mys tics of Islam, cal led Sufis, and th e re maining majority of the faith . who are e qually good Mus lims but are not mys ti cs.
The root meaning of the word Sufi is wool. suf A ce ntu ry or two ufter Muhammad's dea th. th ose within th e Islamic co mmunit y who bore the inn e r message of blam c am e to be known as Su fi s. Many of them donned coarse woolen garmeil ls to protest th e si lks and sa tin s of su ltans a nd califs. Alanned by the wo rl d liness they saw overtaki llg Islam. th ey sought to purify and spiri tu ali 7.c it from within . Th ey wanted to recover ils libert y and love, :Uld to resto re to it ils dee pe r, mystical tone. Exte rnals sho uld yie ld to internals, matte r to meaning, o utward symbol to inner real ity. - Love the pitc he r less," they c ried , -a nd the water more."
Sufis saw thi s distinction between th e inner and th e o uter, th e pitc he r and what it co ntain s, as d e ri ving fro m the Koran itse lr, where Allall p resenls himself as both · th e Outward lal-;:O'li"J and th e Inward ial-batinr (57:3). Exoteric Muslims- ..... 'C shall call them suc h because they were satisfied with th e ex plici t meanings o f th e Koran's teac hings- passed over this distin ction, but the Sufis (esote ric Mus- lims) found it important. Co nte millation of Cod occ upi es a signi - fi can t place in every Mu slim's life, but for most it must co mpete, pre tty muc h o n a par, with life's other demands. Wh e n we add to thi s that life is de manding-peopl e te nd to be busy- it sta nds to reason that not many Mu slims will have th e time, if th e inclination. to do mo re than keep up with the Oivine Law that orders th e ir lives. Th e ir fide lit y is not in vai n; in th e e nd th ei r reward will be as gt'eat as the
ISLA M 259
Sufis: But t11 e Sufis were impatient for th e ir reward, if we may put the matte r thus. nley wan ted to e ncou nter God directl y in this very life- time. Now,
11lis cal led for special methods, and to develop and prac tice the m th e Su fi s ga thered around spiritual masters (s haikhs), fonn - ing circles th at, from th e twelfth ce ntury o nward, crys talli zed into Sufi orders (tarltlaita). The word for th e me mbers of th ese ord ers is faqir- p ronou ll ced fak ir; lit e rall y poor, but wi tll th e co nn otati o n of one who is ·poor ill spirit. - In so me y,'U)'S, however. they co nstituted a spiritual e lite, asp iring higher than o th er Muslims, an d will ing to assume the heavier disciplines their ex travaga nt goals required. We ca n li ke n tl leir toriqahs to the conte mpl ati ve orders of Roman Cath oli cism, wi th th e difference that Sufis gc ne rall y marry and are not clo iste red. They e ngage in nonna! occ upa ti ons and repai r to thei r gatheri ng places (wwiyahs, Arabi c; khanaqahs, Persian ) to si ng, dance, p ray. rec ite tlle ir rosaries In co nce rt , and li ste n to til e d is- cou.rses of th e ir Master, all to th e e nd of reac hin g Cod di rec tl y. So me- one who was ignorant or fire, t1l ey observe. could co me to know it by d egrees: fi rst by heari ng of it, the n by see ing it , and finall y by bei ng burned by its hea t. Th e Su fi s wanted to be -bumed~ by God.
11lis rc<lu ired drawing close to him , and they developed th ree overlapping but dis tinguishabl e routes. We can cal l these th e mys ti - c isms o f love. of ecs tasy. a nd of intuition.
To begin wi th til e 6rst of these. Sufi IO\IC poetry is wo rld fa mous. A remarkable eighth -eeu tu ry womnn sai nt , Habra, discovered in he r solit ary vig ils. o fte n las ting all night , that Cod's love was at tile co re of the universe; II Ot to steep oneselr in that love and re flec t it to Ot1lCrs was to rorfeit lifc's suprem e beatitude. Because love is never more (."\Ii- dent than when its objec t is absent. tlmt be ing the tim e when th e beloved 's importance cann ot be overl oo ked, Persian poets in particu" lar d we lt 0 11 the pangs of separation to deepen thei r IO\'C ofead and thereby draw close to him. Jalal ad -Oin Rumi used t11 e plaintive sound of the reed flu te to typify th is th eme.
Listen to Ole story told by the reed, of being separated. "Since I was cut from the reedbed. 1 ha ve mode this crying
sound. Any01le separated from someone lie loves underswtlds wlwi I
sa y, anyo,w pld/cd from a sou rce 1011gs to go back.·
260 T il E WORLD'S RELI GIONS
TIle lament of th e flute. tom from its ri verban k and symbol th erefo re for th e soul's seve ran ce from th e divi ne, threw the Su fis into states of agitation and bewildenne nt. Nothing crea ted could ass uage th ose slatcs; but its beloved, All ah, is so sublim e, so di ssi mil ar, th at hum an love for him is like th e nig hti ngale's fo r the rose, o r th e mo th's fo r th e flam e. Even so, Rumi ass ures us, th at human love is re turned:
Neuer does the lover seek without bei ng sought by llis belooed. Whefl the lightning of love has shot into thi s hea n , know that
there is love ill th a I hea rl . ... Mark weU the text: "'He loves them and they love Jlim.·
(Ko ran , 5:59).
But th e full truth has still no t bee n grasped , fo r All ah loves his crea tures more th an they love him. ·Cod sai th : Wh oso see keth to approach Me o ne span, I approach him o ne c ubit; and whoso sceke th 10 app roach Me o ne c ubit, I approach him two fatho ms; and whoeve r walks towards Me, I ru n lowards him."38 Ha bra cele brates the eve n4 lual meeting of the two souls, o ne finite, th e o the r Infinil e, in he r fam ous night prayer:
My Cod and my Lord: eyes are at rest , the sta r;y are setting, hushed are the movements of birrls in thei r nests, of mQIl8ler$ in the deep. And '1011 are the Just who klWWS 110 clwngt!. the Equity that does flot StlJef'Ve, tile Euerlastin g that Plever passes away, T/. e cloonJ of kiligY aro locked and gua rded by their henchmen, but your door is 0 1Je11 Ie those wlio call upon you. My Lord. each lover is now alotle with llis beloved. 1\lId I am alone witll you.
We are callin g th e seco nd Sufi approach to th e di vin e presen ce ecs tati c (IiteraU y, "to shUld outside oneself1 because il turns on experiences th at diffe r. not j ust in degree but in kind. fro m usu al ones. Th e pres iding me ta pho r for ecsta tic Sufis was th e Prophe t's Night Jo urney thro ug h th e seve n heavens into th e Di vi ne Presence. What he perceived in th ose heave ns no one can say, but we can be sure th e visio ns we re ex trao rdinary- in creas ingly so wi th each level of asce nt. Ecsta ti c Sufi s do not cl ai m th at th ey co me to see what Muh amm ad saw Ih al nig ht , but they move in his di rec ti o n. At tim es th e co nte nt of wh at they are experiencing e ngrosses th e m so com- pletely th at th e ir states beco me tnm ceLike because of th e ir I'otal abs traction fro m se lf. No atte nti o n re mains for who th ey are, whe re
ISLAM .61
th ey are, or what is hap pe ning 10 th e m. In psychological parlance th ey are "dissociated
H fro m th e mselves,] losing co nscio usness of th e
world as it is 1I 0nnally perceived. Journ eyi ng 10 meet such adepts. pi lgrims repo rted find ing th e mselves ig nored- no t o ut of dis- courtesy, but beca use literall y they we re 11 01 see n. De li berate ind uceme nt of such states re qui red practice; a pilgri m who sought out a reve red ecstatic named Nuri reported finding him in such an illte nse state of co nce ntrati on that not a hair of hi s bod y moved. "Wh e n I late r asked him. 'From whom did yo u le arn this dee p con4 centratio n?' he re plied, 'From a cal wa tching by a mouse hole. But its co nce ntratio n is muc h more in te nse th an min e.'''» Neverth e less. whe n th e al le red state arrives, it feels like a gift rath e r than a n acqui - sition. Th e l)hrase th at mys tical theology uses, "infused grace," feels rig ht he re; for Su fi s repo rt th at as th e ir co nsciousness begi ns to change, il feels as if tJmir wi ll s were placed in abeyance and a superi o r will takes over.
Sufi s hono r th e ir ecs tati cs, but in calling th e m "drunke n" th ey serve noti ce tlmt th ey must bring tilt, substan ce of th e ir visiOI1Ji back wi th th e m whe n they find th e mselves "sobe r" again. in plai n lan- guage, transcend e nce m ust be made imm anen t; the Cod who is encou nte red apart from th e wo rl d must al so be e ncounte red wi thin it. Th is la lte r does nol req uire ecs tasy as Its preliminary. an d til e direc t route to c ul tiva ting it carries us to til e tllird SuS approac h: til e way of intuiti ve di sce rnm e nt.
Like th e oth er two me thods tllis o ne brings knowledge, but of a d is tinc t sort . Love mysti Cism yie lds "heart kn ow ledge," and ecs tasy Hvis ual or visionary kn owledge," because extrate rre strial realili es are see n; but intuitive mys ti cism brings "me ntal knowle dge," which Sufis call ma'ri/ali, o btained through an organ of disce rnm e nt called "th e eye of the heart."'"' Because til e realities a ttai ned th ro ugh ma'rifah are imma teri aJ , the eye of tile heart is immate rial as we ll . II does nol compete wi tll th e physical eye whose objects. th e wo rld 's nonnal objects. re main full y in view. Wh at it does is cloth e those objects in celestiaJlight. O r 10 reverse th e me taphor; It recogn izes th e world's objects as garments th at Cod dons to c reate a wo rld. These &rarments become p rogress ive ly more tran spare nt as th e eye of th e heart gain s stre ngth. It would be false to say that th e world is Cod - th at would be pantheis m. But to til e eye or th e heart. til e wo rld i.y Cod-i n- disguise, Cod ve il ed.
262 T il E WORLD'S RELICIONS
TIl e principal method the Su fi s emp loyed ror penetrati ng the disguise is symbo lism . In using visible objects to speak or invisible things. symbolis m is th e langu age or relig ion ge neraJ ly; it is 10 reli. glOll what num bers are to science. M)'lIIies. hO\W':ller, emp loy it to exceptional degree; ror instead or slopping with the IIrst spi ritual object a symbol points to. they use it as stepping ston e to a more exal ted object. This led ru -G ha7.ali to dt:fin e sym bolism Its 'lhe sci- e nce orthe re lation between multipl e leve ls or reality." Every verse or the Koran, lh e Sufis say, conceals a minimum or seve n hidde n sign i- IIcations. and the number can sometimes reac h to seve nl y.
To illustrate this point: For a ll Muslims removing o ne's shoes beJore stepp ing into a mOS(lue is a mark or reverence; it sig nifies c hec king th e clamoring world at the door and not admitting it in to sac red precincts. TIle Sufi accepts thi s symboli sm rull y, but goes 011 to see in th e act the additiollalmcaning of removing everythi ng that separates the soul from Cod. Or th e act of asking forgiveness. All Muslims pmy to be forgivcn ror sl)CC ifi c tran sgress ions, but wh e n th e Sufi pronoun CeS th e fonnula astaglifinlllall , I ask forgi ve ness o rCod. he or she reads into th e petition an added req ues t: to be rorgive n for his or he r se para te exis te nce. TIl is sou nds strange, and ind eed, exo- teric Muslims lind it incomprehensible. But Ol e Sufis see it as an ex te ns ion of Rabi"a's teach ing that I'our existence is a si n with which no other can be compared. ~ Beca use e:r- iste nce is a stwl ding out from some thing, which in this case is Cod, ex iste nce invo lves separa tion .
To avoid it Sufis devel oped th e ir doc trine of [arla-extinction- as th e logicn.l te rm of tJleir quest. Not thul their conscwusness was to be extinguished. It was the ir self-collsciousness- their co nscio us- ness or themsel ves as separate se lves reple te with their priwte per- sonal agendas-that wa.s to be e nd ed. If th e e nding was co mpl e te, th ey argued, when th ey looke d Insid e the dry shells or Ol ei r now- e mptied selves th ey would find nothing but God. A Christian mys ti c put this point by writing:
Cod. whose boundleu love and joy A~ present everywhere; lie ca nnot come to visit !JOU Unless you are not there. (Ange lus Silesius)
AI-Hallaj's version was: '" saw my Lord with th eeyc of th e Il ea rt. I said: 'Who are you?' He answered: 'You :~
As a fin al examp le o rthe Suns' extra~tanl use of symbo lism, we can note th e way they tightened th e c reedal assertion "There is no god but Cod~ to read. "l1l e re is nothing but God.~ To exoteric Mus- lims this ag:Lin sounded sill y. if not blasp hemous: si ll y because there are obviously lots or th ings-tables and chairs-that are not God; blasp hemous because the mystic reading see med to deny Cod as C rea tor. But the Su fi s' inte nt was to c hall e nge lh e independence lhllt peo ple normally asc ribe to things. Monotheism to them meallt more than Ole theoreti cal point that there are not Iwo Cods; that they COII- sidered obvious. Picking up o n the existential meaning of theism - God is that to whi ch we give (or shou ld give) ourse lves-they agreed that the initial meani ng of "no god bot Cod" is that "'C sho uld !"rive owselves to no thing but Cod. But we do not ca tch the rull sig- nificance of the ph rase, th ey argued, until we see that we do give our- selves to o th e r Ihin gs when we let them occ UI>f us as objects in their own right; objects lhal have th e power t-o interest or repel us by being si mpl y what th ey a re. To think or li ght as caused by e lectricity- by electricity o nl y and suffi cien tl y, without aski ng where e lectricity co mes rrom - is in princi ple to com mit shirk ; for because on ly Cod is se lf-su ffi cien t, to co nsider other things as suc h is 10 liken them to Cod and thereby ascri be to him rivals.
Symbolism . thougll pov.oerfuJ, works somewhat abstrnc tl y, so the Sufis supple ment it witll dhikr (to remember), th e pro.lctice o r re membe ring .... Uah through repeati ng his Name. "There is a means of polishing all th ings whereby rust may be removed,~ a Iwditl. asse rts, adding: "That which polishes the heart is th e invocation of Allah.- lle me mbnm ce of Cod is at th e same tim e a forge tting or self. so Sufis co nsider Ih e repe titi on of Allah's Name th e best way of direc tin g th e ir attention Codwo.I.I"d. Wh eth er th ey utte r Cod·s Name alone o r with others, sil en tl y or aloud. acce nting its first syllable sharp ly or prolo ng ing its second syll able as long as breath a110'NS, they try to 611 every free mom e nt of th e day with its music. Eventu- ally, this prac ti ce kneads th e syll ables int o th e subconscious mind , from which it bubbles up with tile spontaneity o r a birdsong.
TIl e roregoing paragraphs sketc h what Sufism is at heart. bUI they do not explain why this section ol>enoo by associating it with a division within Islam. TIle answer is that Muslims are oft ..... ,o minds about Sufism. This is partly beca use Sufism is itself a mixed bag. By the principle lhat th e hig he r attracts the lower, Sufi orders have at
264 T ilE WORLD'S RELIGIONS
tim es attrac ted rifrraff who are Sufis in little more than nam e. For exa mpl e. certain mendicant o rders of Sufism have used pO\'erty as a discipline. but it is o nl y a ste p from authen ti c Sufis of th is stripe to beggars who do no more than claim to be Sufis. Politics too has a t times intruded. Mos t recen tl y. grou ps have arisen in til e West that call themselves Sufis. while proressi ng no all egiance whatsoever to Islamic o rthodoxy.
It is no t surpri sing that th ese aberrntio ns raise e}"ebmws, but eve n a uth e nti c Sufis m (as .... -e have tried to desc ribe it ) is controvcr· sial. Why? It is l>ccause Su fis take certai n liberties th at exote ri c Mus· lims can not in co nscience co ndone. Ilaving seen til e sky throug h the skylight o r Islami c orthodoxy. SufIS beco me persuaded that tll cre is more sky tllall the al)C rture all ows. Wh e n Rumi asserted, " I am nei· tiler Muslim no r Christian. Jew nor Zoroastrian; I am neither or th e earth no r of th e heave ns, I am ne ith er body nor soul ,w we call under· stand the exoterics' rear thai orthodoxy was being strained beyond permissible limits. Ibn ~rabi's dl."C laratioll was even more unsettling:
My hea rt lias O1)Cfleti IInto even) Jonll . It is a p<Jstllre for gazelles, a cloister for Cli rislilm mo nks, a tCfrll,le Jor idols, tile Ko 'lJa oj tile "Ugri m, tile tablets of tile Thrah and the book oj the Ktm m . I prac· tice tile religion of Love; in whatsoever directibns its ca ra oo n..Y ativance, tile religion of Love shalllJe ml) religion and my faitll.
As ro r AJ · I-Iall aj's assertio n that he was CO(I,~I no explan atio n from the Sufis to the e ffect tllat he was referri ng to til e d ivi ne Esse nce that was within him could keep exo te ri cs rrom hearing this as o utrigh t blasphemy.
Mysti cis m breaks through th e boundaries that protect til e faith of the typical be li ever. In doing so it moves in to an unconfined region tllat , rulfilling though it is for so me, carries dangers for l.hose who are unqualified for its teachi ngs. Without tll ci r literal meaning be ing denied, dogmas a nd prescriptions tllat til e ordinary believer sees as absolute are int e rpre ted all egori call y, o r used as points of reference th at may eventu all y be tran scended. Particularl y shocking to so me is the fael that th e Su fi o nc n claims. if o nl y by implica tion , an authority derived direc tl y from Cod and a knowledge given rrom above rather than learned in th e school s.
Sufis have th ei r rigllts. but - ir we may ve nture til e ve rdict of islam as II whole-so have ordinary believers whose raitll in unambig·
ISLAM
uous principles. full y adequate for salvation . co uld be unde nnined by teachings dlat seem to tamper witll th e m. For tlli s reason mally spirit ual Masters have been discree t in th e ir teachings. reservi ng parts o f th ei r doctri ne ror those who are suited to receive them , TlIls is also why the exoteric authorities have regarded Sufism with und e r- standable suspic ion, Co ntrol bas bee n exercised, partly by public opi nio n and partl y by m eans or a kind of dyna mic tension , main· tained through th e centuri es, between til e exoteric religious 3uthori· ties on til e one hand and SuS shnikll$ on th e o tll e r. An und erc urrent of opposi ti on to Sufism within sectio ns orthe Islamic co mmunity has sc rved as a necessary curb on the mystics, without this und erc urre nt having been strong enough to preve nt th ose who have had a ge nuin e \lOCation for a Sufi path from following the ir destiny.
On til e whale, esoterism and exoterism have achieved a healthy balance in Islam, bul in this sec tion we shall le t th eesote ri cs have th e las t word. One of the teaching d evices for which th ey are famous has not yet been mention ed; it is the Sufi tal e. This one. - 111e Tale orthe So.nds, M re lates to th eir doc trin e orfana, til e tmn sccndin g. in Cod, of th e finite se lf.
A stream, from its souru in far"lJif mountains, pa.ssing tllfQ(lgh every kind and descri,Jtiorl of coun tr1jside, at ltut reached tile sa nti..Y of t/.e desert. Just (J8 it had crosSL.J. every other lJarrier; t/.e stream tried to cros.t thi.! one. but it fOtlnd that as fast (l$ it rail jrllo tile sand, its waters d isappeared,
It was convinced, however, tllat its destiny wa.r to cross this desert, and yet there was no way. Now a ,.idden voice. coming fro m the desert itself, whispered: -The Wind crosses the desert. and so can the stream. "
The stream objected that it was cltulling itself agairl$t the ..Ya nd, aM only getting absorbed: that the wind could fly , and tllia was wily it could cross a desert.
-By hunting in your own accustomed WI'Y you ca mwt get across. rOIl will either disappear or bf!(;()me a marsh. l ou "lIIs1 aUow the Wind to carry you ewer, to your destinat ion, -
Bllt how could tilts IIlJPpen? "'By allountl g yourself to be (,bsorbed in th e wind. "
11Iis i(lea was tlOt acceptable to the stn!am. After all. it IlOd "ever been absorbed. before.. It did fIOt Wimt to lose itt fru/fvkllltJlity.
266 TIlE WORL.D'S REUCIONS
Anti. once having /Olit it. 1ww wa.rone tokllow that it collid ever be refpi,ied?
"The wirni." said tlte sa nd, ",JerfO"".s this Ju nction. It taka UI' water; carries II over tlle desert . and then lets itfall afpin. Failing as rain , tile water afpin becomes a river."
"How can J know that this is tme?" -It is 80. mid if you do not believe it , you cannot bectmte more tll(HI a quagmire, and even that could take many. many years. And it certainly is not tl16 b'ame as a st rea m."
"But cu n I not remain tlte sa llte stream that I am todayP" "You canno t in cillier case remain so •.. the whisper said. "Your
esscntitJl,Jflr1 is carried away atlll Jorms a st ream again . You are called what you are even today beclJl~ IJOO do not know which IJQrt of you is the essen tial one. ..
When it heard tllis, ceria;" edloes began to arise in the t!toughtlJ of the st rea m. J)jmly it remembered a state In which it - or some porl oj it?- had been held in the am", oj a wind. It a/.so remembered - or did it?- that t/lis was tile real thing. not 'Iecu- sa ri/y the obvious thing, to do.
And the stream raised its oolJOr into tile welcoming anns of tlte wind, w hich gently and easily bore it u"wards arlll along, let - ting It Jail soJtly as Noon as they reaclled the rooJ oj a mounta;'l . mony, many. miles aWlJy. And because it had its doubts, the stream wa.rabJe to remember and n!COt'tl morest m ng/y i n iu mind the d etaiu oj the e::qJerierICe. It reflected, "Yes, now 1 !.a ve learned my true idetltily."
Tile st ream was lea nlillg. But the smllla w l.is1JernL· "We know. because we see It 1Wl)pen day aJter day: and because we. the sands, extlm d Jrom the riveT$ide aU the way to till! trlOImtaiFl ."
And tllat is w ilY it i.,y b'a id that tlte way in which tile st ream oj Life is to continue 011 its jounley is Writtetl in tile Sands. ~l
Whither Islam?
For long periods since Muhammad called his l)COp le to Cod's o ne- ness, Muslims have wande red rrom th e spirit or the Prophet. TIleir lead ers are th e fi rs t to ad mit that prac ti ce has o rte n been rep laced by me re proress ion, and tlmt rervo r 1135 waned.
ISLAM 16'
Viewed as a whole. howeve r, Islam unrolls berore us one or the Illost re markabl e panoramas in al l hi story. We have spoken onts early greatness. lI ad we pursued Its hi story there wou ld have been sec- tions on th e Muslim e mpire. whi ch. a cen tury after Muh amm ad's death , stre tcbed rrom the bay or Biscay to the Indus and th e rrontiers or Chin a, rrom th e Aral Sea to the upper Nile. Mure important would have been the sec ti ons d escri bing th e spread or Mus lim ideas: th e developm e nt or a rabulous c ulture,. th e rise or liter.a ture, sc ie nce,. medicine, art , and architec turei th e g lory o r Damasc us, Baghdad. and Egypt, and th e sple ndor o r Spain under lh e Moors. The re wou ld have been the story OnIOW. during Europe's Dark Ages, Muslim phi- losophers a nd scie ntists ke pt til e lam p or leanting bright. ready to spark the Weste rn mind whe n it roused rrom its long sleep.
Nor would th e sto ry have been e ntirel y co nfined to th e past . ro r there are indi cati o ns that Islam is c mergi ng rro m Stl'Vcral centuries or stagnation, whi ch co lonizntion no doubt exacerbated. It races e no r- mous proble ms: how to di stinb'Ui sh industrial mode rni7.ati on (whi ch o n balance it welcomes), rrom Wcs tern izntio n (wh ich o n balance it doesn't); how to rcalize th e unit y thai is latent in Islam when th c rorces of nationalism work powerfully agai nst it i how to hold on to lruth in a pluralistic, relativil.i ng age. But having thrown o ff til e colo nial yoke. Isla m is stirring with some or th e vigo r of its fann e r yo uth . From Morocco across rrom Cibral taron the Atlanti c, eastward across North Arrica. through the Ind ia n subcontin e nt (which includes Pakistan an d Bang lad esh), on to the ncar-Ilp or Indones ia., Islam is a vi tal rorce in th e conte mpur.ary wor ld. Numbering in tile order of900 million adhe rents i.n a global popu lation or 5 billion, one person ou t or every fi ve or six belongs today to this religio n which g uides hum an tllOught and prac ti ce in unparall e led detail. And th e proportion is inc reasi ng. Read th ese words at any hour o r day or night and so mewh ere rrom a minare t (or now by radio) a mue-..zin wi ll he calli ng the raitllrul to praye r, ann ouncing:
Cod is most great. Cod is most great. I testify that llJere i.~ no jg>d bill Cod. I testify tltal Mlllaammad is tlte Pror>het oJGo<l. Arise aud way;
!68 TilE WORLD'S RELIC IONS
Cod ;., I/1MI great. Cod ;., most great. Tliem i.f no god but God.
Suggestions for Further Reading
Cranti ng tll e Musli m's con te ntio n th ai the Koran suffers inco mpara- bl y in translati on, Mo ha mmed Pickth alJ's The Metming of I/~ CJori- OU$ Koran (New York: New American Library, 1953) may be recom- me nded as bei ng as selViceable as any.
Kenneth Cragg's T/~ IIOtlSe of Isla m (Belmont. CA: Wadswo rth . 1988) and Victor Danner's TIle Islamic Traditio" (Amit y, NY: Amity I-louse, 1988) olrer admirable overviews ufthis traditio n, as d o Seyyed J-Iossein Nas r's, Ideau atld Realities of Islam (San Fr.m cisco: J-I arpe r- Co ll ins, 1989) and Abdel Halim Mahnmd 's Tile Creed of Islam (Lon- don : World of Islam Festival Trust. 1978; distributed by Th orsons Publ ishers, Den ing loll Estate, Wellingboro ugh , Northanls, Eng land).
Th e best meta phys ical discussion o f Sufi d octri nes is to be found in Fritlljof Sc huon's Understanding Islam (New Yo rk : Pe ngui n Books, 1972), which a lead ing Mu sli m sch olar h as hailed as "th e best ",'Ork iu Engli sh a ll th e meaning o f Islam an d why Mu slim s believe in it. M It is a d ema nding book, hOYlCVer. More accessib le to Ille general read e r are William Stoddart's Sufism (New Yo rk : Paragon Press. 1986) and Martin Lings' lVlmt Is SufISm? (Lo ndon: Unwin H yman, 1975, 1988).
For th e writings orlhe greatest Sufi poet, Rumi , John Moyne and Co le man Barks' D,JefI Secret (Putney, VT; TIlres ho ld Books, 1984) and Colemall Barks' Delicious Laughter (Athens, CA: Maypop Press, 1989) are recomme nded.
My tlli rty minute vi deo cassette o n "Islamic Mysti cis m : Th e Sufi Way· is avai labl e rrom Il artley Film Fou nda ti on . Ca l Rock Road, Cos Cob. c r 06807, and the In sti tute or Noe ti c Scieuces. 475 Gate Fi ve Road , Sui te 300, Saus.'llito, CA 94965.
T he pleasures of Su fi tales can be sampled th ro ug h Idri es Shall's coll ectio n, Tales of tile Dervislu?s (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1970).
Notes
I. Meg Gree nfield , New,week (March 26. 1979): UB. 2. Norman Daniel , Is/om olld 'he "at: The Mokillg of on ImlJgt!. 1960. I"-:y. t.-d.
ISLAM 269
(Edi nburgh; Edinburgh University Pres$, 1966) details the emergence of the distorted pic:lure of Islam that lias dominated the West for I1'W: r a thou - ~d ,..,.,..
3 Philip Il itli, lIu lory of th« AmEn. 1937. Rev. ed. (New York; St. Ma rtin's Press, L970), 3-1. .
4 . Thomas Carlyle'sdescription In '"1lie Il ero as Prophet,· in IIm1e1l1nd 1Iem- \~hip, 1840. Reprint. (New Yo rk : O.:rord University Pres$, 1974.)
.5. Artlbic has no neuter gender. As iu no uns are iOYllliabl y masculine or femi - nine, il.5 pronouns are as well . tn Ilddity to thepmmar of the Koran . there- fore. I shall, w he n referri ng to Allah who possesses a masculine proper name, use the masculine pronoun .
6, See Charles Le Gal Ea ton, blam lind the Duti~ of Man ( Albany. State University o f New York Pres$, 1985), 103.
7. 11le literal meaning o f the -...u rd U"f'lI'is -reci te,· but hcre. where M uh am- mad was give n his commission. I have followed the trtljectory urVictor Dan- ner's - Ilreaclt (The I, lalllie Tnulition (Amity, NY: Amity I louse, 1988), 35), but c ha nged h is "'Oru to Mproclai m :
8. As re ndered by Amt.ocr Ali in The Spint of bfalll , 1902 . Rev. ed . ( London : C llris toph ers, t 923). IS.
9 . Ali . Spint of lis/alii , 32. 10 . Sir Will iam Muir, quoted In Ali , S,nnt of l, lam, 32 . 11 . Q uo ted without source in Al i, Spirit of lliam, 52. 12 . Ali , Spirit of #!flam , .52. 13 . Philip II itt!, 7'heAfflb,; A Slwrl llutory, 1949. Rev. cd. (New York : St . M a r-
lin's l'reH, 1968). 32. 14 . Mic hael I!. H art, The 100 .. A &nkingofthe Mort Injll~'iDl Per"IOM in II~
tory (New \ ar k: Citadel Press, 1989), 40. 1.5. Edwam Cibbon , The D«/ine lind FsJJ of the Rorrltln Em,lire, 1845. Repri n!.
(New York: Modeol Library, 1977), YOI. 2, 162. 16. Today the language o f Islam u a matter of s harp cont roversy. While all
OrtJlodOl Musli nu agree thai the ritual use or the Koran in canonical p rtlyers. a nd so on, m ust be in Anbic. there are mallY. including some among t he ulsmD (religiOUS scholars), who believe tlial on other occuiolls those wbo do not know Arabic should read the Kortln in t rtlnSllition.
t7. Kenneth C~, trans. , liedding,y in the Quron (Londo n : Collin$, 1988), 18- 18. FrithJof 5<:h\lOIl , Urnler.rltmding Islam (New York : Pellguin Books, 1972),
44-45. 19. MS he IMIU)'J said: My Lordi ll ow can I have a c hil d whe ll no mortal ha th
touched me? ti c (the a ngel) said: So. Allah crea tetJl what li e will. If He d t.'Cree tJl a tJl i.ng , li e sai th unto II only. Bel and it is· (3:47).
20 . Thbari rela tes tl1ldi tiOlI5 0 11 this episod e that h ave God IIl1l1Clling the mOUJi- tain wilh just h is little finger.
21. Ali , S" lril 0[ 1810111, ISO.
270 TIlE WOR.I. D"S RELICIONS
22. William James. The Varidiaof Rdigioos UperYfICe (New York: Macmillan. 1961),57.
2.3 . Sir Muhamm ad Iqbal , The St!:crt!u of Ihi! ~/. 1920. Re print . ( Lahore: Muhun""lId Ashrnf, 1979). xxi .
24. Quoted in Ali, S,lint of blam , 199. 25. Ali, S,nnt ofllla m, 170. 26. Cai Eato n, buml a,wI thi! DutirnJ of Mall, 55. 27. A hadith 0( th e Prol>het , reported in MbhJ:at al.Mtaabih. Ja mes Robson,
trans. (Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf. 1965), L264-67. 28. Bernard Lewis, The At/antit: Monthlll (Septe mhc!r 1990): 59. 29. Ali. Spin, ofblam, 173. 30. As oflhi s writi ng the Prime Mini ste r ofPllk is tun and the lelldcrofthe oppo-
sitio n party In 8 a ng lad esll are bou. women. Muslim wo lll en could hold p roperty ill their {J\/oIn names from the s ta rt , w hereu married women In the United States did not wi n thai right until l he twentieth century.
3 1. Outside s lavery, we mllSt add - a s ubjeclthllt, due to the \'ilriely ofi ls local alld histori cal fonns. is too complt'.l 10 consider here. See Bcnllml Lewis. lloa and SluotJry in lhi! Middle Elut (New York : Oxford Unh-el"Sily Press, 1990).
32. Victor DUlIIlcr, Tile bLamit: Trm/iti(m (A mity, NY: Amity lI o use. 1988), 131 . 3:3. Ktl nnet h Crugg, Thi! llouu of blam (Belmo nt , CA.: WadswortJl , 1915), 122. 3 4 . See Malcolm X, The AlJloIriogro,my of Malcol.m X (New York : CI'Q\Ifl Press,
1964) , 338-47. 35. Daniel , ,.lam and 1M Un ', 274 . 36. Quoted by Ali , S,nnt of blam, 212. 37. Norman Dani el'l l. lam anti the Ub I s Ulll>orlsthe m on thi s jlOi nt . 38. IIllllith ((Ud,si, all extra· Koranic cano nical saying ofth l! Pl'Ojl hel, in which
Allah speaks in the Ill'lll person . 39. Cyp rilln Rice. 1116 Pmian Sufo (Londo n: All en & Unwin , 1964), 57. 40 . nle relation between me ntal and visionary knowledge is brought out in an
exchange hetwt."C n the great Musli m philosopher, Jbn Sina (AYlcenna), a nd a conte m porary ecstatic named Abu Sa'id. Ibn Sin a said or Abo Sa·id, ~Whal I know, he sees. ~ Abu Sa'id returned the compliment. ~what I see.. he 5aid , Mile knows. M
4 1. llil actual words were. - I a m th e Truth ,· but Trulll used here as o ne o f th e Ninet y· nine HeauUrul Na mes of Allal •.
4.2. Idries Shall, Thies of ,hi! DenMhu (New York : E. P. Dullon , 1970), 23-24 .