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Americans and Latinos were hit harder than whites. There are many reasons for this, but the last set of bars on this figure reveals one of them: Banks purposely targeted minorities to charge higher interest rates. Over the lifetime of a loan, these higher monthly payments mean paying an extra $100,000 to $200,000 (Powell and Roberts 2009). Another consequence of the higher payments was that African Americans and Latinos were more likely to lose their homes.
Health Care. Discrimination does not have to be deliberate. It can occur even though no one is aware of it: neither those being discriminated against nor those doing the discriminating. White patients, for example, are more likely than either Latino or African American patients to receive knee replacements and coronary bypass surgery (Skinner et al. 2003; Popescu 2007). Treatment after a heart attack follows a similar pattern: Whites are more likely than blacks to be given cardiac catheterization, a test to detect blockage of blood vessels. This study of 40,000 patients holds a surprise: Both black and white doctors are more likely to give this preventive care to whites (Stolberg 2001).
Researchers do not know why race–ethnicity is a factor in medical decisions. With both white and black doctors involved, we can be certain that physicians do not intend to discrim- inate. In ways we do not yet understand—but which could be related to the implicit bias that apparently comes with the internalization of dominant norms—discrimination is built into the medical delivery system (Green et al. 2007). Ideas about race–ethnicity bring implicit at- titudes that become a subconscious motivation for giving or denying access to advanced medical proce- dures.
The stark contrasts shown in Table 9.1 indicate that institutional discrimination can be a life-and-death matter. In childbirth, African American mothers are three times as likely to die as white mothers, while their babies are more than twice as likely to die during their first year of life. This is not a matter of biology, as though African American mothers and children are more fragile. It is a matter of social conditions, prima- rily those of nutrition and medical care.
Prejudice and Discrimination 273
20%
5%
30%
10%
15%
25%
35%
40%
45%
Applicants whose income was below the median income
Applicants whose income was above the median income
These Applicants Were Charged Higher Interest (given subprime loans) Applicants who have 100% to 120% of median income
This figure, based on a national sample, illustrates institutional discrimination. Rejecting the loan applications of minorities and gouging them with higher interest rates is a nationwide practice, not the act of a rogue banker here or there. Because the discrimination is part of the banking system, it is also called systemic discrimination.
Whites Latinos African Americans
15
25
30
11
26
30
14
36
43
These Applicants Were Denied a Mortgage
FIGURE 9.2 Buying a House: Institutional Discrimination in Mortgages
Source: By the author. Based on Kochbar and Gonzalez-Barrera 2009.
TABLE 9.1 Race–Ethnicity and Mother/Child Deaths1
1The national database used for this table does not list these totals for other racial–ethnic groups. White refers to non-Hispanic whites. Infant deaths refers to the number of deaths per year of infants under 1 year old per 1,000 live births. Maternal deaths refers to the number of deaths per 100,000 women who give birth in a year.
Maternal DeathsInfant Deaths
White Americans 5.7 9.5 African Americans 13.7 32.7
Source: Statistical Abstract of the United States 2011:Table 113.