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Principles of Design

Before an artist begins a work of art, he or she has many options….what colors, lines, shapes, textures, etc. should he or she use?

The visual elements, discussed in the last chapter, must be arranged in such a way that conveys the artist’s intention.

In two-dimensional art, this is called composition.

In all kinds of art (including two-dimensional and three-dimensional), this is called design.

Taste and design sense

Most of us are unaware that we experience design principles every day.

For example, if one person decorates his or her house in an inviting, welcoming way, we say he or she has good taste. Conversely, if another person’s house is not inviting or pleasing to look at, we say they have bad taste. What “good taste” really is, is an inherent grasp of the principles of design.

Most artists have good taste and design sense because they are trained to be aware of the principles of design.

The principles of design are: rhythm, unity and variety, proportion and scale, balance, and emphasis and subordination.

Unity and Variety

Unity means a “sense of oneness.” It means that, within a work of art, all of the “pieces” seem to fit or belong together.

Variety is difference; variety creates interest.

These two principles must work together in a work of art. They exist on a spectrum – at one end, complete blandness, at the other end, complete chaos and lack of harmony/unity.

Take a pure white wall, for example. This is very unified, but has absolutely no interest or variety. Now, say, forty different people were asked to make a mark on the wall. Each person might choose a different color, line, shape, etc. This would be too varied and have no unity.

Good works of art have enough of each – unity to create harmony, and variety to invigorate the work.

Henri Matisse, Memory of Oceania, 1953, gouache on paper, cut and pasted, and charcoal on white paper, 9’4” x 9’ 4 7/8”; at first glance, one might only see the variety in this work of art: many different shapes and colors! However, as we visually analyze it, it becomes apparent that there is a nice balance of variety and unity.

The palette has been limited to six colors, plus black and white. Each color (except for the bright yellow in the upper left) is repeated in the image, creating visual connections throughout the work. The shapes are in three families: rectangle (all in the upper right), simple curves (in the lower right), and waves (the blue and white). Matisse, living in France for most of his life, had visited Tahiti and this is his representation of what he saw (and felt) there.

Jackson Pollock, Shimmering Substance (Sounds in the Grass series), 1946, oil on canvas, 30 1/8” x 24 ¼”; At first, this work of art looks as if it may only have variety (look at all the different lines and colors!), but upon closer inspection, it is apparent that all of the lines are created with a similar stroke. Each stroke has the same texture and yellow and white predominate. Using the same types of strokes creates unity, using many colors creates variety.

Annette Messager, Mes Voeux, 1989, framed photographs and handwritten text, suspended with twine, 59” x 15 ¾”; the two previous works of art were analyzed based on their visual unity (based on line, shape, color, etc.). Other works of art can be analyzed on their conceptual unity –that is the unity of ideas or concepts. This assemblage, the title translated to “my wishes”, is unified based on ideas.

When we look at the grouping of images, they seem disparate. But, they are not. The photographs are images of individual body parts (an ear, a mouth, a knee, etc.). In each frame, the handwritten text says the same word over and over. Two repeat the word “tenderness.” Another repeats the word “shame”. These words are not randomly placed in the work of art: the word “shame” is next to the photograph of genitals, the word “tenderness” is near the arm, “luck” is placed near the legs. The shapes in this work are repeated (frames) and the colors are restricted (black and white with red). This creates unity. The conceptual unity is what makes this work of art interesting and begs for our interest and interpretation.

Balance

Symmetrical balance – forms in a composition mirror one another on either side of an axis (an imaginary straight line in between the two sides). This imaginary axis can be a vertical line up and down or a horizontal line across the image.

Asymmetrical balance – a composition with asymmetrical balance does not mirror on two sides; but, it can can seem balanced, due to visual weight appearing even (please see example to follow).

Visual weight – visual weight refers to how “heavy” or how “light” an object or shape appears. The weight of any form depends on the colors, shapes, and textures around it. For example, a large light shape will be balanced by a smaller dark shape on the other side of a composition.

1. A large form is visually heavier than a small form.

2. Dark-valued forms are heavier than light-valued forms of same size.

3. Textured forms are heavier than smooth forms of the same size.

4. A complex form is heavier than a simple form.

5. Two or more small forms can balance a larger form.

6. A smaller dark form can balance a larger light form.

Let’s look first at how these principles apply to a balanced work of art by Gustav Klimt.

Gustav Klimt, Death and Life, Before 1911 – finished 1915, oil on canvas, 5’10” x 6’6”; This work of art appears balanced, even though the shapes on each side are not exactly the same. That is because the smaller shape on the left (Death) is rendered in a darker color and value than the shape of Life (the entangled sleeping figures at right).

Death’s cloak is more textured than the overall shape of Life. All is peaceful on the Life side, except for the one woman who is awake. At the far left side of the mass, she has her eyes wide open and gazes directly at Death. She puts a hand up to her face, as if to say “Who, me?”. Death gazes directly back at her, answering “yes, you.” Their interaction pulls the viewer’s gaze back and forth between the two implied shapes in the composition. Notice how the painting relates to the shapes in the diagram at right.

Georgia O’Keeffe, Deer’s Skull and Pedernal, 1936, oil on canvas, 36 x 30”; this painting is symmetrically balanced. It is not exactly the same on either side of an imaginary line running down the center axis, but it is close enough to look mostly the same on each side. This is called relieved symmetry (because some gentle differences on each side relax what could be a very formal and stiff image).

The deer skull is almost perfectly symmetrical. The tree branch is the line that divides each side. It gracefully curves to the viewer’s right and branches off at the top. Without the mountain in the background and a smaller branch on the viewer’s left, the composition would seem unbalanced. Place your finger over the mountain and small branch. When you do so, the balance of the composition becomes destabilized, and there is too much weight on the viewer’s right.

Tawaraya Sotatsu, The Zen Priest Choka, late 16th-early 17th century, hanging scroll, ink on paper, 37 ¾ x 14 ¾”; this Japanese painting is extremely asymmetrical, and for good reason. The entire depiction appears at the far left of the scroll. The Zen priest sits high in a tree, meditating. The artist uses the psychological line from the priest’s eyes down to the lower right corner of the scroll, where we see nothing. In Zen Buddhism, meditating on emptiness is very important. The artist has effectively reminded the viewer of this. The viewer looks back to the priest for guidance, who directs the viewer’s gaze back to nothingness.

The priest gazes down into emptiness, and so do we.

Emphasis and Subordination

Emphasis and subordination are complementary. An artist needs one to have the other.

Emphasis means our eyes are drawn to one area of a composition instead of another.

Subordination means our eyes are not focused on a particular area of the composition (so they can focus on the emphasis).

The subordinated areas are less visually interesting, allowing the emphasis to stand out.

There are many ways to create emphasis (what follows is one example).

Henry Ossawa Tanner, The Banjo Lesson, 1893, oil on canvas, 49 x 35 ½”; in this tender depiction of a grandfather and grandchild, the artist renders the teaching of music. If I were to ask you what the focal point is (the most important part of the composition), you would probably say the grandfather and grandchild (and rightly so). Even more specifically, you might say it is the banjo itself that is the focal point. Can you tell me why??

One of the ways the artist has emphasized the pair is by using dark tones and colors for their forms. This contrasts with the brightly lit background. He also has placed the figures so closely, they appear as one form – allowing us to focus on them as a unit. Furthermore, the strong diagonal pull of the dark handle of the banjo leads our eyes to the center of the banjo, where the young boy strums the strings. The figures’ eyes, lowered and concentrated, also direct our gaze to the banjo. These two figures and the banjo are rendered in a more detailed manner than the rest of the painting. For example, the artwork that is hung on the wall is blurry and washed out (it is subordinated and supposed to be less interesting than the banjo-playing pair). This also emphasizes the focal point in the work of art.

  Jean-Honore Fragonard, The Swing, 1767, oil on canvas, In this work of art, the artist has employed color and lighting in an opposite manner. Unlike Henry Ossawa Tanner, who used warm colors and high value in the background (in order to differentiate it from the low value mass of the old man and child), Fragonard has used warm colors and high value to emphasize the focal point in this work of art. The woman is lit up, as if from above. Her warm-colored, pinkish-orange dress contrasts with the cool blues and greens of the background, subordinating the trees around her.

The complex forms of her garment (with a silky texture and a multitude of folds and creases) create a sense of heaviness, to which our eye is drawn. Emphasis is also placed on the focal point with implied lines. Note the ropes of the swing, which direct our eyes to her. Note the implied line created by the arm of the suitor to the viewer’s left. Note the psychological lines from both men to the woman. Even the cupid sculptures look directly at her. She is clearly the focal point of the painting and the love interest for the two gentlemen (who seem unaware of one another).

Scale and Proportion

Both scale and proportion have to do with size.

Scale is the size of an object in relation to a standard or “normal” size. Normal size is the size we expect something to be. For example, a toy poodle is small in scale to a normal size poodle.

Proportion refers to the size relationships between parts of a whole entity.

For example, a puppy’s feet are large in proportion to the rest of its body (compared with an adult dog).

Claes Oldenburg and Coosje van Bruggen, Spoonbridge and Cherry, 1988, Stainless steel and aluminum painted with polyurethane enamel 29 ft. 6 in. x 51 ft. 6 in. x 13 ft. 6 in. This massive sculpture can be found in the Minneapolis Sculpture Garden - the first major urban sculpture parks of its kind in the U.S. This is a spoon and cherry on a monumental scale. We are used to seeing this type of object large enough for us to use when eating. Part of the appeal of this sculpture is the overshadowing of our human size when standing next to it. The silver color and curved shape of the spoon reminds the viewer of iceskating – a popular sport in Minnesota. The cherry is a fountain, and water sprays from its stem.

Rene Magritte, Delusions of Grandeur II, 1948, oil on canvas, 39 1/8 x 32 1/8”; in this work of art, the Surrealist painter is playing with both scale and proportion for effect. He has created a woman who is like nesting dolls; one part of her can fit into the next.

This illusion is achieved because of a shift in scale: the chest is smaller in scale than the abdomen, the abdomen is in turn smaller in scale than the legs. The illusion works because he keeps the proportion correct. In the torso, the breasts are in correct proportion to the armpits and neck area. The stomach button is in correct proportion to the abdomen. The genital region is in correct proportion to the legs. The three units – torso, abdomen, and legs – are rendered with correct proportions.

A Royal Altar to the Hand, Benin, 18th century, brass, height: 18”; this African culture believes that the king’s hand represents prowess and power. Hands alternate with animal imagery on the bottom register of this altar. The king is shown at the top of the work of art. He is flanked by two attendants. Emphasis is placed on the king. We know he is the most important person because he is shown bigger than the two attendants. When one figure is shown on a larger scale than the figures around him or her, this is called hierarchical scale.

The hand and the head are important aspects of ruling in this culture. While the hand represents prowess, the head represents wisdom. Therefore, not only is the king shown in hierarchical scale, but also, his head is shown too large in proportion to his body. His head is about 1/3 of his entire body. An average human’s head is about 1/8 the person’s entire form.

Rhythm

Rhythm is based on patterns and repetition.

Just as with music, where we pick up on rhythm, in art we can do the same.

Rhythm can be seen in natural phenomena – waves at the beach, the changing seasons (always happening at the same time each year), the phases of the moon, etc.

Artists use rhythm to create order, structure, and harmony in a work of art.

Maya Lin, Storm King Wave Field, 2007-2008, Earthwork at Storm King Art Center, Mountainville, New York, American artist, Maya Lin, used mass to create rhythm.

She had mounds of earth moved and assembled to create what looks to be massive waves of earth. The waves measure between 12 and 18 feet high (at the highest peaks). The true rhythm of the repetition of forms can best be seen from above, as we can in see in this aerial view from the sky. Each section of earth undulates, creating a beautiful wave and a wonderful ordered rhythm to the whole work of art. Lin was inspired by fluid dynamics – the branch of physics that studies the movement of fluids (such as ocean waves).

Kaiho Yusho, Fish Nets Drying in the Sun, 17th century, one of a pair of six-panel screens, color and gold on paper, 5’3” x 11’ 6”; two separate rhythms are very apparent in this work of art. Line has been used to create these contrasting rhythms.

On the left, we see the drying nets – long, swooping, graceful lines. On the right, the nets are contrasted with short, rectilinear lines in green, representing reeds near the water. If we could imagine these lines as music, the fish nets would be a long, arching melody played by a cello, followed by short, staccato chirps from a flute (the little green reeds). If we imagined them as a dance, the nets would be a long, graceful, slow motion, followed by short, quick, abbreviated movements for the green lines .

Paul Klee, Landscape with Yellow Birds, 1923, watercolor and gouache on paper, 13 7/8 x 17 ¼”; in this work of art, we can see a few rhythms. First, we see the silvery, bulging forms that sway out and in, out and in. They direct our eyes across the composition.

Next, we see the little yellow birds. We can see the birds in two ways: starting at left – up, then down, up, then down, then up again. Or, we could see the birds in another rhythm! They also form an oval, moving from left to top to right to bottom, then back to left again, changing position as they go.

Leon Battista Alberti, Façade of Sant’Andrea, Mantua, designed 1470; Leon Battista Alberti was a renowned Renaissance writer and architect. He revived many of the elements of classical art and architecture from the ancient Greeks and Romans. We can see that here. As the textbook notes, this work of architecture could be compared to the way we articulate speech! When we speak, we articulate each syllable, each consonant, and each vowel, so the language we speak is coherent and understandable. This same concept has been applied to this organized and harmonious work of architecture. The building has been broken into several units to create the whole (just like we break down our speech).

The pilasters (the tall, flat, ornamental columns) march across the façade, marking off one quarter intervals. If we divided the façade into four pieces, the distance between each pilaster would be one quarter the width of the building (imagine another pilaster running down the middle of the central arch). This creates order. The shape of the central arch is repeated with two smaller arches on either side of the middle. The principle doorway – a rectangle shape – is repeated in two other rectangular doorways under the small arches. Now that the building has been visually analyzed – broken apart and put back together – can you see how harmony has been created through repeating shapes and lines? A big arch, four small arches…four flat pilasters to order the space. This creates order and a sense of oneness, or unity. The varying shapes (straight pilasters, rounded arches, and rectangles create variety). The focal point is the monumental scale arch, inviting us to enter. The emphasis is on it due to its size. The entire façade is beautifully symmetrical, with weight evenly distributed on either side. The stable triangle caps the entire structure.