chp4ob.pdf

4Observational Assessment

San Diego County Office of Education

Pretest

1. One becomes a trained observer only after attending a licensed workshop and earning a certifi- cate of training completion. T/F

2. Anecdotal data does not provide meaningful insight for early childhood educators and professionals. T/F

3. A behavior can have a clear beginning and ending, as well as occur over time. T/F 4. There are many ways to observe young children, and it is important to choose the best approach

for a specific situation. T/F 5. Functional behavioral assessments can be conducted quickly and with minimal support. T/F

Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.

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Section 4.1Becoming a Trained Observer

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

ሁ Identify the characteristics of and strategies for becoming a trained observer. ሁ Determine situations in which qualitative observation strategies, like anecdotal records,

are the most appropriate choice. ሁ Identify discrete and continuous behaviors and select appropriate assessment strategies

for each. ሁ Explain the purpose and basic strategies for conducting a functional behavioral

assessment.

Four-year-old Claire is sitting at a small table coloring in her classroom. It is November, and she has been attending preschool since September. Today her teacher, Mr. Johnson, notices that Claire has started holding her crayon with a pincer grasp between her thumb, index finger, and middle finger. Mr. Johnson jots this information down on a note card and drops the note into a basket for anecdotal records. Two weeks ago when Mr. Johnson observed Claire coloring, she was grasping crayons in a fist with her thumb up, so this new development of the pincer grasp is exciting. Now Mr. Johnson is looking forward to sharing this information with Claire’s parents when they pick her up this afternoon.

Introduction Mr. Johnson’s observation of Claire’s development is an example of an observational assessment. This type of authentic assessment involves purposefully watching or seeing children and recording very specific details about their activities and behaviors. The goal is to gain an understanding of their progress, or lack of progress, and use that knowledge to inform decision making. Since observation is usually conducted while students are learning, it is a common type of formative assessment that may be used by itself or embedded in other forms of assessment. Observation is integral to watchful oversight of children, since it allows professionals to compare performance to outcomes, make judgments in performance-based assessment, mark progress on checklists, and so on. Thus, various types of assessment will also use observational assessment.

This chapter will explore observational assessment from a variety of angles. It will cover when and why to use this specific form of assessment, as well as with whom, and thoroughly explain how to perform observational assessments so as to support accurate and useful data collection.

4.1 Becoming a Trained Observer Human observation can be unreliable. However, with training and experience, it is possible for ECE professionals to become keen observers of children and their behaviors. To become a trained observer, professionals need to have a thorough understanding of child develop- ment. They must also be on guard for possible bias in order to minimize inaccuracies. This

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Section 4.1Becoming a Trained Observer

knowledge will also help a trained observer select the appropriate observation tool for the job and use it to collect the most accurate data possible.

Knowledge of Child Development Understanding typical child development is a fundamental requirement of conducting mean- ingful observation in ECE, particularly knowledge of cognitive, language, and social domains. Without a strong knowledge of child development, professionals will not know what to look for. For example, a professional with limited knowledge of child development may have unreasonable expectations for a child, such as expecting all 12-month-olds to be able to walk. Inexperienced practitioners will also not recognize deviations in development that warrant attention, such as a 12-month-old who does not yet crawl or bear weight on his or her legs.

Finally, a trained observer must accurately assess developmental progress as a matter of teaching and learning analysis. This makes it critical for EC personnel to cultivate and main- tain a deep knowledge of child development. An EC professional should notice nuances and subtle changes in children’s actions and behaviors that even parents may not notice. Further- more, when parents do notice changes, it is vital that an EC professional be able to place the parents’ observations in the broader context of child development to understand what they may indicate. Because children’s actions are fleeting and, unless videotaped, gone as soon as they occur, this knowledge must be readily available and well known, since there is often not time to consult a reference book or computer resource before a decision must be made. For example, if a professional is facilitating play with 2-year-olds and observes that one child keeps hiding the toys from the other, the professional will want to know (a) if this is typical behavior for a 2-year-old so he or she can determine if there is a need to be more explicit in teaching cooperative social skills, and if so (b) what strategies to use to build more age- appropriate cooperative social skills.

Although a strong understanding of child development is critical to successful observational assessments, the data would not be accurate if skewed by bias. Consequently, in addition to understanding child development, a trained professional will also know how to minimize bias.

Challenge A solid understanding of child development is a prerequisite to becoming a trained observer in EC environments. Take the quiz accessible from the link below and analyze your understanding of child development. Do you know enough to accurately observe and evaluate children’s development? Explain.

http://www.medindia.net/medical-quiz/quiz-on-baby-development-milestones-age-1-to- 4-years.asp

Minimizing Bias Observer bias occurs when educators allow their personal experiences, philosophies, mis- understandings, and prejudices to influence their judgments about student performance. Observers must be vigilant against the likelihood that their own perceptions of specific children—as well as categories of children (such as disruptive, homeless, nonconforming

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Section 4.1Becoming a Trained Observer

to gender-specific behaviors)—change the way truth is processed and recorded (Ready & Wright, 2011).

Observational recording relies on an accurate perception of reality; a bias in perception will skew a teacher’s assessment and expectation of students. For example, a teacher who has the perception that children who live in poverty are less capable than children from middle-class homes will project this perception onto his or her students and expect different things from children because of it. Expectations in turn influence student performance; lower expecta-

tions result in lower achievement because students tend to react to teachers’ expectations by living up or down to them, which can generate self-fulfilling proph- ecies (de Boer, Bosker, & Van der Werf, 2010) (see Figure 4.1). Student characteristics—such as gender, socioeconomic status (SES), race, culture, and language competency—directly influence perceptual expecta- tions (de Boer et al., 2010).

Figure 4.1: The cyclic relationship between bias, expectations, and achievement

ሁ Bias observations lead to lower expectations, which fuel continued bias.

5 Lower and

lower expectation

4 Strengthened bias toward observation

2 Lowered

expectation

3 Lowered

performance

1 Biased

observation

Reflection Consider a time when you thought or behaved in a biased manner. What made you think or behave that way? What can you do in the future to reduce your biases?

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Section 4.1Becoming a Trained Observer

Gender Gender is often the basis for inaccurate observational judgment. For example, excessive aggression is more likely to be inaccurately attributed to boys than to girls, even though girls show equal amounts of aggression. However, aggression is more often associated with boys, possibly because it is stereotypically related to males (Pellegrini, 2011). Generally speak- ing, teacher expectation bias has been shown to be more positive for girls (de Boer et al., 2010). This is not to say that girls always benefit from bias. In fact, bias negatively affects girls, too, particularly in science, where they are perceived to be less capable, possibly because of societal stereotypes (Moss-Racusin, Dovidio, Brescoll, Graham, & Handelsman, 2012). Even trained observers can exhibit gender bias, making it all the more important that one is overtly conscious of gender bias and makes every effort possible to avoid it (Pellegrini, 2011).

Socioeconomic Status In the same way that societal stereotypes influence gender bias, they may also impact teach- ers’ perceptions of socioeconomic status. Indeed, teachers tend to underestimate the ability of children from low SES backgrounds, a tendency that is compounded when serving children in a predominantly low SES school and community (Ready & Wright, 2011). Considering that many EC personnel work in Head Start or other programs specifically geared toward children who live in poverty, this bias is particularly relevant. It is vital that bias not cloud the way in which EC professionals observe and assess children from low SES backgrounds, since biased observations can lead to misguided decisions, such as inappropriate retention or inaccurate grades (Ready & Wright, 2011).

Race and Ethnicity A significant body of research indicates that teachers are biased against minority children who are not part of the dominant White culture (Tenenbaum & Ruck, 2007). Furthermore, it has been argued that this bias significantly taints observation and leads to overdetermination of ADHD, lowered perception of academic readiness, and the underestimation of minority children’s potential for success (Hosterman, DuPaul, & Jitendra, 2008). However, the bias may also be exhibited in teachers being more lenient toward White children than minority chil- dren (Hosterman et al., 2008). This finding is supported by research that suggests that teach- ers report higher assessment outcomes for children who are the same race as themselves (Ouazad, 2008; Sideridis, Antoniou, & Padeliadu, 2008). Because nearly 85% of educators are White, and nearly half of all students are minority children (National Center for Education Statistics, 2008), this potential bias is a major concern when considering how to accurately assess all children.

Strategies to Reduce Bias in Observational Assessment It is possible to reduce or eliminate bias against groups of students with certain characteris- tics (Devine, Forscher, Austin, & Cox, 2012). To do this, a teacher must become aware of his or her own biases and want to reduce or eliminate them. The following strategies are effective in reducing bias:

1. Adopting the minority perspective of children and their families. 2. Thinking purposefully about persons who do not match cultural stereotypes.

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Section 4.1Becoming a Trained Observer

3. Continually working on recognizing stereotypic responses in oneself, naming them, reflecting on why they exist, and replacing them with sound teaching strategies.

4. Putting effort into tasks that will help reduce bias, such as reading about antibias education (see Table 4.1) and spending time getting to know children and their families.

5. Understanding one’s own prejudices. 6. Understanding connections between prejudice and teaching performance (that is,

assessment, classroom management, expectations, opportunities, language). 7. Being aware of the benefits of antibiased teaching. 8. Focusing on individual children, their families, and their personal characteristics (as

opposed to stereotypes) in an objective manner. 9. Comparing children’s behavior objectively to other children. For example, teachers

often think of children from low SES backgrounds as less capable than children from middle- or upper-class families, but if they conduct objective observations of all chil- dren, they will more accurately see where ability is and is not (Devine et al., 2012).

Table 4.1: Antibias literature for EC professionals

Title Author Benefits of reading

Anti-bias Education for Young Children and Ourselves

Louise Derman-Sparks and Julie Olsen Edwards

Provides practical suggestions for confronting prejudice in self and community

Beyond Heroes and Holidays Enid Lee, Deborah Menkart, and Margo Okazawa-Rey

Readings and activities for teachers who work with children, parents, and staff

The First R: How Children Learn Race and Racism

Debra Van Ausdale and Joe R. Feagin

Challenges assumptions using case studies to understand how children develop prejudices

Rethinking Early Childhood Education

Ann Pelo Inspiring stories teach children about social justice

The War Play Dilemma: What Every Parent and Teacher Needs to Know

Diane E. Levine and Nancy Carlsson-Paige

Strategies for using creative play in helping influence the way children process the violence to which they are exposed

One Child, Two Languages Patton O. Tabors Daily teaching practices for those who work with children learning English as a second language

Celebrate! The Anti-bias Guide to Enjoying the Holidays

Julie Bisson Strategies of celebrating holidays in a respectful and developmentally appropriate way

(continued)

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Section 4.1Becoming a Trained Observer

Title Author Benefits of reading

Start Seeing Diversity: The Basic Guide to an Anti-bias Classroom

Ellen Wolpert Helps teachers recognize and reduce prejudice

Taking Back Childhood Nancy Carlsson-Paige Provides ways for parents and teachers to counter the many ways that culture and media threaten healthy child development

Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria?

Beverly Daniel Introduces the stages in which race affects identity from childhood through adulthood

Getting Ready for Quality Hedy Chang Explains the importance of being able to serve a diverse society as a critical ability in professional qualification

Black Ants and Buddhists: Thinking Critically and Teaching Differently in the Primary Grades

Mary Cowhey Describes a second-grade “Peace Class” where the framework for learning is understanding and respecting differences in race, beliefs, culture, and opinion

Anti-bias Curriculum (DVD) Teaching for Change, Pub. Interviews and classroom scenes showing antibiased education

Roots and Wings: Affirming Culture in Early Childhood Programs

Stacy York Entry-level book for educators to “open doors” in beginning to understand issues associated with cultural diversity and prejudice

The strategies listed here take time and intentional focus. Overcoming bias is not easy; it requires that individuals confront their own perceptions from many angles in order first to recognize their bias and then to move beyond it. Although this may take effort, it is worthy work because the data that can be col- lected through observational assessments—both qualitative and quantitative—can be invaluable and are often inaccessible by other means.

Reflection Test your implicit biases using the link below: https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit

Did the results align with your perceptions of your biases? Did you learn anything about yourself ? Did you notice what kinds of responses are indicators of bias?

Table 4.1: Antibias literature for EC professionals (continued)

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Section 4.2Using Qualitative Assessment Tools

4.2 Using Qualitative Assessment Tools Qualitative data are observations that are not recorded numerically. These observations focus on the quality of a behavior rather than quantity of occurrence or duration (quantitative data). Anecdotal recording is one of the most common types of qualitative assessment that early childhood professionals conduct. Many do not even realize they are conducting assess- ment because anecdotal recording often seems like “note taking” about students. Anecdotal data, as well as the strategies for watchful and descriptive record keeping, are discussed in the sections that follow.

Anecdotal Data In its most informal form, anecdotal assessment is simply writing down notes that describe the events of the day and children’s behaviors. The purpose of these notes is to record impor- tant achievements and document specific concerns. Such narrative notes provide rich infor- mation to communicate with parents and help design instruction.

As mentioned earlier, educators with a solid knowledge of developmental growth and a keen understanding of state and national standards and learning objectives are most likely to write meaningful anecdotal data (see Table 4.2).

Table 4.2: Examples of anecdotal data

Meaningless anecdotal data Meaningful anecdotal data

Sam is a good eater. Sam ate broccoli, pasta, and yogurt at lunch. He fed himself with his hands.

Rylan was in a bad mood. Rylan cried for 10 minutes after mom left. Once calmed down, Rylan hit other students who approached and wanted to play in the same space.

Nora seems to have speech delays. Nora points to objects and attempts to name them. It is possible to decipher approximately 40% of the words that Nora uses. The benchmark for her age is approximately 75%.

As the table shows, anecdotal records are most meaningful when they stick to the facts and use specific and descriptive language to communicate what was observed. Consequently, it is important to consider the following when creating useful anecdotal records:

1. Use anecdotal records purposefully. Although it may be of some use to collect ran- dom bits of commentary on children, if anecdotal records are to be helpful, teachers should have a plan (Boyd-Batstone, 2004). For example, a teacher might want to describe children’s critical-thinking skills and will plan to write a note for each child at least once per week.

2. Use anecdotal recording regularly. Like other forms of assessment, anecdotal record- ings should be conducted multiple times in order to document progress or chal- lenges (McGee, 2007). Having multiple instances documented will better inform teaching practices and interventions, if needed.

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Section 4.2Using Qualitative Assessment Tools

3. Use anecdotal data in tandem with quantitative data. Supplementing descriptive information with quantitative observational data (discussed later in this chapter), as well as other forms of assessment (discussed in later chapters), is encouraged to create a comprehensive profile and basis for decision making (Krugly, Stein, & Centeno, 2014).

Sources of Anecdotal Data Purposeful, regularly collected anecdotal records used in conjunction with other forms of data will be most meaningful and useful in guiding decision making. There are a number of methods commonly used for collecting informal, anecdotal records, which can be categorized into three filing types: notebook files, electronic files, and illustrated files.

Notebook Files In preparing to record anecdotes, professionals may create a notebook file for each child into which regular comments are entered. These files can take the form of a three-ring binder, tabbed to keep students’ records separate. Individual booklets designed by and for each stu- dent can also be used and may include both child and professional entries (see Figure 4.2).

Figure 4.2: Example of anecdotal record format ሁ In this figure, notes for Student A are too cryptic and consistently negative to help guide decisions.

In comparison, the notes for Student B are detailed, provide positive information, and are helpful for planning further intervention.

Anecdotal Records

Student A Date Comments

Student B Date Comments

9/5

9/6

9/7

Messed up her neighbor’s toys and cried

Cried and had to be removed

Rude to teacher

Devan Tyie

9/5

9/6

9/7

Became agitated when small group story began, threw materials and started to cry. Removed to calm space and returned to group with success after 5 min.

Initially reluctant to build and count blocks, but after brief short turn-taking with me, built a multicolored wall with different size/color blocks that was more complex than towers other children were building.

After listening to and answering simple vocabulary related questions about the ‘car wash’ book, began to wash his toy cars in the soapy water. After about a minute, he began to splash water on peers and threw his toys. Removed from activity to dry hands and he quickly calmed.

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Section 4.2Using Qualitative Assessment Tools

In Figure 4.2 useful anecdotal notes are contrasted with unhelpful anecdotal notes. Notes for Student A lack detail and context for understanding frequency, intensity, and duration of behavior. Additionally, the note taker did not explain the situations that preceded or followed the behaviors, or any attempted interventions and their outcomes. Finally, these notes are uniformly negative; they do not provide any observed balance in terms of skills and talents, which does not help teachers design productive interventions.

By contrast, the notes for Student B describe the child’s prosocial and problem behavior, as well as what happens before and after the behaviors. These contextualized notes make it pos- sible for teachers to plan interventions that can build on skills, prevent disruptive behaviors, and teach better self-regulation. As an alternative to an anecdotal notebook, a “good news book” may be kept to record celebrations of special achievements, remarkable acts of kind- ness, and fun and joyous activities.

Electronic Anecdotal Files Some professionals may prefer to record anecdotal observations in a more permanent way. Electronic notes have several advantages in that notes are easier to read, require fewer

resources (storage space and cost), and can be shared more easily and regularly with parents and other pro- fessionals. Finally, electronic files can be archived for program review. Examples of electronic files include audio and video recordings (that can be easily made with a variety of devices including smartphones), word processing files, as well as many creative computer applications.

Illustrated Anecdotal Files Illustrated anecdotes offer a visual accessory to recorded observations. Examples include a calendar where certain behaviors are indicated with a color code (for example, a red dot on December 15 means that the teacher noted a serious safety violation, and a lavender dot means that children were observed spontaneously helping each other). Other examples of illustrated anecdotal observations include posting notes, photographs of children working, and children’s work products with comments on a bulletin board (Traxon, 2013). Many of these artifacts can be included in a portfolio (discussed in Chapter 6) along with a child’s work samples to help guide instruction and to share with parents.

Reflection What are the advantages and disadvantages of electronic and handwritten anecdotal notes? Is one style more authentic than the other?

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Section 4.3Using Quantitative Assessment Tools

Challenge Watch the following video about an infant playing with different toys: http://www.easternct.edu/cece/supporting_thinking_video.html

While you watch, keep anecdotal records of what you observe. Consider the following behaviors as you take notes:

• How does the child interact with the toy? What physical movements does the child make with the toy or when the toy is used in play with a second toy?

• Does the child imitate movements?

• Is the child making vocalizations while playing? What kind?

• Does the child experiment with toys? Use different toys in different or same way?

• Does the child play more when sitting or while lying on his back or stomach?

As you take notes, what other important developmental observations do you notice?

4.3 Using Quantitative Assessment Tools Although many teachers rely on informal, undocumented observation to measure children’s behaviors, a trained observer intentionally keeps anecdotal records of observed behavior, along with more structured quantitative observation tools. Quantitative assessments include tools that count, time, and use numbers or quantities to describe behavior. Quantifying behav- ior improves the precision of data and reduces observer bias. Consider this comparison:

Qualitative data: “Bob jumped further than anyone else in the class during the school Olympics.”

Quantitative data: “Bob jumped 3 feet 6 inches while then next longest jump was 2 feet 5 inches.”

Both qualitative and quantitative data explain Bob’s superior jumping ability, but the quanti- tative data is more precise. Furthermore, whereas quantitative data can be influenced by bias, it is less likely that professionals will misinterpret numbers representing behavior (quantita- tive) than when behavior is described (qualitative).

Interobserver Agreement One way to ensure that observational recordings are accurate is to “get a second opinion.” A term for the second opinion is interobserver agreement, which is the degree to which two observers agree on a score or similarly describe observed behavior. If an EC professional wants to ensure accuracy when recording the number of times a child interacts with his peers, he might have an administrator, paraprofessional, volunteer, or teacher watch and record the child’s behavior at the same time. If one observer says the child interacted 15 times with three peers, and the other indicates that the child interacted 10 times with five peers, there is little interobserver agreement and the results cannot be considered reliable. It should also be

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Section 4.3Using Quantitative Assessment Tools

noted that there is no “magic number” for agreement. It is possible that two observers could record slightly dif- ferent numbers, but still decide the data is accurate. If data do not match perfectly, it is important for the observers to have a conversation about what they saw in order to pinpoint the inaccuracies and minimize future discrepancies.

Operationalizing Target Behavior Suppose that Ms. Jackson, a first-grade teacher, has decided to observe and record a student’s misbehavior. Ms. Jackson believes that she will be able to identify misbehavior based on the student’s compliance with classroom rules. This vague definition of what Ms. Jackson will be looking for, however, leaves her vulnerable to bias and unintentionally allows other emo- tions to filter incoming information, which creates observer error. Additionally, definitions of misbehavior differ from teacher to teacher and will significantly reduce observer fidelity and interobserver agreement. Consequently, being very clear about what is being measured is crucial to accuracy in observational recording.

A clear operational definition renders the behavior observable and measurable. Such a defi- nition can help prevent teacher observations from being influenced by factors other than the behavior itself. An operational definition is specific enough so that two or more independent observers can agree on the occurrence or nonoccurrence of a behavior. Continuing with the example of Ms. Jackson, instead of setting “record student misbehavior” as her operational definition, it would be better to use “record when student shouts out,” as this is a clearly defined behavior that other observers could also document. The following series of principles may be applied to create operational definitions of behavior for observation.

Identify the Root of Behavior The first step in writing an operational definitions is to determine the root cause of a prob- lem. This topic will be developed later in this chapter under functional behavioral assess- ments, but is also relevant here because it contextualizes the purpose of the observation and helps to effectively operationalize behaviors. For example, a teacher concerned about Sarah’s inability to stay focused cannot assume she has an attentional deficit, but can observe that she has difficulty focusing as long as would be expected for her age.

Observation should therefore focus on when, where, and with whom attention is limited so that a complete picture can be formed before making decisions. For example, if an EC profes- sional repeatedly observes that Sarah seems to have difficulty focusing when the environ- ment is very loud, he could justifiably determine the root cause of Sarah’s lack of ability to attend to be strongly influenced by noise. As there is no magic number of times that a behav- ior should be observed for interobserver agreement, the same can be said for determining a root cause. In either case multiple occurrences should be documented to avoid basing deci- sions on limited information.

Describe the Target Behavior A target behavior is a child’s developmental or academic action that is the subject of obser- vation and subsequent intervention. Target behaviors must be described in a way that a

Reflection It is difficult enough to collect data oneself; in your opinion, how realistic is it to collect interobserver agreement as well?

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Section 4.3Using Quantitative Assessment Tools

teacher can consistently and reliably see and measure. In the earlier example, Ms. Jackson wanted to measure “misbehavior.” Because “misbehavior” can be a variety of things (shouting out, disturbing others, acting unsafe, and so on), different EC professionals could document different occurrences of “misbehavior.” Consequently, it is too broad to be consistently or reli- ably observed.

Target behaviors are specific and well defined. They also allow a teacher to observe a behav- ior that cannot actually be seen—such as anger, kindness, critical thinking, or perseverance. For example, an individual could be angry without an observer knowing. Consequently, anger is considered an invisible behavior because it is a feeling with no required criteria for out- ward expression. However, there are observable characteristics commonly associated with anger, like pushing, hitting, and spitting. These are visible behaviors. Target behaviors are based on operationalizing invisible behaviors into visible ones.

Table 4.3: Operationalizing invisible behaviors

Invisible Visible (operationalized)

Anger Yells above classroom conversation level; pushes, hits, spits, scratches, or harms others; throws objects

Kindness Offers to share materials or toys with others; invites others to join activity; sees children who are struggling and offers assistance without taking over

Critical thinking Offers support for ideas verbally and in writing, explains thought processes (metacognition), examines topics from multiple perspectives, and documents opposing points using a graphic organizer

Perseverance Works on tasks for age-appropriate lengths of time, tries again when initially unsuccessful

Even with the descriptions provided in Table 4.3, there may be a need to further define behav- iors so observers can distinguish those behaviors that meet the definition from those that do not. “Throws objects,” for example, might be difficult to assess on the playground, where children appropriately throw objects like balls. To clearly explain “throwing objects” when it is inappropriate, a definition could be written like this: “Throwing of any object toward another person with enough force to hurt them, and in a manner inconsistent with the rules or expectations of a game or activity.” The definition should also include throwing objects forcefully toward nonhuman targets (for example, ground, building, or window) in a manner that is incompatible with game or activity rules.

Test the Operational Definition To determine if it is possible to measure the target behavior, you will need to test your opera- tional definition. When testing your definition, ask yourself if you can count, time, recognize an occurrence or nonoccurrence, or describe the operationalized behavior. Table 4.4 tests the definitions of several operationalized behaviors.

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Section 4.3Using Quantitative Assessment Tools

Table 4.4: Testing operational definitions Are the following brief definitions of behavior operational? Yes/no Why?

Initiating interactions Yes It is possible to observe interactions during which an individual approaches another individual.

Off task Yes Time not engaged in a determined task can be measured.

Motivated No An individual can accomplish a required task without motivation, or be motivated but lack capability.

Proficient No An individual can be proficient but not demonstrate that proficiency.

Disruptive No Like “misbehavior,” disruptive can mean different things to different observers.

Smiles Yes Physical smiles can be observed and counted.

Test the Operational Definition With Children Once target behaviors have been operationally defined, the definition should be put to use in recording behaviors so the EC professional can learn how well the definition works in practice. Today the easiest way to practice becoming a proficient observer/recorder is to videotape a child and note the presence or absence of target behaviors using a data collection form. A video is perfect because it can be stopped, slowed down, backed-up, and replayed again and again, all of which help ensure that data collected during the observations are accurate. In addition to perfecting recording accuracy, videotaped practice enables observers to refine their definition if it does not include all possible examples of a target behavior (and exclude all nonexamples).

Challenge Watch a clip of the Three Stooges and record how many times you observe the Stooges hit, kick, pinch, slap, or poke. Before you watch the clip, write an operational definition of each behavior and ensure that the definitions do not overlap. To do this, explain how a poke is different from a hit, and so on.

The Three Stooges videos may be found online at several sites, including https://archive.org (for example, “Brideless Groom, 1947”).

Revisit the Operational Definition After testing an operationalized definition, an EC professional may find it does not describe behavior in a helpful or meaningful way. Recording the amount of time a child interacts with peers might be more effective and meaningful than counting the number of interactions. It may be necessary to revisit and redefine the operational definition and test it until the results more accurately describe the target behavior.

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Section 4.4Observational Assessment Strategies

4.4 Observational Assessment Strategies One of the most difficult things about collecting data via observational assessment is deter- mining which tool is most effective or appropriate for revealing the truth about behavior. It is often the case that more than one strategy could be used, but there is still likely to be one best strategy for each situation. To choose the best tool, teachers should ask themselves the following questions about the target behavior and the circumstances within which data are to be collected:

1. Is the behavior discrete? 2. Is the behavior continuous? 3. Is there a need for fluency? 4. How much help is available? 5. When does the behavior occur? 6. How accurate do the data need to be?

By taking the time to examine each of these questions thoroughly, an EC professional will be able to narrow the field of possible assessment options and select the best tool for the job. The answer(s) to each of the following questions inform the selection of different means by which to collect data.

Question #1: Is the Behavior Discrete? The first question in determining which tool to use is, “Can I count the behavior?” A discrete behavior can be easily counted because it is a behavior with a clear beginning and end, like rolling over, jumping, or writing the answer to a math problem (see Table 4.5). A teacher who wants to document a discrete behavior needs to identify its onset or point of appearance. If the behavior is brief, then a teacher will also recognize the disappearance of the behav- ior. The teacher can also document each individual occurrence of the behavior during a determined time frame.

Table 4.5: Examples of discrete behaviors Physical behaviors Academic behaviors

Hitting Solving math problems

Jumping Shouting out comments

Saying “please” Recalling facts about a topic

Washing hands Writing spelling words

If a teacher notices, for example, that a child frequently asks to use the restroom, the teacher may choose to record this discrete behavior because its beginning (when the request is ver- balized) and ending (when verbalization ends) are obvious and the behavior lasts for a very short time. The teacher can record every time the student asks to use the restroom each day, and at what time, for several days. Reviewing the data may help determine if the child is ask- ing to use the restroom as a work-avoidance strategy.

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Section 4.4Observational Assessment Strategies

There are three common data collection types for discrete behaviors: event, frequency, and rate data (see Figure 4.3). These three types of data collection are all observational assess- ment strategies that rely on counting to represent behavior.

Figure 4.3: Methods for measuring discrete behaviors ሁ When behaviors are discrete and have a definite beginning and ending, they can be measured

using one of three types of observational data: event, frequency, and rate data.

Discrete behaviors

Event data

Frequency data

Rate data

Event Data Event data (also called event recording or event sampling) is the simplest form of data collec- tion. An educator simply counts or tallies every instance of a target behavior that is observed. Usually an observer will designate part of the day to observe or record the behaviors of a child, rather than attempting to record throughout the day. It is important to observe during the same part of each day to ensure the data are comparable from one observation to the next. When behavior is observed at varying times, results can be inconclusive due to changes in circumstances that influence how often or how well a child performs the targeted behavior. When an observation period has been completed—usually once per day for several days— the total events observed are added up and reported. The data may simply be entered in a log or plotted on a graph. This recorded information can then be used to look for trends, a pat- tern of data involving three or more points that illustrate how a behavior changes over time.

Consider the following log of event data recorded for a student named Isaac:

12/7/13 Isaac shouted out a comment 5 times in art.

12/9/13 Isaac shouted out a comment 4 times in reading.

12/14/13 Isaac shouted out a comment 6 times in math.

There are two factors that may compromise the validity of the recorded data. First, the data points were collected in three different contexts (art, reading, and math), which offer varying

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Section 4.4Observational Assessment Strategies

conditions that might cause Isaac to shout out a comment. Second, the data were collected on nonconsecutive days over a week. Since the first and last data collections were a week apart, it is possible that something happens on that particular day of the week that causes a change in Isaac’s behavior. Because the data were not recorded at the same time each day and over consecutive days, it will not reveal any reliable patterns or conclusions about Isaac’s behavior. To avoid this problem, measurements should be completed in the same context, at approxi- mately the same time of day, over several consecutive days.

Frequency Data Before beginning data collection, it is important to determine a representative length of time during which to look for target behaviors. When time is mentioned along with the event, it becomes frequency data, or the number of behaviors seen over a certain length of time (see Figure 4.4). For more accurate comparisons, the amount of time spent observing should be the same each day.

Figure 4.4: Example of a data collection chart ሁ This chart is used to determine the rate of shout outs per day. An observer circles numbers in

succession each time Isaac shouts in a way that conforms to the definition at the bottom of the chart. At the end of the day, the total number of shouts is divided by the length of time (in minutes), resulting in rate. In this way data for different days and lengths of time can be compared.

Shout Outs

Child:

Date Activity Beginning/ End Time Frequency

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Rate frequency/ Min

Instructions: 1) Before starting data collection, enter date, type of activity child was engaged in during observation, and the beginning time. 2) Circle a number in order each time the child “shouts out.” 3) At the end of the activity, enter the end time or end of observation. 4) Calculate rate by dividing the number of shout outs circled by the number of minutes the child was observed (end time – beginning time = min).

Shout outs: Child raises voice above classroom-level conversation in an attempt to get attention or to express displeasure. Shout outs interrupt others who are talking and are not in the normal �ow of conversation.

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Section 4.4Observational Assessment Strategies

The event data recorded for Isaac does not indicate whether he was observed for the same length of time each day. If Isaac shouted out five times over 30 minutes in art and only four times during 15 minutes in reading, Isaac actually shouted out more in reading than in art. In Isaac’s case a teacher should record and report the number of times Isaac shouted out com- ments for a 20-minute time period, as reflected in this log:

12/7/13 Isaac shouted out 5 comments per 20 min during art.

12/9/13 Isaac shouted out 4 comments per 20 min during reading.

12/11/13 Isaac shouted out 6 comments per 20 min during math.

Rate Data A teacher may not always be able to record data for the same length of time each day. Maybe the art activity only takes 18 minutes to complete instead of 20. Or, perhaps the teacher is pulled away before the activity is completed, or misses the end signal from the timer and keeps recording longer than 20 minutes. If the teacher were to report the data as usual (that is, as a 20-minute observation) in any of these situations, the teacher would be misrepresent- ing the child’s abilities. A teacher must record the frequency and indicate the actual observa- tion lengths. For example:

12/7/13 Isaac shouted out 5 times per 18 min during art.

12/9/13 Isaac shouted out 4 times per 25 min during reading.

The above data are reported accurately, but it is difficult to compare how often Isaac shouted out because the time frame for each observation varies. The solution is to convert frequency data (5 times in 18 minutes) to rate data, where the length of time becomes mathematically standardized. Rate data is defined as the number of behaviors divided by the length of observa- tion time, which reveals the number of responses per minute. This allows for easy comparison across observation periods of unequal length. First, the number of behaviors must be divided by the length of observation time. Use the following formula to calculate rate data for Isaac:

Number of Behaviors ÷ Observation Length = Rata Data

12/7/13 Isaac shouted out 5 times per 18 min during art. 5 ÷ 18 = 0.28 per min

12/9/13 Isaac shouted out 4 times per 25 min during reading. 4 ÷ 25 = 0.16 per min

It is now possible to compare Isaac’s shouting out across the two days. A rate of 0.28 per minute is significantly higher than a rate of 0.16. To convert these data into whole numbers and deter- mine what the rate would be over a 20-minute time interval, the rate data are multiplied by 20:

.28 × 20 = 5.6

.16 × 20 = 3.2

Once the data have been multiplied, it is easier to see the numbers as comparative happen- ings. For example, Isaac shouted out more than five times per 20 minutes in art as compared to about three times per 20 minutes in reading.

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Section 4.4Observational Assessment Strategies

Challenge Esara, a first grader, has been struggling to complete her 10 basic math facts during math time each day. Her teacher, Mr. Richards, would like to find out how many problems it is reasonable to expect Esara to do, and then slowly build up to more problems. He collects data over a 3-day period beginning at 1:30, when independent work is assigned. On Monday Esara completes four problems by 1:37. Tuesday she solves six problems in 10 minutes. On Wednesday, her work time is cut short by a fire alarm, so she only has 5 minutes and completes two problems.

Complete the analysis shown in Figure 4.5 for Esara:

Figure 4.5: Event recording worksheet ሁ The chart below is used to summarize the number of math problems (events) Esara

completes per minute. The total number of problems is divided by the length of time to completion (end time minus beginning time) to calculate rates.

a. Event recording #1: ____________ (date) Esara _________________________________ (behavior)

________ (times) during _____________________________

b. Event recording #2:____________ (date) Esara _________________________________ (behavior)

________ (times) during _____________________________

c. Event recording #3: ____________ (date) Esara _________________________________ (behavior)

________(times) during _____________________________

d. Frequency data for Esara:

e. Rate data for Esara per 10 minutes:

f. What conclusion might Mr. Richards draw from the data collected?

Teacher Strategies for Collecting Counting Data In today’s busy classrooms most teachers have little time to singularly focus on watching and recording data about children. Therefore, it is best to devise and implement simple yet reli- able strategies, such as the following:

1. If there is a large wall clock, begin and end recording at major time increments (that is, 5, 10, 15, and so on). A teacher may also commit to recording between 10:15 and 10:30 each day, to ensure that the length of observation is always 15 minutes.

2. In some instances, a teacher might not predetermine the amount of observation time. A timing mechanism such as a stopwatch, a smartphone, or a wall clock with a second hand must be used if the time interval is not predetermined. Set the timer for the amount of time the observation will take place and engage the timer when ready to begin. Ensure that the stopwatch or timer’s notification will not disrupt the class, but will be noticeable to the observer (for example, by setting it to vibrate). At the end of an observation, check the stopwatch to determine how long the observation lasted. If necessary, convert the frequency data to rate data.

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Section 4.4Observational Assessment Strategies

3. There are several accurate and nonintrusive tactics for counting the number of tar- get behavior occurrences. Once a teacher begins to use these strategies, they will no doubt begin to think of many other ways record event/frequency data. a. Place several rubber bands on one wrist and when the target behavior is

observed, move a rubber band to the opposite wrist. At the end of the session, count the number of moved rubber bands for a total count of targeted behavior.

b. Use two cups or containers; one should have several marbles in it. Every time a child is observed engaging in the target behavior, move one marble to the empty cup. At the end of the session, count the number of moved marbles for a total count of targeted behavior. This strategy has the added advantage that it can also be used to encourage a replacement behavior if children can see the marbles accumulating in the “occurrence” cup.

c. Use a golf counter or other similar device to record observations. Click the coun- ter every time a child under observation is viewed emitting the target behav- ior. At the end of the session, an observer will look at the counter and record the total.

d. Teachers can always just tally occurrences on an adhesive note or in a notebook.

Question #2: Is the Behavior Continuous? What should be done if a behavior is not discrete, or if counting the behavior cannot fairly represent it? Ongoing behavior or a behavior without a clear onset and/or conclusion is con- sidered continuous behavior, and requires a measurement other than event, frequency, or rate (see Figure 4.6).

Figure 4.6: Observation of continuous behavior ሁ There are a number of ways to document observations of continuous behavior.

Behavior that is continuous

Duration

Latency

Interval/ time sampling

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Section 4.4Observational Assessment Strategies

Continuous behaviors for which event recording would not be best include:

• Behaviors that usually last longer than 1 minute. For example, a child’s sustained engagement with a book usually lasts longer than one minute and is not best repre- sented by counting the number of book engagements.

• Behaviors for which the length of time is highly variable. For example, a child may actively participate with peers in problem-based activity for 1 minute one day and 15 minutes another day. It would be imprudent to count both examples of active participation with the same designation as one event.

• Behaviors that occur very infrequently but are important targets of assessment and intervention and cannot be fully appreciated by simply counting. An example of this kind of behavior would be a child who is physically self-destructive who may only try to injure herself periodically, with weeks between occurrences.

The commonality in all of these situations is time. Continual behaviors happen over sustained and/or variable windows of time and require distinct and specific tools to document.

Duration Data Once it has been determined that the behavior is continuous, an alternative observation method should be used, specifically one that accounts for time. Generally, when document- ing a continuous behavior, a teacher would ask, “How much time does the child spend engaged in the target activity?” The simplest way to answer this question is through a dura- tion recording.

A duration recording is a way to time the total engagement in an activity or the amount of time it takes a child to complete a task, such as an assignment. Thus, duration is a record of the amount of time passed. To conduct a duration recording, simply engage a stopwatch when the child begins the activity, pause it when the child stops, and resume it when the child reen- gages. Continue this process for the entire observation period.

An example can help illustrate. Suppose Angelo seems particularly withdrawn lately. His teacher notices that he spends most of his free time by himself. When placed into group activi- ties for team problem solving, Angelo participates only when directly addressed by his team- mates. Before making any decisions, his teacher wants to find out exactly how much time or the duration of time he spends engaged with others during his morning free period. Using the following assessment format (see Figure 4.7) created just for this observation, she uses a timer and records Angelo’s interactions.

Angelo’s teacher finds that Angelo was engaged 7 out of 30 minutes. To determine if this amount of engagement is unusual, the teacher also observes three other children selected at random. She finds that the other children spend on average 15 minutes interacting with peers during their free period. Consequently, concern for Angelo seems to be justified. After an inter- vention plan is developed to help Angelo become more social during free period, his teacher uses the same duration observation form to monitor whether he is becoming less isolated.

In the case of Angelo, it would not have been useful to record how many times Angelo inter- acted with peers, as this may have been the same each day or the same as other children. What is useful is knowing how long those interactions ultimately were. It is the duration of the behavior that results in helpful data.

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Section 4.4Observational Assessment Strategies

Figure 4.7: Sample duration recording ሁ The duration of Angelo’s engaged time is determined by starting the stopwatch when he enters

an interaction and stopping it when he disengages. Subtract the beginning time from the end time to calculate minutes of engagement. Repeat the process each time Angelo engages during the 30-minute observation period. A total of all the minutes of interaction yield duration.

Angelo: Time spent engaged with peers during free time

Date 11/4/14

Observation beginning time 10:00

Observation ending time 10:30

Beginning of interaction End of Interaction Time

10:03 10:05 2 min

10:17 10:18 1 min

10:22 10:26 4 min

Total time engaged 7 min

Total observation time 30 min

Latency Data Some children are simply slow to start an assignment, and some are so slow to start that their procrastination becomes a problem. These children waste valuable learning opportunities and are at a much higher risk of engaging in behaviors that are a distraction to themselves and others. Therefore, a teacher may want to help a child reduce the latency of task initiation.

In early childhood education, latency may be defined as the time that passes from the point at which a child is given a prompt to begin an activity and when the child actually begins it. The longer a child waits to start the activity, the longer the latency.

The following example illustrates when latency is the best observational method of choice. Suppose that Sophia is very popular with her peers—so much so that when it comes time to begin a project, it is very difficult to direct her to get started and stop visiting with her friends. Exasperated by the frequent need to remind Sophia to begin her assigned activity, her teacher decides she needs a more formal assessment and possible intervention. The purpose is to reduce the latency, or length of time it takes Sophia to begin an activity, once instruction is given to do so.

First, Sophia’s teacher must collect baseline data for comparative purposes. A baseline is how the child behaves under typical conditions without intervention or changes being used. To collect baseline data, Sophia’s teacher starts a stopwatch immediately after the instruction to begin has been given, and then stops the watch when Sophia begins the activity. Using a data collection form devised for the task, the teacher takes this measurement across three days to ensure the data are representative (see Figure 4.8). Also, data are collected across three dif- ferent kinds of activities to determine if Sophia might be avoiding particular activities.

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Section 4.4Observational Assessment Strategies

Figure 4.8: Sample latency data collection ሁ Sophia’s latency is determined by starting a stopwatch immediately after the instruction to begin

has been given, then stopping it when Sophia actually begins the activity. Subtracting the beginning time (e.g., 10:15) from the end time (e.g., 10:22) will yield the latency time (7 minutes). Repeat the process each time Sophia is instructed to begin activities. In this example, latency is calculated across three different activities for 3 days. The results show that Sophia tends to begin dramatic play with a shorter delay than for literacy, science, or number activities.

Sophia: Time it takes to begin an activity after instructions

Date Activity A: Activity B: Activity C: Literacy Dramatic Play Science and Numbers

Stopwatch Start Stop Latency Start Stop Latency Start Stop Latency

10/1/14 10:15 10:22 7 min 1:15 1:16 1 min 12:30 12:45 15 min

10/3/14 10:13 10:22 9 min 1:20 1:22 2 min 12:28 12:35 7 min

10/4/14 10:00 10:14 14 min 1:15 1:15 0 12:31 12:39 8 min

Average 30 total minutes/3 days = 3 total minutes/3 days = 30 total minutes/3 days = Latency 10 min 1 min 10 min

Sophia’s baseline data suggest that she is much more likely to delay beginning an activity when it is associated with more structure and academic content. Many reasons may account for this avoidance, but the point Sophia’s teacher takes away is that an intervention should focus on motivating Sophia to become excited about learning across the curriculum. This pat- tern of avoidance for certain activities could have gone unnoticed without data collection, and intervention would have been misguided. Once an intervention has been selected, her teacher should monitor Sophia’s progress by continuing to collect data using the same form.

Interval Recording and Time Sampling Thus far, duration and latency recording have been explained—duration to measure the total amount of time during which a child engages in a targeted behavior; and latency to determine how long it takes a child to begin an activity once instruction is given. Another procedure is used to determine the percentage of time a child engages in a targeted behavior (see Figure 4.9). This procedure is called interval recording and refers to the division of an observa- tion period into a set of smaller time frames called intervals. While interval recording is the most accurate way to document continuous behavior data, it is also the most complex and often requires multiple professionals in the same room in order to manage the data collection and regular instruction practices. Consequently, interval recording is not the most practical approach for most classroom teachers.

There are two solutions to this dilemma: time sampling and self-recording.

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Section 4.4Observational Assessment Strategies

Figure 4.9: Sample interval recording ሁ In this example, “x” is an interval of 5 minutes during which the child is engaged and “0” is a

5-minute period during which a child was distracted from the activity at hand.

Date 5' 10' 15' 20' 25' 30' % Time Engaged

2/15 x x 0 x 0 0 50%

2/16 x 0 0 x 0 0 33%

Time sampling is a form of interval recording during which an observer sets a timer to mark the end of predetermined interval. The length of time can vary based on the behavior being observed. If a behavior is very serious (physically putting the child or other children at risk) and occurs very frequently, a teacher may wish to set the timer for 1 to 2 minutes. If the behav- ior is less serious (chewing on inappropriate items) intervals may be longer (3 to 5 minutes).

Intervals can be increased as a child becomes more proficient with regard to a behavior. For example, if a child initially hits other children every few minutes, intervals may need to be 2 to 3 minutes long. As the teacher works with the child and her behavior is modified, the intervals for observation can be increased until, over time, the behavior is infrequently observable or eliminated completely. If a behavior occurs very rarely (for example, once or twice an hour), this method of observation is not recommended, as the behavior would not be observed dur- ing many of the designated intervals.

Once the timer is engaged, the observer does not have to focus only on the child being moni- tored. When the timer goes off at the end of a 1- to 5-minute interval, the observer checks to see whether the child being observed is engaged in the target behavior at that moment. The occurrence or nonoccurrence is recorded, the timer reset, and the process begins again until the observation period is complete. Any of the nonintrusive data collection procedures described above (such as rubber bands on wrists) could be used to minimize time spent recording while teaching.

Self-Recording Self-recording is when educators teach children to monitor and record their own behavior. This method can be used in a variety of simplified formats with children as young as five and has several advantages over recording done by the teacher. First, children learn to be more

self-aware. In doing so they develop greater self-effi- cacy, which facilitates the development of executive functioning (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2012; Warash, Smith, & Root, 2011). Additionally, when children moni- tor their own behavior, educators are, at least partially, able to focus on other responsibilities. This is a win–win combination: children’s development is enhanced more than it would be by teacher intervention alone, and at less human cost to educators.

Children are more honest when self-reporting than you might think, but educators still need to be cautious when interpreting self-reported records. Children—particularly young children

Reflection Have you ever collected data on your behavior? What was the impact on your behavior, if so? If you have not, what impact might self-recording have on behaviors such as time spent on yourself or your eating habits?

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Section 4.4Observational Assessment Strategies

in preschool and early elementary school who are cognitively and linguistically capable of understanding, recalling, and expressing self-appraisal—tend to be highly reliable in report- ing their own behavior, especially when they are asked to record only positive behavior (Nil- son, 2013). Still, children must be trained to self-record and given opportunities for practice and feedback.

Just as adults tend to sometimes collect flawed data, so do children. Therefore, it is advisable to conduct occasional reliability checks in which an observer records at the same time as a child, and provides feedback to the child to promote accuracy. This could be in the form of positive reinforcement (“Look, you and I noted the same number of times that you got up to get a drink!”) or guidance for future self-recording (“It looks like the times we recorded were really different. You wrote down that you started working at 10:19, but I observed that you started working at 10:27. Just make sure to check the clock as you start to work so that we get the best information we can.”). Another strategy to help children more accurately self-record is to give them a graphic organizer to color in at periodic points. For example, the teacher could create a caterpillar with hollow body segments to be colored in by the student each time she performs the target behavior, like staying in her seat (see Figure 4.10).

Figure 4.10: Caterpillar self-reporting tool ሁ EC professionals can provide graphic ways for young children to self-report behavior, such as

coloring in a segment of a caterpillar after performing the target behavior.

Question #3: Is There a Need for Fluency? Sometimes EC professionals will work with a child to increase her speed when performing a target behavior. To determine baseline data and the impact of intervention, they will need an observation mechanism that is able to accommodate timing. If an EC professional wants to know how many times a child can complete x number of a target behavior, rate data can be collected in the way described earlier.

Many teachers record early literacy skills, such as naming letters or making letter-sound associations. Fluency, or the rate at which a child performs tasks, is an essential aspect of proficiency, for several reasons. First, consider a child learning to play the piano. The child may be able to read and play notes with 100% accuracy; but what if it takes the child three seconds to process and play each note? The same is true for most knowledge and skills. To be really useful, knowledge and skills must be at the ready and quickly accessible by the child. The second reason fluency is important to learning is its resistance to degradation. Knowing

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Section 4.4Observational Assessment Strategies

something and knowing how to access and use the information quickly ensures it will have staying power.

Measuring children’s fluency should be a part of observational assessment because of its relevance to easy access and long-term retention of information. In the same way rate data was calculated above, we can calculate the speed of performance. For example, suppose chil- dren who are learning shapes are shown pictures and must name the shape. At first, the pic- tures are shown slowly to build accuracy of identification. Once pictures are recognized with high or perfect accuracy, the pictures may be shuffled and shown as quickly as children can name the shapes. If a child names 10 shapes in 1.5 minutes, the rate per minute is calculated as follows:

10 ÷ 1.5 (minutes) = 6.7 vocabulary words per minute

In addition to the number of correct responses, error rates should also be measured and calculated using the formula just presented to give educators a full picture of a child’s perfor- mance. By calculating both accuracy and error rates a teacher will see when speed should be dialed back until accuracy is regained.

Question #4: How Much Help Is Available? It should be noted that some observational recording methods (such as interval recording) are more time consuming than others (such as self-reporting), and therefore require more of an educator’s time. Many teachers avoid collecting observational data because it is simply too much work and they think it distracts from teaching. Once it is made clear that assessment is integral to teaching, the next step is to choose a tool that best measures the target behavior and is the least intrusive for both the child and observer. For those with few resources, good assessment tools include frequency data (for counting short duration behaviors) and time sampling (to assess continuous behaviors).

Question #5: When Does the Behavior Occur? Most behaviors that are of concern to early childhood educators appear many times a day. However, some important behaviors—such as using the toilet or brushing teeth—occur infre- quently. Other behaviors that have low frequency but are important to record include violent behaviors or toileting incidents (such as wetting pants). Even though a teacher may only see that behavior once a week (or less), a teacher will still want to know if a treatment strategy is improving performance.

However, if a teacher can only collect data during a one hour period each day, not only is it unlikely that the infrequent behavior will occur, but any changes in behavior will be hard to detect. For example, if a child goes from engaging in extreme violence three times one week to twice the next week, it is hard to tell if the behavior has actually improved due to an inter- vention or if the behavior just was not observed because of the limited observation window each day.

Question #6: How Important Is Accurate Data? As mentioned earlier, some data collection procedures (such as event data) are more pre- cise than others (such as time sampling). A teacher may need to find a balance between

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Section 4.5Functional Behavioral Assessments

time-consuming, highly accurate data collection methods and less time-consuming but mod- erately accurate data collection methods, depending on the resources available. In most cases data will be used to inform decision making and may not need to be extremely precise. On the other hand, data that are very inaccurate can be more harmful than no data at all, especially if they lead instruction in the wrong direction.

How much data are needed? In general, there is no such thing as too much data, unless data are collected but not used to help plan instruction. Observation data should be collected as often as possible to provide the most complete picture. In an ideal world, data would be col- lected every time a child has an opportunity to engage in the targeted behavior. In reality, though, data collection on key behaviors should happen two to three times a week.

By answering each of the previous six questions, EC professionals can select the best observa- tional tool(s) available to collect meaningful and useful data. Remember, it will often be most helpful to use a combination of measurement methods together.

Challenge Complete the following chart to review the types of observational assessment.

Type of recording How are data collected?

When should procedure be used?

Three examples of behaviors

Event

Frequency

Rate

Duration

Latency

Interval

Refer to the Appendix for the answers.

4.5 Functional Behavioral Assessments One important use of observation by EC professionals that has not been thoroughly explored yet is functional behavioral assessment. The purpose of a functional behavioral assessment is to determine why a behavior is occurring, and to use this information to plan an intervention that can help change it. Without the information from an FBA, EC professionals may explain challenging behaviors in ways that are not helpful, such as, “He is a bad child,” or “She learned this behavior at home, where there is no discipline.” These excuses are of no help in planning interventions to teach children alternative productive behaviors with greater self-efficacy.

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Section 4.5Functional Behavioral Assessments

Although it is not within the scope of this chapter to comprehensively cover functional behav- ior assessment, it is important to have a working knowledge of FBA in order to understand serious challenging behaviors and determine why a child behaves the way he or she does. Once a professional understands why a child displays a behavior, appropriate, specific inter- ventions can be used to correct it. In order to conduct a functional behavioral assessment that will be most useful, it is important to understand the assumptions that underlie an FBA.

Assumptions Related to Functional Behavioral Assessments Functional behavioral assessments are based on principles of behavior that are derived from decades of research conducted with children and adults whose social–behavioral problems ranged from mild to extreme. These behavioral principles provide a foundation for conduct- ing and interpreting FBAs and are described in the following sections.

All Behavior Is Communication Whether or not children verbalize their needs or wants, their actions communicate for them. Every action com- municates something, and children who act out are communicating a need or want for which they do not have the ability to verbalize. Conducting an FBA can help an EC professional discover what need or want is being communicated.

The Current Environment Sustains Behavior Some behaviors have their origins in past events, but something in a child’s current envi- ronment is sustaining their behavior; otherwise, it would go away. A common example is a tantrum. When children are very young, caregivers typically respond to infants’ distress by comforting and cuddling. This parental responsiveness is important to healthy social and emotional development, where babies learn that they are loved and safe. Over time though, infants may, intentionally or not, begin to test the boundaries of this responsiveness by cry- ing to have their needs and wants met. The extent to which caregivers provide children with whatever they demand through such outbursts can lead to ever more dramatic displays. Every child has tantrums; it is the extent to which these tantrums achieve the desired end that tantrums are maintained. Parents who set reasonable limits, who outlast children’s tan- trums, and who wait for more conventional communication about needs are likely to see the frequency and duration of outbursts diminish.

Positive Change Strategies Are Most Effective Historically, educators relied heavily on punishment, such as spanking and deprivation, to suppress undesirable behaviors. Educators continue to use techniques to suppress behav- iors, though they tend to be more subtle and less physical than those used in the past. Nev- ertheless, it is now clear that even the most severe and chronic behaviors respond better to approaches that are positive over approaches that are aversive (Sonuga-Barke, 2011).

Reflection Can you think of a behavior (or behaviors) that is not a communication?

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Section 4.5Functional Behavioral Assessments

Team Approaches Are Most Effective When a child repeatedly engages in very challenging behavior, educators are best advised to enlist the intellectual and emotional support of all stakeholders. Parents are the first level of support and often have the most to gain from a resolution. In addition, colleagues, supervi- sors, and experts in the field should be involved in the assessment, planning, and intervention.

Behavior Serves a Function Behaviors do not just communicate something; they communicate something specific. There are three basic functions served by verbal and nonverbal behaviors: positive reinforcement, escape or avoidance, and sensory. It is the satisfaction of these three functions that maintain behaviors.

Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement is a consequence that increases the likeli- hood of a specific behavior reoccurring. If a behavior is being maintained by positive rein- forcement, then the child acts precisely to get that consequence. Children typically seek two types of positive reinforcers:

• Attention. Many children behave in ways to get the attention of adults or peers. If their behavior attracts attention (positive or negative), the function has been served and children are more likely to act in the same way to get this attention again.

• Tangible. Children who have poor verbal communication and impulse control will act out to get a toy, candy, and so on. A child who tantrums until his mother buys him a toy is very likely to have another tantrum, because the behavior fulfilled its func- tion to get a tangible.

Escape or Avoidance It is common for children to act out to escape or avoid doing some- thing they find unpleasant or a circumstance that is not rewarding. For example, a child may find that if he acts out he will be removed from challenging assignments. Removal fulfills the need to escape. Escape and avoidance behaviors are more likely to occur when children lack the background knowledge or prerequisite skills to succeed at the assignment or situation.

Sensory Children sometimes misbehave to communicate an unsatisfied biological need. For some children, excessive noise or movement causes sensory discomfort. Not understand- ing why or not having the words to communicate this discomfort can lead to behaviors that are disruptive and even harmful. Acting out may be an attempt to block out or escape from unpleasant sensations. Other children have biological rhythms that cannot easily be quelled, like the periodic desire to move. The need for movement is frequently misunderstood in humans; it leads many children to act in ways that serve this function but are incompatible with the structure of school settings, like rocking in a chair or running in halls.

Functional behavioral assessments are conducted to ascertain which of the functions described above motivate children to engage in challenging behaviors. However, behavior will not always fall neatly into one of these categories. Some children’s behavior is motivated by multiple functions, in which case intervention may need to be more complex. Once an FBA pinpoints the function(s), the goal is to teach replacement skills or behaviors that serve the same function. For example, if a child is pulling other children’s hair to get attention, a teacher should teach this child more acceptable ways to get a peer’s attention, such as using simple phrases to enter play (“Can I play, too?”), and otherwise create opportunities for sustained positive interactions.

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Section 4.5Functional Behavioral Assessments

Observing Challenging Behaviors An FBA is helpful for observing all challenging behaviors, but particularly for children whose behavior is particularly out of the ordinary with respect to frequency or severity. Ideally, a teacher would consider conducting an FBA shortly after the onset of ongoing, severe behav- ioral issues, but an FBA is usually conducted only after several other strategies and interven- tions have met with little success. This is because typical behavioral issues can be resolved with teaching strategies and common interventions. It is only the most challenging behaviors that are not resolved by standard practices and consequently require an FBA to target under- lying causes and possible alternate interventions. FBAs are also time intensive, so EC profes- sionals generally try less demanding forms of observation and intervention before attempt- ing one.

The following behaviors warrant the effort needed to complete an FBA:

• Behavior that is harmful or potentially harmful to a child or others • Behavior that seriously interferes with a child’s ability to learn • Behavior that results in property damage • Behavior that requires extraordinary human resources, like carrying a large child

who refuses to move or cleaning up after a toilet-trained child who chooses to uri- nate on the floor

• Behavior that results in humiliation, bullying, or undue negative attention by peers or others (such as staring or laughing)

• Behavior that limits access to regular daily activities, like a child who runs away from the group, requiring a teacher to hold his hand when leaving the classroom, or not allowing the child to leave the classroom

There is no age restriction for conducting FBAs. Once an educator has determined that an FBA will provide insight into a child, they will look at three different factors that typically maintain problem behaviors: antecedents, setting events, and consequences. Educators can manipu- late these factors to help children gain greater control of their world.

Antecedents Events that happen immediately before a child engages in a targeted behavior are called ante- cedents, or triggers. For example, the alarm that goes off in the morning is a trigger to get up. Antecedents can vary from environmental factors, like a bothersome noise, to interactions with others, like being bullied.

Setting Events Setting events are conditions that increase or decrease the likelihood that a child will engage in the target behavior. Though the behavior might otherwise occur, under the circumstances, triggering events in the environment are intensified. To build on the example of the alarm clock, if we were up late last night working, or playing a computer game (setting events), that trigger is less intense because we are more tired and will possibly react less to the alarm. However, if there is an important or exciting event that day, this setting event also increases the power of the alarm. As an example in ECE, suppose a teacher notices that Jill sometimes starts crying uncontrollably when she is redirected (the antecedent). What the teacher has yet to discover is that when Jill’s mother and father fight at home, which they often do, Jill is

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Section 4.5Functional Behavioral Assessments

much more likely to cry when redirected. The setting event in this case is Jill’s parents fight- ing. Emotional, social, and biological setting events enhance or decrease the power of ante- cedents. In order to understand when and why behavior occurs, teachers must develop an understanding of both setting events and antecedents.

Focusing on the Replacement Observational data collection often focuses on challenging social behaviors such as inattentiveness, destruction of property, violence toward other children, and inappropriate verbalizations, since these are outward behaviors that professionals would often like to change. It is for the same reason that spontaneous interventions also tend to focus on these inappropriate behaviors. Spontaneous interventions arise in the moment, as teachers try to react to the situation at hand. Teachers may react by reprimanding a child, removing her from an activity, restricting access to enjoyable activities, or sending him home or to the office. A problem with this approach is that the methods usually do not work for children whose behavior is persistent and/or severe. For these children, strategies that are meant to remind, isolate, or humiliate tend to have little effect because they actually reinforce the problematic behavior rather than offering options for more positive alternatives.

On the other hand, teachers may focus on teaching replacement behaviors—that is, those that offer alternatives to problem behaviors. There are many direct and indirect benefits to doing so. First, teaching replacement behaviors gives children the skills they are missing that lead to inappropriate behaviors in the first place. When a teacher works on elimination alone, a child who is misbehaving cannot change, because they have not been provided the skills to change. For example, a child who hits other children whenever she is frustrated could be sent to “time out” each time she hits. However, hitting will probably persist because no alternative to hitting has been offered.

Second, when a teacher attempts to eliminate a behavior using aversive techniques, the classroom, the activities, and even the teacher become associated with unpleasantness. Consequently, children may want to avoid school. When these children get into trouble again, as they invariably do, isolation and removal may actually reward behaviors that remove them from activities that were not appealing in the first place. For example, a child who does not like circle time may kick a classmate as soon as he gets to the circle each day just because he knows that he will be removed from the circle and allowed to sit with another teacher away from the group. By kicking other children, the child is “rewarded” with one-on-one time with a teacher.

On the other hand, replacement behaviors offer positive alternatives to negative behavior. In the case of the child who hits and is sent to time out, a teacher could teach strategies to support the child’s language that help her “use her words” to handle frustration. Likewise, the student who kicks during circle time could be given a special carpet square on which to sit to clearly delineate personal space, or could be allowed to sit on a teacher’s lap in the circle to offer a safe space where he receives the teacher’s attention, but also is required to participate in the circle. By focusing on positive behaviors, teachers build on a positive climate and create a classroom environment that sustains new replacement behaviors. Thus, focusing on replacement behaviors, both in terms of intervention goals and observational recording, channels teachers and students in a direction that supports a healthy environment for all.

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Section 4.5Functional Behavioral Assessments

Consequences Consequences are typically used to describe punishment, as in, “There must be consequences for children who break the rules.” However, consequences are actually neutral until an impact on the behavior is observed. For example, teachers will often give stickers to children as a reward. If a child sees no value in the sticker, then it cannot reinforce a particular behavior. A successful consequence is one in which the student finds value. For instance, the consequence of throwing sand might be that a child cannot continue to play in the sand. Because a child throwing sand is most likely engaged with the sand, albeit inappropriately, the child will be disappointed when removed from the sand, thereby establishing the value of the consequence.

All events that follow behavior have the potential to change it, either by increasing or decreas- ing the behavior’s frequency. Many intrusive behaviors are actually maintained by teachers, who repeatedly reprimand children rather than redirecting or ignoring. Some children engage in behavior to get attention and do not discriminate between attention that is detrimental and attention that is affirming. Therefore, an analysis of consequences is an important part of an FBA. Understanding antecedents, setting events, and consequences makes it possible to examine the actual procedure of FBA.

Functional Behavioral Assessment Model There are several FBA models, but the basic steps described here will help an EC professional begin the process and provide good hypotheses on which intervention may be attempted.

Step 1: Interview To identify important antecedents, setting events, and consequences that might be maintain- ing the target behavior, educators should interview several sources with whom the child has direct contact. These include:

• parents, • paraprofessionals, • other educators who work with the child, and • other family members or caregivers.

Example interview questions are provided at various websites, but a teacher should only use these as a starting point and modify them as needed for each situation. Sample interviews are found in Figures 4.11 and 4.12.

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Figure 4.11: Sample FBA interview ሁ It is essential that interviewees feel that they are helping provide a solution and are as

forthcoming with observations as possible. The highlighted phrases are clues to the function of Charlie’s behaviors. For example, the observation that Charlie does not like to be alone may indicate that his behaviors are communicating a desire for attention.

Parent Interview

Date November 12, 2013 Student Charlie Age 3 years old

Interviewer Ms. Cooper Teacher Ms. Cooper

Location School Time 8:30 am

1. Do you have areas of concern in his behavior? If yes, what are they? Yes, he has become very defiant, very “Charlie” like. He doesn’t listen to me. I can’t discipline him because he thinks it’s funny. He doesn’t like being in his room alone with the door shut.

2. Do you observe these behaviors at home? If so, when do they tend to occur? He is like this all day, but mainly when he wakes up in the morning or when he is tired in the afternoon.

3. What do you typically do when these behaviors occur? I try to ignore it, or set him on his bed with no toys and shut the door.

4. Why do you think they occur? Because of his lack of ability to communicate.

Once an interview is completed, educators analyze the input and look for patterns that help them generate a hypothesis about the targeted behaviors’ function(s). In the examples provided, interviewees pointed to Charlie’s need for interaction with others, the attention he desires, and his inability to garner attention through conventional communication and social skills.

The paraprofessional also hinted that the one strategy that seemed to help Charlie was to leave him alone, and Charlie’s mom also said she tried to ignore him when he acted out. Finally, the paraprofessional made an astute observation that Charlie’s behavior tends to appear after he has been sitting for a short time (and that his ability to sustain attention on a task is getting shorter). Analyzing these results, Charlie’s teacher can form hypotheses regarding the func- tion of his target behaviors. The hypotheses might look something like this:

Strong main hypothesis: Attention

Weak secondary hypotheses: Escape, Sensory need

Now that hypotheses have been formed, it is time to observe the child.

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Section 4.5Functional Behavioral Assessments

Figure 4.12: Sample FBA interview ሁ This interview follows up on the parent interview in Figure 4.11. The preschool paraprofessional

provides Ms. Cooper with more information about why Charlie may be acting out. The highlighted phrases provide clues about the function served by his behaviors. For example, “can’t be understood when he talks” may be an indicator that Charlie’s behaviors signal a need to get something (i.e., tangible, activity, food, or attention). Because he is misunderstood when he talks, he may be acting out as a way to get what he needs or wants.

Paraprofessional Interview

Date Nov. 12, 2013 Student “Charlie” Age 3 years old

Interviewer Ms. Cooper Teacher Ms. Cooper

Location In of�ce Time 6:40 pm

1. Do you have areas of concern in his behavior? If yes, what are they? Yes, his behaviors have become more troublesome, more defiant, and less cooperative. He seems angrier and sadder. His behaviors are getting in the way of his education

2. When do they tend to occur most frequently? When we ask him to sit for longer than he is capable, which is very different and much shorter than last year. He tries to communicate, but can’t be understood when he talks.

3. What do you typically do when these behaviors occur? Try to give him some space and then reel him in when the time is right, giving him a chance to come back gracefully. I know I can’t win the battle against his will, so I try to give him time.

4. Why do you think they occur? Because he is getting something out of it, he is craving attention, he wants his presence to be known. He is getting attention out of it. He doesn’t know how to get it in a positive way, so he gets it with the negative behavior. He has low self-esteem, he doesn’t know how to socialize with the other students, they shun him and he can’t communicate his thoughts to anyone.

5. Do the behaviors occur in the presence of certain people more than others? I don’t think so, he behaves this way with adults and peers, at school and at home.

6. What do you think are some possible reinforcers of the behavior? Attention

Step 2: ABC Observation Following the formulation of a hypothesis, a direct structured observation of the child should occur. This observation should take place in the setting where the child is having problems, since that is the most natural environment to observe possible contributing factors. The struc- tured observation is called an ABC observation. It is conducted to find patterns that may exist in antecedents and consequences, and to determine what may be triggering and maintaining

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Section 4.5Functional Behavioral Assessments

the target behavior. ABC is a quick and easy way to remember the three components of this type of observation:

A—Antecedent: Describing events that immediately precede behavior

B—Behavior: Describes what the child is doing

C—Consequence: Describes what happens immediately after the behavior

Some rules for ABC observation that EC professionals should keep in mind include the following:

• A teacher may find that their own behavior—that is, the ways in which the teacher interacts with the child—is contributing to the maintenance of a target behavior. In this case it is best if someone else, possibly another teacher, a center director, or principal conducts the observation.

• While it is tempting only to look at what happens before and after disruptive behav- ior, it can be equally instructive to find out what happens when a child is engaging in alternative appropriate behaviors. To do this, a teacher should collect continuous recordings that reflect both disruptive and appropriate behaviors.

• It is most useful to collect data using short intervals of equal length. If a behavior occurs very frequently, 10 to15 second intervals are recommended. If a behavior is less frequent, 1 to 2 minute intervals may be short enough to capture all that is happening.

• Often, consequences delivered for one behavior become the antecedent for the next behavior. For instance, if the consequence for throwing blocks is removal from the block area, a child who throws a block and has to leave may get upset and have a tan- trum. Leaving the block area is then both a consequence and an antecedent.

Figure 4.13 presents a sample ABC observation. You will notice that the log sheet provides a place to record the time and each of the ABC components. This clear format provides an easy mechanism for documentation and interpretation.

This ABC observation reveals a great deal of information about Anna. First, it appears that she listens well and is excited about mathematics. However, when it comes to reading, she often needs to be corrected and is also frequently disengaged and impolite to her mother. She may be trying to get out of reading (which she eventually does) to avoid her mother’s yell- ing. The observation also reveals that when Anna is engaged and successful, her mother is much more positive and encouraging. Anna does not receive much positive feedback during reading, and the activity appears to be aversive for both Anna and her mother. It is possible to form a strong hypothesis for Anna’s behavioral function: escape. Since she is encouraged and engaged during math, it appears that Anna is also seeking positive reinforcement when reading, which is a secondary hypothesis. With these broad hypotheses, it is possible to move to the next step, in which rich information is collected that will guide the most appropriate interventions.

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Section 4.5Functional Behavioral Assessments

Figure 4.13: Sample ABC observation ሁ In this example, the observer records Anna’s behavior in 2-minute intervals by describing the

conditions that happen before Anna acts (antecedents), the observed behavior, and what happens after Anna’s behavior (including no consequences). This observation shows patterns that may indicate events that trigger behavior and consequences that maintain behavior. Hypotheses about the function can be derived from the ABC observation. For example, Anna clearly struggles with reading and frequently attempts to avoid reading. Mom consistently reprimands Anna for digressions. These reprimands appear to escalate off task, resulting in more reprimands. Mom does not provide any positive consequences.

The student : Anna Age: 7 Date: March 9, 2015 (Saturday)

Location: Home Observer: Ms. Green

Activity: Reading Teacher: Mom

Time Antecedent Behavior Consequence

1. 3:15 PM Mom prompts: “Begin Anna: “Then I Mom: “Climbed onto reading here” (points to climbed to my bed.” my bed.” page).

Mom: “Climbed onto Anna looks at the Mom smiles and my bed.” parent and continues nods. to read.

2. 3:17 PM Anna: “I dig a bid Mom: “I did a big breath at her.” breath at her.”

Mom: “I did a big Anna looks down at Mom tells the breath at her.” the �oor and says, “I’ve student to continue to never done a big breath read. at my teacher! I think that makes me a good student!”

3. 3:19 PM Mom: “Read it again.” Anna: “That day Mom: “Anna, Ms. Green told us to continue to read.” draw about the farm trip.”

Anna puts the book Mom: “You are not down and looks at Ms. funny, now read.” Green. “Remember when I went to Head Start to look at the ducks!”

Mom: “You are not funny, Anna continues to now read.” look at Ms. Green.

4. 3:21 PM Mom: “Read that again Anna is reading but it is Mom: “ANNA!” Mom so I can understand hard to understand is giving the child an you. You aren’t making what she is saying. angry look. sense.”

Anna says: “NOOO! I will only read it once!

Anna begins to read again.

5. 3:23 PM Anna continues reading.

6. 3:25 PM Anna: “And we Anna stands up Mom: ANNA, SIT showed no more farm and begins to walk DOWN! pictures.” around the room.

Mom prompts: “And Anna starts swinging Mom: “ANNA, SIT we did not show any her arms. “I’m going DOWN RIGHT NOW!” more farm pictures.” to draw a picture of a farm at school, I think.”

Mom: “ANNA, SIT DOWN Anna sits down. RIGHT NOW!”

Time Antecedent Behavior Consequence

7. 3:27 PM Mom: “Anna let’s start Anna sits back in Mom: “Anna, please here” (points to word). the chair and looks continue to read.” Mom prompts: “Shopping around the room. wasn’t fun at all.”

Mom: “ANNA, Read. Anna stares at Ms. Mom rubs temples: NOW!” Green. “ANNA, Read. NOW!”

Anna takes a huge breath and reads.

8. 3:29 PM Anna: “Instead, my Anna starts Mom: “Anna, do not temperature was taken.” moaning. be a whiner.”

Mom prompting: Anna: “In school Mom: “I DON’T CARE, “Instead, she took my yesterday, we used ANNA. READ!” temperature.” thermometers. Those are used for temperature!”

Anna continues to read.

9. 3:31 PM Anna gets out of Mom: “Anna, PUT THE the chair and grabs a BALL DOWN AND ball. Anna begins COME READ.” to bounce the ball.

Anna continues to Mom: “ANNA, SIT bounce the ball. DOWN!”

Mom: “ANNA, SIT Anna does not sit. Mom: “THAT’S IT DOWN!” Anna pretends to ANNA, GO TO YOUR play basketball. ******* ROOM!”

Mom: “THAT’S IT ANNA! Anna puts the ball Mom: “I CAN’T HANDLE Go sit in the time out down, smiles at Ms. YOU RIGHT NOW!” chair!” Green, and walks out.

10. 3:33 PM Anna out of room.

11. 3:35 PM Anna out of room.

12. 3:37 PM Anna walks back Anna begins to Mom sighs and into the room. read again. listens to Anna read.

Anna asks to do Mom says that it math. is “okay.”

13. 3:39 PM Anna begins her Anna tells her mom Mom praises Anna math homework. about her grade on her and is happy to test last week, which hear of the good was an “A”. work.

14. 3:41 PM Anna completes a Anna yells, “I �nished Mom praises Anna. drill test. before the timer went off!!”

15. 3:43 PM Anna begins a review Anna shows happiness Mom continues math worksheet. and smiling. to praise Anna.

16. 3:45 PM Anna completes Anna jumps up and Mom walks away. math homework. down and starts singing.

(continued)

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Section 4.5Functional Behavioral Assessments

Figure 4.13: Sample ABC observation (continued) The student : Anna Age: 7 Date: March 9, 2015 (Saturday)

Location: Home Observer: Ms. Green

Activity: Reading Teacher: Mom

Time Antecedent Behavior Consequence

1. 3:15 PM Mom prompts: “Begin Anna: “Then I Mom: “Climbed onto reading here” (points to climbed to my bed.” my bed.” page).

Mom: “Climbed onto Anna looks at the Mom smiles and my bed.” parent and continues nods. to read.

2. 3:17 PM Anna: “I dig a bid Mom: “I did a big breath at her.” breath at her.”

Mom: “I did a big Anna looks down at Mom tells the breath at her.” the �oor and says, “I’ve student to continue to never done a big breath read. at my teacher! I think that makes me a good student!”

3. 3:19 PM Mom: “Read it again.” Anna: “That day Mom: “Anna, Ms. Green told us to continue to read.” draw about the farm trip.”

Anna puts the book Mom: “You are not down and looks at Ms. funny, now read.” Green. “Remember when I went to Head Start to look at the ducks!”

Mom: “You are not funny, Anna continues to now read.” look at Ms. Green.

4. 3:21 PM Mom: “Read that again Anna is reading but it is Mom: “ANNA!” Mom so I can understand hard to understand is giving the child an you. You aren’t making what she is saying. angry look. sense.”

Anna says: “NOOO! I will only read it once!

Anna begins to read again.

5. 3:23 PM Anna continues reading.

6. 3:25 PM Anna: “And we Anna stands up Mom: ANNA, SIT showed no more farm and begins to walk DOWN! pictures.” around the room.

Mom prompts: “And Anna starts swinging Mom: “ANNA, SIT we did not show any her arms. “I’m going DOWN RIGHT NOW!” more farm pictures.” to draw a picture of a farm at school, I think.”

Mom: “ANNA, SIT DOWN Anna sits down. RIGHT NOW!”

Time Antecedent Behavior Consequence

7. 3:27 PM Mom: “Anna let’s start Anna sits back in Mom: “Anna, please here” (points to word). the chair and looks continue to read.” Mom prompts: “Shopping around the room. wasn’t fun at all.”

Mom: “ANNA, Read. Anna stares at Ms. Mom rubs temples: NOW!” Green. “ANNA, Read. NOW!”

Anna takes a huge breath and reads.

8. 3:29 PM Anna: “Instead, my Anna starts Mom: “Anna, do not temperature was taken.” moaning. be a whiner.”

Mom prompting: Anna: “In school Mom: “I DON’T CARE, “Instead, she took my yesterday, we used ANNA. READ!” temperature.” thermometers. Those are used for temperature!”

Anna continues to read.

9. 3:31 PM Anna gets out of Mom: “Anna, PUT THE the chair and grabs a BALL DOWN AND ball. Anna begins COME READ.” to bounce the ball.

Anna continues to Mom: “ANNA, SIT bounce the ball. DOWN!”

Mom: “ANNA, SIT Anna does not sit. Mom: “THAT’S IT DOWN!” Anna pretends to ANNA, GO TO YOUR play basketball. ******* ROOM!”

Mom: “THAT’S IT ANNA! Anna puts the ball Mom: “I CAN’T HANDLE Go sit in the time out down, smiles at Ms. YOU RIGHT NOW!” chair!” Green, and walks out.

10. 3:33 PM Anna out of room.

11. 3:35 PM Anna out of room.

12. 3:37 PM Anna walks back Anna begins to Mom sighs and into the room. read again. listens to Anna read.

Anna asks to do Mom says that it math. is “okay.”

13. 3:39 PM Anna begins her Anna tells her mom Mom praises Anna math homework. about her grade on her and is happy to test last week, which hear of the good was an “A”. work.

14. 3:41 PM Anna completes a Anna yells, “I �nished Mom praises Anna. drill test. before the timer went off!!”

15. 3:43 PM Anna begins a review Anna shows happiness Mom continues math worksheet. and smiling. to praise Anna.

16. 3:45 PM Anna completes Anna jumps up and Mom walks away. math homework. down and starts singing.

Step 3: Scatter Plot A scatter plot uses a simple frequency count to visually chart the conditions under which a target behavior occurs most frequently. Using a scatter plot will allow an EC professional to further narrow the hypothesis about a behavior’s function. As an example, after interviewing the parents and completing a scatter plot of the frequency of a child’s outbursts, including

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Section 4.5Functional Behavioral Assessments

crying, hitting, and running, it was discovered that these behaviors only happened at school. It was also discovered that these behaviors only occurred when a second child was in the room. The second child was a screamer, and when he began to scream, it triggered the student under observation. The obvious hypothesis was that the child’s behavior functioned to inform others of sensory discomfort. A simple change in the children’s schedules resulted in a signifi- cant reduction in outbursts and improved the child’s quality of education.

To conduct a scatter plot, the day is divided into natural intervals according to activities. A frequency count is made of the number of target behaviors observed during each activity interval. These data are collected across at least 5 days (not necessarily consecutive) to estab- lish trends. Once the data are collected, the cells representing each activity are coded by the number of times the behavior is seen (see Figure 4.14). For example the code may be a blank cell for zero behaviors; a single slash through the cell for one to three behaviors; and a solid fill for more than three behaviors.

Figure 4.14: Sample scatter plot ሁ A scatter plot shows patterns of high and low frequency for target behavior. An empty cell

indicates the behavior was not observed during the interval/activity. A slash indicates the behavior occurred 1 to 3 times, and a solid cell indicates that the behavior occurred more than 3 times. In this example, Steven screamed, threw things, overturned furniture, or hit most often during reading and team projects, which tend to be more structured and place more specific demands on him. Less demanding activities (such as movement, lunch) are associated with lower levels of problem behaviors.

Student Steven Behavior Screaming, throwing items, kicking furniture, and hitting

Age 3 Observer Counselor

Setting Preschool Classroom

Scoring Blank = 0 occurrences Slash = less than 3 outbursts Solid = more than 3 outbursts

Time 6/8 6/9 6/10

10:00–10:15

10:15–10:45

10:45–11:15

11:15–12:00

12:00–12:30

12:30–1:00

Activity

Reading

Art

Story

Lunch/Outdoor

Team Project

Movement

From the scatter plot shown in Figure 4.14, there is a clear pattern of acting out during the structured activities of reading and team projects. Problem behaviors are relatively infre- quent for less structured activities such as art, story time, lunch, and movement. The clear

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Section 4.5Functional Behavioral Assessments

hypothesis here is that this student is communicating a desire to avoid or escape from struc- tured academic activities.

Step 4: Putting It All Together Once an EC professional has conducted an ABC observation and created a scatter plot, clear trends should emerge that indicate when a behavior is happening and the surrounding cir- cumstances. Based on this information, it will be possible to determine why a child is behav- ing in a certain way, which is the ultimate purpose of an FBA. With an evidence-backed under- standing, an EC professional can choose targeted, specific interventions through which to address the problem behavior.

Challenge Read the following passage about Tia, a toddler, who was observed at her child care center.

Tia is playing with toy animals on the carpet. A child approaches, and Tia screams and throws a small toy at the other child. The teacher tells Tia to keep her friends safe and reminds her that if she throws toys, she will have to leave the carpet. Tia returns to playing. Another child comes to the carpet and attempts to play with the toy animals. Again, Tia screams and throws a toy. The teacher tells Tia that she will now have to leave the carpet until she can play safely with her friends. Tia becomes very upset and collapses onto the floor, screaming and kicking. The teacher carefully approaches Tia and asks her if she would like to cry in the “quiet area” in the room, a soft-sided tent. Tia continues sobbing, but nods, indicating she would like some alone time. While in the “quiet area,” Tia falls asleep.

Complete the following chart; some information has been included to get you started.

Antecedent Behavior Consequence

Child approaches Tia

Teacher informs Tia that she will have to leave the area

Tia collapses, kicking and screaming

Tia goes to the quiet area

Refer to the Appendix for the answers.

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Summary and Resources

Summary and Resources

Chapter Summary Observational assessment is one of the most important tools for uncovering how often, how fast, how long, how responsive, and how well children are performing. It is also possible to use observational assessment to discover contextual factors that influence learning—such as environmental or sensory elements—as well as to describe the quality of children’s performance.

In order for educators to successfully use the many tools of observation described in this chapter, they should train to be keen observers. In addition to learning about tools and how they should be used, educators may use a variety of strategies to limit bias, double-check results by having a second observer, and practice with observational tools until proficient.

Educators may also use a series of questions to determine which observation tool is the best tool for the job. The goal is to select the tool that will reveal the most truth about a child that is also practical for a busy classroom teacher. In general, educators will ask if behaviors are continuous or discrete, and whether descriptive information is helpful in assessing where a child is and where the child needs to be.

Finally, functional behavioral assessments are essential for uncovering why a child engages in behavior that is counterproductive to development and learning. Once the reason for the child’s behavior has been identified, educators are better prepared to plan interventions that will teach the child replacement behaviors that meet his or her needs.

Posttest 1. All of the following are ways to minimize bias EXCEPT __________.

a. working to recognize bias in oneself b. reading about antibias education c. taking others’ perspectives d. adopting a color-blind mentality

2. A trained observer . a. must have a master’s degree b. should know the child’s family c. should understand child development d. must have excellent eyesight

3. In order to be most useful, anecdotal records should be recorded . a. regularly b. electronically c. sporadically d. daily

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Summary and Resources

4. All of the following are examples of meaningful anecdotal data EXCEPT . a. Jamal woke up four times during nap time on Monday. He woke up twice on Tues-

day but slept through the entire nap hour on Wednesday. b. Rubi pushed another child who wanted to use the same toy as her during play

time. Later, during reading time, Rubi scratched yet another child seated next to her.

c. Jordan ate apples and raisins during snack time. During lunch, Jordan ate chicken and carrots but refused broccoli.

d. Kayla threw a tantrum when her mother dropped her off in the morning, and she remained in a bad mood all day long.

5. Which of the following is most likely a successful target behavior for observation? a. sadness b. hitting c. exhaustion d. persevering

6. In order to operationalize a target behavior, one should do all of the following EXCEPT . a. describe the target behavior b. test the operational definition c. identify the root of the behavior d. test the target of the behavior

7. An EC professional should ask which of the following questions about a target behavior? a. Is the behavior disturbing others? b. How old is the child being observed? c. When does the behavior take place? d. Will other children be jealous if too much effort is spent teaching the target

behavior?

8. A behavior is discrete if it . a. lasts 5 minutes b. has a clear onset c. cannot be observed d. can be self-reported

9. The purpose of a functional behavior assessment is to determine a behavior is happening. a. why b. when c. where d. how

10. ABC observation stands for . a. all behavior is communication b. antecedent, behavior, communication c. all behaviors have consequences d. antecedent, behavior, consequence

Answers: 1 (d), 2 (c), 3 (a), 4 (d), 5 (b), 6 (d), 7 (c), 8 (b), 9 (a), 10 (d)

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Summary and Resources

Critical-Thinking and Discussion Questions 1. This chapter discussed bias toward gender, socioeconomics, race, and ethnicity.

What other types of bias might you also encounter when working with young chil- dren? How might you work to overcome this bias?

2. In what ways might you and others working with the same group of children be able to create a consistent system for taking and using anecdotal records? How might you best share anecdotal records with parents?

3. Observation is often used to document a target behavior for a single child. What are some target behaviors that you would want to document for all children in a group or class? Why?

4. In addition to the suggestions offered in the chapter for keeping counts of children’s behavior, how might you collect counting data when working with young children?

5. What might an EC professional do if it is discovered through an FBA that he or she is the antecedent to a child’s behavior?

Additional Resources PBS provides a comprehensive tool for examining typical development from birth through

adolescents. http://www.pbs.org/parents/child-development

Functional behavioral assessment interview questions can be found at these sites. http://challengingbehavior.fmhi.usf.edu/explore/pbs_docs/functional_beh_ assessment/blank_FAI.pdf http://tier3pbis.pbworks.com/f/4FBA+Parent+Interview.pdf

Answers and Rejoinders to Chapter Pretest 1. False. One becomes a trained observer through practice over time and paying con-

scious attention to eliminating bias. 2. False. Anecdotal data and records can be meaningful when they stick to the facts

and use specific language to communicate what was observed. Best practices for using anecdotal data meaningfully include using anecdotal records purposefully, using anecdotal recording regularly, and using anecdotal data in tandem with quan- titative data.

3. False. A behavior is either discrete (having an obvious onset and end) or continuous (no obvious onset or end and lasts longer than a few minutes).

4. True. The chapter offers a wide range of options for observations that include very informal (such as anecdotal) to very structured (such as interval data recording). Professionals must choose the degree of precision needed from their observation to guide instruction. If highly precise quantitative data are needed, a method such as latency data should be collected. However, if children seem to be progressing well, less intensive observational methods (such as frequency data) may be sufficient. The best approach is to collect both quantitative data and qualitative data, which will provide a precise and nuanced understanding of children.

5. False. FBAs are time consuming and often require support of additional staff.

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Summary and Resources

Rejoinders to Posttest 1. Teachers can improve their resistance to bias by being reflective, becoming more

informed, and actively considering the point of view of those who may be different ethnically, religiously, and linguistically, or of another gender. One does not reduce bias by pretending that differences do not exist (such as being color blind), but rather by understanding and appreciating differences.

2. To be an accurate observer and take all forms of observational data, teachers must have a deep understanding of development to know what to observe and to recog- nize which behaviors are important.

3. Sporadic anecdotal note taking does not help discover patterns of behavior that can be acted on in a systematic way. When there are large gaps in notes, conclusions may be made that over- or underestimate development and/or difficult behavior.

4. Meaningful anecdotal data is fact based and uses specific language to communi- cate what was observed. Stating that Kayla was “in a bad mood” without providing details of the facts does not qualify as meaningful anecdotal data.

5. Hitting is observable, whereas sadness, perseverance, and exhaustion must be inferred from other behaviors. For example, a teacher might think that a child is sad if he or she cries, frowns, or refuses to play with peers. These latter behaviors are observable and therefore measurable indicators of sadness but may vary from child to child. The only way to know for sure if a child is sad is to ask the child—not to observe him or her.

6. Operationalizing a behavior involves defining it in a way that it is understood by multiple observers so as to record data accurately and reliably. In order to do this, behavior must be understood with respect to the conditions that evoke it (root). It must also be described in a way that observers always recognize an occurrence of it and are able to tell what behaviors do not meet the definition. The definition should also be tested and refined to further clarify the definition.

7. Although behaviors often come to the attention of teachers when other children are bothered, this is not relevant for designing useful interventions. Knowing the circumstances under which behavior occurs, if behaviors are developmentally appropriate, and what happens after the behavior to maintain it are all important to crafting solutions.

8. A discrete behavior has a clear onset and ending point that make it easy to count. Some behaviors are difficult to count because their onset and end point vary dra- matically (such as focused attention). When this is the case, observational methods such as duration recording or interval recording yield more accurate measurements.

9. An FBA is conducted to determine why a behavior is occurring. The “why” is the function or purpose that the behavior serves. Since all behavior is communication, an FBA is conducted to interpret the unspoken message, or the “why.”

10. ABC stands for “antecedent, behavior, consequences.” An ABC observation (a) evalu- ates what happens before a behavior as the trigger (antecedent); (b) describes the behavior itself; and (c) states what happens after a behavior (consequences).

Key Terms anecdotal recording The authentic prac- tice of documenting students’ behaviors in a note-taking fashion.

antecedents Events that cause specific behaviors.

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Summary and Resources

baseline The way in which a child behaves under typical conditions without the use of intervention or changes.

continuous behavior A behavior with no clear onset and/or conclusion that lasts for more than a brief period of time.

discrete behavior A behavior with a clear onset and conclusion, allowing each occur- rence to be easily counted.

duration recording A record of the amount of time that has passed.

event data A count of each time that a tar- get behavior is observed.

fluency The frequency with which a child performs a target behavior.

frequency data The frequency with which a child performs a target behavior over a specific length of time.

interobserver agreement The degree of similarity to which two parties observe a behavior.

interval recording A method of recording that uses small segments of time (intervals) to divide up an observation period.

intervals Small segments of time.

invisible behavior A feeling, like anger, that may have no visible expression.

latency The time lapse of the moment from which a child is prompted to begin a task and when the task is actually begun.

observational assessment An assess- ment that involves purposefully watching a group of children and recording very specific details about their activities and behaviors to gain an understanding of their progress or lack of progress toward learning objectives and to inform decision making.

operational definition A definition of target behavior needed for observational data collection that describes behavior in such a way that it is visible and can reliably be measured.

positive reinforcement Reinforcement that increases the likelihood of a behavior reoccurring.

rate data The number of responses per minute, calculated by dividing the number of times a behavior is observed by the total length of observation time; for example, 35 smiles in 10 minutes is a rate of 3.5 smiles per minute (35/10).

replacement behaviors Acceptable behaviors offered in place of unacceptable behaviors.

scatter plot A visual representation of times in which specific behaviors occur most often.

self-recording Monitoring and recording data of one’s own behavior.

setting events Events that affect the likeli- hood of a target behavior occurring.

spontaneous interventions Immediate reactions to prevent negative behaviors.

target behavior A specific action that is the focus of observation and possible intervention.

time sampling A form of data collection around specific intervals of time.

trends Patterns of data involving three or more points that illustrate the way in which a behavior changes over time.

visible behaviors Observable actions.

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