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Figure 4.5 Procedures for Conducting Ethnographic Research

Challenges in Ethnographic Research Ethnography is challenging to use for the following reasons. The researcher needs to have an understanding of cultural anthropology, the meaning of a social–cultural system, and the concepts typically explored by those studying cultures. Culture is an amorphous term, not something “lying about” (Wolcott, 1987, p. 41), but something researchers attribute to a group when looking for patterns of its social world. It is inferred from the words and actions of members of the group, and it is assigned to this group by the researcher. It consists of what people do (behaviors), what they say (language), the potential tension between what they do and ought to do, and what they make and use, such as artifacts (Spradley, 1980). Such themes are diverse, as illustrated in Winthrop’s (1991) Dictionary of Concepts in Cultural Anthropology. Fetterman (2010) discusses how ethnographers describe a holistic perspective of the group’s history, religion, politics, economy, and environment.

The time to collect data is extensive, involving prolonged time in the field. In much ethnography, the narratives are written in a literary, almost storytelling approach, an approach that may limit the audience for the work and may be challenging for authors accustomed to traditional approaches to scientific writing. There is a possibility that the researcher will “go native” and be unable to complete or be compromised in the study. This is but one issue in the complex array of fieldwork issues facing ethnographers who venture into an unfamiliar cultural group or system. Sensitivity to the needs of individuals being studied is especially important, and the researcher must access and report his or her impact in conducting the study on the people and the places being explored. Discussions abound about how funding often limits time for ethnographic fieldwork and how data shapes the generation of an ethnographic study.

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Case Study Research

Definition of Case Study Research The entire culture-sharing group in ethnography may be considered a case, but the intent in ethnography is to determine how the culture works rather than to either develop an in-depth understanding of a single case or explore an issue or problem using the case as a specific illustration. Thus, case study research involves the study of a case (or cases) within a real-life, contemporary context or setting (Yin, 2014). This case may be a concrete entity, such as an individual, a small group, an organization, or a partnership. At a less concrete level, it may be a community, a relationship, a decision process, or a specific project (see Yin, 2014). Stake (2005) states that case study research is not a methodology but a choice of what is to be studied (i.e., a case within a bounded system, bounded by time and place) whereas others present it as a strategy of inquiry, a methodology, or a comprehensive research strategy (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Merriam & Tisdell, 2015; Yin, 2014). Similar to Stake (2005), Thomas (2015) argues, “Your case study is defined not so much by the methods that you are using to do the study, but the edges you put around the case” (p. 21).

We choose to view case study research as a methodology: a type of design in qualitative research that may be an object of study as well as a product of the inquiry. Case study research is defined as a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a real-life, contemporary bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over time, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information (e.g., observations, interviews, audiovisual material, and documents and reports), and reports a case description and case themes. The unit of analysis in the case study might be multiple cases (a multisite study) or a single case (a within-site study).

Origins of Case Study Research The case study approach is familiar to social scientists because of its popularity in psychology (Freud), medicine (case analysis of a problem), law (case law), and political science (case reports). Case study research has a long, distinguished history across many disciplines. Hamel, Dufour, and Fortin (1993) trace the origin of modern social science case studies through anthropology and sociology. They cite anthropologist Malinowski’s study of the Trobriand Islands, French sociologist LePlay’s study of families, and the case studies of the University of Chicago Department of Sociology from the 1920s and 1930s through the 1950s (e.g., Thomas and Znaniecki’s 1958 study of Polish peasants in Europe and America) as antecedents of qualitative case study research. Today, the case study writer has a large array of texts and approaches from which to choose. Yin (2014), for example, espouses both quantitative and qualitative approaches to case study development and discusses explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive qualitative case studies. Merriam and Tisdell (2015) advocate a general approach to qualitative case studies in the field of education. Stake (1995) systematically establishes procedures for case study research and cites them extensively in his example of “Harper School.” Stake’s (2006) most recent book on multiple case study analysis presents a step-by-step approach and provides rich illustrations of multiple case studies in Ukraine, Slovakia, and Romania. In discussing the case study approach, we will rely on Stake (1995) and Yin (2014) to form the distinctive features of this approach.

Defining Features of Case Studies A review of many qualitative case studies reported in the literature yields several defining characteristics of most of them:

Case study research begins with the identification of a specific case that will be described and analyzed. Examples of a case for study are an individual, a community, a decision process, or an event. A single case can be selected or multiple cases identified so that they can be compared. Typically, case study researchers study current, real-life cases that are in progress so that they can gather accurate information not lost by time.

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The key to the case identification is that it is bounded, meaning that it can be defined or described within certain parameters. Examples of parameters for bounding a case study are such the specific place where the case is located and timeframe in which the case is studied. On occasion, certain people involved in the case may also be defined as a parameter. The intent of conducting the case study is also important to focus the procedures for the particular type. A qualitative case study can be composed to illustrate a unique case, a case that has unusual interest in and of itself and needs to be described and detailed. This is called an intrinsic case (Stake, 1995). Alternatively, the intent of the case study may be to understand a specific issue, problem, or concern (e.g., teenage pregnancy) and a case or cases selected to best understand the problem. This is called an instrumental case (Stake, 1995). A hallmark of a good qualitative case study is that it presents an in-depth understanding of the case. In order to accomplish this, the researcher collects and integrates many forms of qualitative data, ranging from interviews, to observations, to documents, to audiovisual materials. Relying on one source of data is typically not enough to develop this in-depth understanding. The selection of how to approach the data analysis in a case study will differ. Some case studies involve the analysis of multiple units within the case (e.g., the school, the school district) while others report on the entire case (e.g., the school district). Also, in some studies, the researcher selects multiple cases to analyze and compare while, in other case studies, a single case is analyzed. A key to generating the description of the case involves identifying case themes. These themes may also represent issues or specific situations to study in each case. A complete findings section of a case study would then involve both a description of the case and themes or issues that the researcher has uncovered in studying the case. Examples of how the case themes might be organized by the researcher include a chronology, analyzed across cases for similarities and differences among the cases, or presented as a theoretical model. Case studies often end with conclusions formed by the researcher about the overall meaning delivering from the case(s). These are called assertions by Stake (1995) or building “patterns” or “explanations” by Yin (2009). I think about these as general lessons learned from studying the case(s).

Types of Case Studies The types of qualitative case studies are distinguished by the focus of analysis for the bounded case, such as whether the case involves studying one individual, several individuals, a group, an entire program, or an activity. They may also be distinguished in terms of the intent of the case analysis. Three variations exist in terms of intent: the single instrumental case study, the collective or multiple case study, and the intrinsic case study.

In a single instrumental case study, the researcher focuses on an issue or concern and then selects one bounded case to illustrate this issue. Stake (1995) describes his use of an instrumental case study as having “a research question, a puzzlement, a need for general understanding, and feel that we may get insight into the question by studying a particular case” (p. 3). Asmussen and Creswell (1995) used an instrumental case study to explore the issue of campus violence and using the single case of one institution to illustrate the reaction of the campus to a potentially violent incident. The findings from multiple sources of information advanced five themes (denial, fear, safety, retriggering, and campus planning) and assertions in terms of two overriding responses of the campus community to the gunman incident (mentioned briefly in Chapter 1 and explored further in Chapter 11): organizational and social–psychological. This case study should not be seen as an intrinsic case study because campus gun violence has occurred, unfortunately, on several higher education campuses.

In a collective case study (or multiple case study), the one issue or concern is again selected, but the inquirer selects multiple case studies to illustrate the issue. The researcher might select for study several programs from several research sites or multiple programs within a single site. Often the inquirer purposefully selects multiple cases to show different perspectives on the issue. Some researchers, like Lieberson (2000), argue for the use of a small group of comparison cases because of the potential to draw otherwise inaccessible conclusions. Yin (2009) suggests that the multiple case study design uses the logic of replication, in which the inquirer replicates the procedures for each case. As a general rule, qualitative researchers are reluctant to generalize from one case to another because the contexts of cases differ. To best generalize, however, the inquirer needs to select

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representative cases for inclusion in the qualitative study. A multiple case study focused on the relationship patterns and management practices across four UK nursing homes involving 406 managers and staff over 6 months (Anderson, Toles, Corazzini, McDaniel, & Colón-Emeric, 2014). The findings suggested the capacity for delivering better resident care resulted from positive interactions strategies and pointed to the need for positive staff engagement with one another as a prerequisite for care quality.

The final type of case study design is an intrinsic case study in which the focus is on the case itself (e.g., evaluating a program, or studying a student having difficulty; see Stake, 1995) because the case presents an unusual or unique situation. This resembles the focus of narrative research, but the case study analytic procedures of a detailed description of the case, set within its context or surroundings, still hold true. An intrinsic case study of Silk Road as an online drug marketplace explored an individual user’s “motives for online drug purchasing, experiences of accessing and using the website, drug information sourcing, decision making and purchasing, outcomes and settings for use and perspectives around security” (Van Hout & Bingham, 2013, p. 383). The findings point to differences in relationships, participation, and feelings of safety compared with more traditional online and street sources of drug supply and shed light on the utility of Silk Road to maximize consumer decision making and harm reduction.

Procedures for Conducting a Case Study Several procedures are available for conducting case studies (see Merriam & Tisdell, 2015; Stake, 1995; Yin, 2009, 2014). This discussion will rely primarily on Stake’s (1995) and Yin’s (2014) approaches to conducting a case study (see Figure 4.6). For a concise description from a novice perspective, see also Baxter and Jack (2008).

Determine if a case study approach is appropriate for studying the research problem. A case study is a good approach when the inquirer has clearly identifiable cases with boundaries and seeks to provide an in- depth understanding of the cases or a comparison of several cases. Identify the intent of the study and select the case (or cases). In conducting case study research, we recommend that investigators consider the intent and type of case study—single or collective, multisite or within-site, and focused on a case or on an issue (intrinsic, instrumental)—is most promising and useful. The case(s) selected may involve an individual, several individuals, a program, an event, or an activity (Stake, 1995; Yin, 2009) with an array of possibilities for purposeful sampling is available. Often we have found selecting cases that show different perspectives on the problem, process, or event preferable (called purposeful maximal sampling; see Creswell, 2012), but ordinary cases, accessible cases, or unusual cases are also desirable options. Develop procedures for conducting the extensive data collection drawing on multiple data sources. Among the common sources of information are observations, interviews, documents, and audiovisual materials. For example, Yin (2014) recommends six types of information to collect: documents, archival records, interviews, direct observations, participant observation, and physical artifacts. Specify the analysis approach on which the case description integrates analysis themes and contextual information. The type of analysis of these data can be a holistic analysis of the entire case or an embedded analysis of a specific aspect of the case (Yin, 2009). Through data collecting and analysis, a detailed description of the case (Stake, 1995) emerges in which the researcher details such aspects as the history of the case, the chronology of events, or a day-by-day rendering of the activities of the case. For example, the gunman case study in Chapter 11 involved tracing the campus response to a gunman for 2 weeks immediately following the near-tragedy on campus. Then the researcher might focus on a few key issues (or analysis of themes, or case themes), not for generalizing beyond the case but for understanding the complexity of the case. One analytic strategy would be to identify issues within each case and then look for common themes that transcend the cases (Yin, 2009). This analysis is rich in the context of the case or setting in which the case presents itself (Merriam, 1988). When multiple cases are chosen, a typical format is to provide first a detailed description of each case and themes within the case, called a within-case analysis, followed by a thematic analysis across the cases, called a cross-case analysis, as well as assertions or an interpretation of the meaning of the case. Whether that meaning comes from learning about the issue of the case (an instrumental case) or learning about an unusual situation (an intrinsic case).

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As Lincoln and Guba (1985) mention, this phase constitutes the lessons learned from the case, and Stake (1995) describes them as assertions. Stake (1995) focuses some of the assertions on lessons learned about the case stating, “Having presented a body of relatively uninterpreted observations, I will summarize what I feel I understand about the case and how my generalizations about he case have changed conceptually or in level of confidence” (Stake, 1995, p. 123).

Figure 4.6 Procedures for Conducting Case Study Research

Report the case study and lessons learned by using case assertions in written form. Writing case descriptions involves a reflective process, and the sooner you begin, our experiences tell us, the easier it is to finish. Certainly the architecture for what works best for individual studies will emerge and be shaped differently by the study assertions. We adopt the advice forwarded by Stake (1995), “The report needs to be organized with readers in mind” (p. 122). A general reporting structure includes an entry vignette to provide the reader with an inviting introduction to the feel of the context in which the case takes place, an introduction to familiarize the reader with the central features including rationale and research procedures, an extensive narrative description of the case or cases and its or their context, which may include historical and organizational information important for understanding the case. Then the issue description draws from additional data sources and integrates with researcher’s own interpretations of the issues and both confirming and disproving evidence are presented followed by the presentation of overall case assertions. Finally, a closing vignette provides the reader with a final experience. Stake (1995) portrays the purpose of the closing vignette as way of cautioning the reader to the specific case context saying, “I like to close on an experiential note, reminding the reader that the report is just one person’s encounter with a complex case” (p. 123).

Challenges in Case Study Research One of the challenges inherent in qualitative case study development is that the researcher must identify the case. The case selected may be broad in scope (e.g., the Boy Scout organization) or narrow in scope (e.g., a decision-making process at a specific college). The case study researcher must decide which bounded system to study, recognizing that several might be possible candidates for this selection and realizing that either the case itself or an issue, which a case or cases are selected to illustrate, is worthy of study. The researcher must consider whether to study a single case or multiple cases. As the use of multiple case studies increases, it is important to consider three issues: resource limitations, case selection, and cross-case analysis. First, it is not surprising given

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resource limitations (i.e., both time and financial) that the study of more than one case dilutes the overall analysis; the more cases an individual studies, the less the depth in any single case can be. Second, when a researcher chooses multiple cases, the issue becomes, “How many cases?” There is no one answer to this question. However, researchers typically choose no more than four or five cases. What motivates the researcher to consider a large number of cases is the idea of generalizability, a term that holds little meaning for most qualitative researchers (Glesne & Peshkin, 1992; Lincoln & Guba, 2000). Finally, “What guides the cross-case analysis?” In the analysis of single case studies we are guided by instrumental or intrinsic purposes; in multiple case studies, such explicit purpose identification upfront is not always made. Stake (2006) offers important guidance in this respect through the introduction of the term quitain. Stake (2006) describes the quitain as the “object or phenomenon to be studied” (p. 4) across the cases and argues the importance of its identification upfront to guide case selection.

Selecting the case requires that the researcher establish a rationale for his or her purposeful sampling strategy for selecting the case and for gathering information about the case. Having enough information to present an in- depth picture of the case limits the value of some case studies. In planning a case study, we have individuals develop a data collection matrix in which they specify the amount of information they are likely to collect about the case. Deciding the “boundaries” of a case—how it might be constrained in terms of time, events, and processes—may be challenging. Some case studies may not have clean beginning and ending points, and the researcher will need to set boundaries that adequately surround the case.

Among the concerns that have historically plagued case study research are focused on the rigor; certainly evidence of poor quality case study research exist, and it is with providing illustrative examples that we can continue to curtail such practices. Case study research has experienced growing recognition during the past 30 years, evidenced by its more frequent application in published research and increased availability of reference works (e.g., Thomas, 2015; Yin, 2014). Encouraging the use of case study research is an expressed goal of the editors of the recent Encyclopedia of Case Study Research (Mills, Durepos, & Wiebe, 2010). Engaging researchers are a focus of a number of publications aimed at guiding those new to the approach (e.g., Baxter & Jack, 2008; Flyvbjerg, 2006).

Comparing the Five Approaches All five approaches have in common the general process of research that begins with a research problem and proceeds to the questions, the data, the data analysis and interpretations, and the research report. Qualitative researchers have found it helpful to see at this point an overall sketch for each of the five approaches. From these sketches of the five approaches, we can identify fundamental differences among these types of qualitative research. Finally, we compare the five approaches relating the dimensions of foundational considerations (Table 4.1), data procedures (Table 4.2), and research reporting (Table 4.3).

In Table 4.1, we present four dimensions for distinguishing among the foundational considerations for the five approaches. At a most fundamental level, the five differ in what they are trying to accomplish—their foci or the primary objectives of the studies. Exploring a life is different from generating a theory or describing the behavior of a cultural group. A couple of potential similarities among the designs should be noted. Narrative research, ethnography, and case study research may seem similar when the unit of analysis is a single individual. True, one may approach the study of a single individual from any of these three approaches; however, the types of data one would collect and analyze would differ considerably. In narrative research, the inquirer focuses on the stories told from the individual and arranges these stories often in chronological order; in ethnography, the focus is on setting the individuals’ stories within the context of their culture and culture-sharing group; in case study research, the single case is typically selected to illustrate an issue, and the researcher compiles a detailed description of the setting for the case. Our approach is to recommend—if the researcher wants to study a single individual—the narrative approach or a single case study because ethnography is a much broader picture of the culture. Then when comparing a narrative study and a single case to study a single individual, we feel that the narrative approach is seen as more appropriate because narrative studies tend to focus on a single individual whereas case studies often involve more than one case. The process of developing research question(s) can often be helpful for determining the suitability of the research problem for a specific approach. Moreover, although

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overlaps exist in discipline origin, some approaches have single-disciplinary traditions (e.g., grounded theory originating in sociology, ethnography founded in anthropology or sociology), and others have broad interdisciplinary backgrounds (e.g., narrative, case study).

The approaches employ similar data collection processes, including, in varying degrees, interviews, observations, documents, and audiovisual materials (see Table 4.2). The differences are apparent in terms of emphasis (e.g., more observations in ethnography, more interviews in grounded theory) and extent of data collection (e.g., only interviews in phenomenology, multiple forms in case study research to provide the in-depth case picture). At the data analysis stage, the differences are most pronounced. Not only is the distinction one of specificity of the analysis phase (e.g., grounded theory most specific, narrative research less defined) but the number of steps to be undertaken can vary (e.g., extensive steps in phenomenology, fewer steps in ethnography).

The research reporting of each approach, the written report, takes shape from all the processes before it (see Table 4.3). Stories about an individual’s life comprise narrative research. A description of the essence of the experience of the phenomenon becomes a phenomenology. A theory, often portrayed in a visual model, emerges in grounded theory, and a holistic view of how a culture-sharing group works results in an ethnography. An in- depth study of a bounded system or a case (or several cases) becomes a case study. The general structures of the written report may be used in designing a journal-article-length study. However, because of the numerous steps in each, they also have applicability as chapters of a dissertation or a book-length work. We discuss the differences here because the reader, with an introductory knowledge of each approach, now can sketch the general “architecture” of a study within each approach. Certainly, this architecture will emerge and be shaped differently by the conclusion of the study, but it provides a framework for the design issues to follow. For each approach, the introduction describes the particular focus of the research and common across the approaches, the introduction tends to familiarize the reader to the research problem and research question(s). The research procedures are subsequently outlined, often including a rationale for use of the approach and details related to the data procedures for the study.

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Note the unique organizing framework related to each approach and specifically the variations in how the research outcomes can be presented. Providing in-depth descriptions is common across all the approaches, but how the descriptions are organized varies; whereas narrative research might use a chronology for telling stories, a phenomenology may use significant statements as the organizing structure for reporting how the phenomenon was experienced. Similarly, how a research report concludes also varies by the approach; whereas it is common practice for a closing vignette in a case study, a cultural portrait is commonly used in an ethnography referring to overall interpretations, lessons learned, and questions raised representing the essence. These structures should be considered as general templates at this time. In Chapter 5, we will examine five published journal articles, with each study illustrating one of the five approaches, and further explore the writing structure of each.

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Chapter Check-In

1. What research problems are appropriate for each of the approaches? List three different research problems that are of interest to you. Begin with identifying the research foci, and identify which approaches might be appropriate. Draft a research question that would be appropriate for each possible approach related to the research problem. Can you identify the subtle differences among the research questions?

2. What defining features can you identity in each of the five approaches within a qualitative journal article? Examine a qualitative journal article that identifies its use of one of the five approaches, such as Huber and Whelan (1999) as a narrative study; Doyle, Pooley, and Breen (2012) as a phenomenology; Leipert and Reutter (2005) as a grounded theory; Miller, Creswell, and Olander (1998) as an ethnography; or Chirgwin (2015) as a multiple case study. Using the elements of “defining features” advanced in this chapter, review the article and locate where each defining feature of the particular approach appears in the article. Can you identify the absence of any defining features or the presence of any new defining features for any of the approaches?

Chirgwin, S. K. (2015). Burdens too difficult to carry? A case study of three academically able Indigenous Australian Masters students who had to withdraw. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 28, 594–609. doi:10.1080/09518398.2014.916014

Doyle, J., Pooley, J. A., & Breen, L. (2012). A phenomenological exploration of the childfree choice in a sample of Australian women. Journal of Health Psychology, 18, 397–407. doi:10.1177/1359105312444647

Huber, J., & Whelan, K. (1999). A marginal story as a place of possibility: Negotiating self on the professional knowledge landscape. Teaching and Teacher Education, 15, 381–396. doi:10.1016/S0742-051X(98)00048-1

Leipert, B. D., & Reutter, L. (2005). Developing resilience: How women maintain their health in northern geographically isolated settings. Qualitative Health Research, 15, 49–65. doi:10.1177/1049732304269671

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Miller, D. L., Creswell, J. W., & Olander, L. S. (1998). Writing and retelling multiple ethnographic tales of a soup kitchen for the homeless. Qualitative Inquiry, 4(4), 469–491. doi:10.1177/107780049800400404

3. What resources of one of the five approaches can you use to begin creating your study proposal? Select one of the five approaches, and write a brief description of the approach, including a definition and the procedures associated with the approach. Include at least five references to the literature to ground your proposal. Can you include at least two new references?

4. Do you understand how to transform the study focus, procedures, and writing structure into each of the five approaches?

Access a proposed qualitative study that you would like to conduct. Begin with presenting it as a narrative study, and then shape it into a phenomenology, a grounded theory, an ethnography, and finally a case study. Compare differences across each approach related to the focus of the study and the data collection and analysis procedures. Can you discuss how the written report would be differently structured across the approaches?

Summary

In this chapter, we introduced each of the five approaches to qualitative research—narrative studies, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, and case study. In each description we provided a focus and definition, some history of the development of the approach, defining features, and the major forms it has assumed as well as detailed the major procedures for conducting each approach. Finally, we discussed some of the major challenges in conducting each approach, emerging directions, and key resources. To highlight some of the differences among the approaches, we provided overview tables that contrast dimensions related to foundational dimensions of foundational considerations (research focus, unit of analysis, type of research problem, nature of disciplinary origins), data procedures (forms of data collection and strategies of data analysis), and research reporting (research outcomes and structure of written report). In the next chapter, we will examine five studies that illustrate each approach and look more closely at the compositional structure of each type of approach.

Further Readings

Several readings extend this brief overview of each of the five approaches of inquiry. In Chapter 1, we presented the key books that were used to craft discussions about each approach. Here we expand this list for each of the qualitative approaches in the chapter. The list should not be considered exhaustive, and readers are encouraged to seek out additional readings in the end-of- book reference list.

Narrative Research Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Jean Clandinin and Michael Connelly weave helpful references throughout the text, describing their own journey of becoming narrative researchers. Of particular help to the beginning narrative researcher is the final chapter on persistent concerns and the comprehensive discussion of ethics within narrative inquiry.

Czarniawska, B. (2004). Narratives in social science research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Barbara Czarniawska explores the various uses of narrative and its analysis in this important resource. Especially helpful is the use of her own research examples to illustrate concepts from conceptualization to telling of the stories.

Daiute, C. (2014). Narrative inquiry: A dynamic approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Colette Daiute provides essential scaffolding for undertaking what she calls dynamic narrative inquiry using examples, activities, and tips. Of particular note is how she builds on practices of daily life and makes connections to narrative research.

Phenomenological Research Giorgi, A. (2009). A descriptive phenomenological method in psychology: A modified Husserlian approach. Pittsburgh, PA: Duquesne University Press.

Amedeo Giorgi uses illustrative research examples to offer practical steps for applying the descriptive phenomenological method. This is essential reading for those working in the psychology field.

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Stewart, D., & Mickunas, A. (1990). Exploring phenomenology: A guide to the field and its literature (2nd ed.). Athens: Ohio University Press.

In this important work, David Stewart and Algis Mickunas provide an essential introduction to Husserl, Heidegger, and the various strands of phenomenology through the first half of the 20th century. Particularly helpful is the discussion about traditional challenges inherent to phenomenology.

Van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Max Van Manen describes the phenomenological tradition as well as presents methods and processes for engaging in phenomenological research. Among the key contributions is Chapter 5 focused on writing phenomenology.

Grounded Theory Research Birks, M., & Mills, J. (2015). Grounded theory: A practical guide (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Melanie Birks and Jane Mills use of figures and pedagogical features throughout helps the reader to make sense of the text. In particular, the critical thinking questions guide the reader in self-assessment of the material and the “window into grounded theory” feature provides important insights.

Bryant, A., & Charmaz, K. (Eds.). (2007). The SAGE handbook of grounded theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Handbooks are often a logical starting place for researchers new to an approach, and Alan Bryant and Kathy Charmaz provide useful guiding practices for conducting grounded theory. Specifically, we found the chapters on historical development by the editors and memo-writing by Lora Lempert to be noteworthy.

Clarke, A. E. (2005). Situational analysis: Grounded theory after the postmodern turn. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Adele Clarke represents her thinking using illustrative maps to enhance visibility of complexity. A unique aspect is her conceptualization of a situation as including the missing data (e.g., environmental factors) in addition to what has typically been considered as context.

Ethnographic Research Atkinson, P. (2015). For ethnography. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

At the heart of Paul Atkinson’s book is the use of field research in ethnographic studies. He provides easy-to-follow guiding principles for engaging in ethnographic fieldwork.

Madison, D. S. (2011). Critical ethnography: Method, ethics, and performance (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

D. Soyini Madison provides important insights about the role of theory in planning processes in a critical ethnography through the use of three case studies.

Wolcott, H. F. (2010). Ethnography lessons: A primer. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press.

Harry Wolcott presents challenges and successes through his five-decade ethnographic career sprinkled with personal interactions with notable anthropologists. An important contribution is the ethical dilemmas experienced by himself and his students and lessons relevant for all qualitative researchers.

Case Study Research Gomm, R., Hammersley, M., & Foster, P. (2000). Case study method. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Robert Gomm, Martyn Hammersley, and Peter Foster have brought together authors to discuss practices and challenges in cases study research. Specifically, we found the chapters on generalizability by the Yvonna Lincoln and Egon Guba and case comparison by Stanley Lieberson to be noteworthy.

Stake, R. E. (2006). Multiple case study analysis. New York, NY: Guilford Press.

This book offers a rare focus on multiple case studies, yet Robert Stake also includes a chapter on single cases. The book leads the reader through conducting an example of a multiple case study (and provides worksheets)—the multinational Step by Step

4/20/2018 Bookshelf Online: Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches

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Case Study Project.

Thomas, G. (2015). How to do your case study (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Gary Thomas provides an easy-to-follow guide on how to read, design, and conduct case study research. Of particular note is his use of examples to illustrate how to focus the purpose of a case study.