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BeginningsBeyondFoundationsinEarlyChildhoodEducationEighthEditionbyAnnMilesGordonKathrynWilliamsBrownez-lib.org.pdf

TeachSource Video Cases bring the realities of Early Childhood Education to you

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■ Interview transcripts

■ Key terms with defi nitions

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TeachSource Video and Video Case Topics Titles identifi ed by an asterisk are all-new video cases created for this edition.

■ Applying Cognitive Theory to Work with Children

■ Communicating with Families: Best Practices in an Early Childhood Setting*

■ Curriculum Planning: Implementing Developmentally Appropriate Practice in an Early Childhood Setting*

■ Education Reform: Teachers Talk about No Child Left Behind

■ Elementary Classroom Management: Basic Strategies

■ Five–Eleven Years: Developmental Disabilities in Middle Childhood

■ Language Development: Oral and Literacy Related Activities in an Early Childhood Setting*

■ Teaching as a Profession: An Early Childhood Teacher’s Responsibilities and Development*

■ Two–Five Years: Fine Motor Development for Early Childhood

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44 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

4. By making meaningful choices about what children will do.

5. From situations that challenge children to work at the edge of their capacities and from ample oppor- tunities to practice newly acquired skills.

Developmentally and Culturally Appropriate Practice (DCAP) Culturally appropriate practice is the ability to go be- yond one’s own sociocultural background to ensure equal and fair teaching and learning experiences for all. Th is concept, developed by Hyun, expands DAP to ad- dress cultural infl uences that emphasize the adult’s abil- ity to develop a “multiple/multiethnic perspective” (1998). Preparing teachers and caregivers for multi- culturalism is not just about becoming sensitive to race, gender, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic status, or sex- ual orientation, according to Hyun. It is also related to an understanding of the way individual histories, families of origin, and ethnic family cultures make us similar to and yet diff erent from others. Th rough such insights, teach- ers will be able to respond positively to the individual child’s unique expressions of growth, change, learning styles, culture, language, problem-solving skills, feelings, and communication styles (Hyun, 1998).

Hyun stresses the need for “cultural congruency” be- tween a child’s home and school experience and suggests the following questions as a way to begin addressing the issue:

1. What relationships do children see between the ac- tivity and work they do in class and the lives they lead outside of school?

2. Is it possible to incorporate aspects of children’s cul- ture into the work of schooling without simply con- fi rming what they already know?

3. Can this incorporation be practiced without devalu- ing the objects or relationships important to the children?

4. Can this practice succeed without ignoring particu- lar groups of people as “other” within a “dominant” culture? (1998)

A consistency between home and school would “allow for children to express and show the importance of their own family culture and identity” by “using children’s per- sonal experience, family culture, and diverse language DAPDAP

expressions as important sources of learning and teach- ing” (Hyun, 1998).

Th e third core component of DAP, addressing the social and cultural contexts in which children live, high- lights the importance of connecting a child’s sense of cultural continuity between home and school.

Early Childhood Programs: Serving Diverse Needs From the types available, to the numbers of children who attend these schools, the name of the game in early child- hood programs is diversity. Th e range can encompass a morning nursery school for toddlers, a primary school classroom, an infant-parent stimulation program, or a full child care service for 3 to 6-year-olds. Some pro- grams run for only a half-day; others are open from 6:00 a.m. until 7:00 p.m. Still other centers, such as hos- pitals, accept children on a drop-in basis or for 24-hour care. Child care arrangements can range from informal home-based care to more formal school or center set- tings. Religious institutions, school districts, commu- nity-action groups, parents, governments, private social agencies, and businesses may run schools.

DAP Schools may be the fi rst place where families and children experience cultures different from their own. It is important that chil- dren learn facts and not stereotypes about other cultures.

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Cur- riculum Planning: Implementing Developmentally Appropriate Practice in an Early Childhood Pro- gram.” After you study the video clip, view the arti- facts, and read the teacher interviews and text, re- fl ect upon the following questions:

1. What examples of Developmentally Appropriate Practices did you see or hear mentioned by pre- school teacher Ke Nguyen and her colleagues? Compare and contrast your oberservations with the text.

2. How would you judge the quality of this pro- gram? What are some of the criteria you would use?

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yond one’s own sociocultural background to ensu equal and fair teaching and learning experiences for a Th is concept, developed by Hyun, expands DAP to ad-Th dress cultural infl uences that emphasize the adult’s abil- ity to develop a “multiple/multiethnic perspective” (1998). Preparing teachers and caregivers for multi- culturalism is not just about becoming sensitive to race, gender, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic status, or sex- ual orientation, according to Hyun. It is also related to an understanding of the way individual histories, families of origin, and ethnic family cultures make us similar to and yet different from others. Thffff rough such insights, teach-Th ers will be able to respond positively to the individual child’s unique expressions of growth, change, learning styles, culture, language, problem-solving skills, feelings, and communication styles (Hyun, 1998).

Hyun stresses the need for “cultural congruency” be- tween a child’s home and school experience and suggests the following questions as a way to begin addressing the issue:

1. What relationships do children see between the ac- tivity and work they do in class and the lives they lead outside of school?

2. Is it possible to incorporate aspects of children’s cul- ture into the work of schooling without simply con- fi rming what they already know?

3. Can this incorporation be practiced without devalu- ing the objects or relationships important to the children?

4. Can this practice succeed without ignoring particu- lar groups of people as “other” within a “dominant” culture? (1998)

A consistency between home and school would “allow for children to express and show the importance of their own family culture and identity” by “using children’s per- sonal experience, family culture, and diverse language DDAAPP

expressions as importan ing” (Hyun, 1998).

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Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Cur- riculum Planning: Implementing Developmentally Appropriate Practice in an Early Childhood Pro- gram.” After you study the video clip, view the arti- facts, and read the teacher interviews and text, re- fl ect upon the following questions:

1. What examples of Developmentally Appropriate Practices did you see or hear mentioned by pre- school teacher Ke Nguyen and her colleagues? Compare and contrast your oberservations with the text.

2. How would you judge the quality of this pro- gram? What are some of the criteria you would use?

TeachSource Video

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Foundations in Early Childhood Education

Beginnings and Beyond

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Foundations in Early Childhood Education

Beginnings and Beyond

Ann Miles Gordon

Kathryn Williams Browne Skyline College

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E I G H T H E D I T I O N

Beginnings and Beyond: Foundations in Early Childhood Education, Eighth Edition Ann Miles Gordon and Kathryn Williams Browne

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Printed in the United States of America

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 0

Dedication

To Kate, my longtime friend, respected colleague, and coauthor for 25 years and four books. You are a

consummate professional. — AMG

To the students and colleagues of Skyline College—a most inspiring mix of professionals and fellow learners on the path of higher education.

— KWB

Contents

vi

Preface xiii Acknowledgments xix

SECTION 1

What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education? 1

CHAPTER 1 History of Early Childhood Education 2

Introduction to the Field 3 Why History? 3 Defi ning the Terms 5

Infl uences from Abroad 6 In Ancient Times 6 European Renaissance and Reformation 6 Into Modern Times 10

Nontraditional Perspectives 15 American Infl uences 15

Colonial Days 15 Children in Enslavement 16 A Progressive Era 17 Th e Field Expands: Kindergarten 19 Nursery Schools 20 Midcentury Developments 23

Interdisciplinary Infl uences 25 Medicine 25 Education 27 Psychology 29

Th emes in Early Childhood Education 30 Ethic of Social Reform 30 Importance of Childhood 31 Transmitting Values 32 Professionalism 33

TeachSource Video 33

Insights from the Field: A Delightful Story by Scott M. Williams, M.S. 35 Summary 36 Key Terms 36 Review Questions 36 Learning Activities 37 Helpful Websites 37 References 38

CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs 40

Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs 41

Th ree Core Considerations of DAP 41 Guidelines for DAP 42 DAP in Action 43 How DAP Benefi ts Children’s Learning 43 Developmentally and Culturally Appropriate Practice (DCAP) 44

TeachSource Video 44 Early Childhood Programs: Serving Diverse Needs 44

Factors Th at Determine Types of Programs 45 Special Program Features 45

Th e Core of Programs of Early Childhood Education 46

Traditional Nursery School 46 Child Care Centers 47 Family Child Care 49 Head Start: An Early Intervention Model 50

Variations on Early Childhood Core Programs 52

Universal Preschools 52 Laboratory Schools 52 Parent Cooperatives 53

viiContents

Employer-Sponsored Child Care 53 For-Profi t Child Care 54 Nanny Care 54 Programs in Religious Facilities 54 Other Programs 55

Extending the Age Range 56 Infant/Toddler Programs 56 Kindergarten 57 Primary Grades 60 School-Age Child Care 60 Homeschooling 61

Th e Issue Is Quality 61 Indicators of Quality 61 Th ree Studies on Quality 62 Issues Th at Aff ect Quality 63

Evaluating Programs for Quality 63 Evaluation Is a Process 63 Evaluation Essentials 64 Why Evaluate? 64 How to Evaluate a Program 65

Insights from the Field: Early Childhood Education in the Shipyards by Edith M. Dowley 68 Summary 71 Key Terms 71 Review Questions 71 Learning Activities 72 Helpful Websites 72 References 73

SECTION 2

Who Is the Young Child? 75

CHAPTER 3 Defi ning the Young Child 76

Th e Whole Child 77 Each Child Is Unique 77 Growth Is Interrelated 77 Valuing Wholeness 78

How Children Are Alike 78 Th e Value of Word Pictures 78

In Behavior and Guidance 78 In Curriculum 79 In Cultural Awareness 79

Using Word Pictures 79 Six Developmental Areas 79 How Word Pictures Help Teachers 79 Guidelines for Using Word Pictures 88

How Children Diff er 88 Developmental Diff erences 88 Other Factors 88 Learning Styles 89 Planning for Developmental Diff erences 90

Children with Special Needs 90 Learning Disabilities 91 Attention-Defi cit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 92 Asperger Syndrome 93 Family Support 93 Public Recognition 93 Th e Inclusive Classroom 94

TeachSource Video 94 Children Who Are Gifted and Talented 96

Culture, Race, and Ethnic Considerations 97 Children of Mixed Heritage 98 Cultural Sensitivity 98

Insights from the Field: Children of Mixed Heritage by Francis Wardle, M.S., Ph.D. 99 Summary 100 Key Terms 100 Review Questions 100 Learning Activities 101 Helpful Websites 101 References 101

CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories 103

Introduction 104 Th eories 104 Th e Nature of Development 105 Major Th eories and Key Topics 107

Psychodynamic Th eory 108 Sigmund Freud 108 Erik Erikson 109

Behaviorist Th eory 112 Th e Behaviorists 112 Th eory of Behaviorism and Social Learning 113 Applying Behaviorist Th eory to Work with Children 116

Cognitive Th eory 116 Jean Piaget 116 Th eory of Cognitive Development 117

TeachSource Video 120

viii Contents

Applying Cognitive Th eory to Work with Children 120

Sociocultural Th eory 122 Lev Vygotsky 122 Sociocultural Th eory 123 Applying Sociocultural Th eory to Work with Children 124

Ecological Th eory 125 Urie Bronfenbrenner 125 Ecological Systems Th eory 125 Applying Ecological Th eory to Work with Children 126

Multiple Intelligences Th eory 126 Howard Gardner 126 Th eory of Multiple Intelligences 126 Applying Multiple Intelligences Th eory to Work with Children 128

Maturation Th eory 128 Arnold Gesell 128 Th eory of Maturation 128 Applying Maturation Th eory to Work with Children 128

Humanistic Th eory 129 Th e Humanists 129 Maslow’s Th eory of Human Needs 129 Applying Humanistic Th eory to Work with Children 129

Developmental Topics 130 Ethnicity and Cultural Diversity 131 Attachment 132 Play 134 Gender 138 Moral Development 139 Brain-Based Research 140

Using Developmental and Learning Th eories 143

Basic Tenets 143 Developmental Research Conclusions 146 Conditions for Learning 146

Insights from the Field: Developmental Theory: The Foundation of Developmentally Appropriate Practice by Rosalind Charlesworth 148 Summary 150 Key Terms 150 Review Questions 151 Learning Activities 152 Helpful Websites 152 References 152

SECTION 3

Who Are the Teachers? 157

CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment 158

Who Are the Teachers of the Young Child? 159 Teacher Diversity 159 Comparison with Teaching in Other Educational Settings 159

Th e Beginnings of Professionalism 160 Knowledge and Skills 161 Abides by a Code of Ethical Conduct 163 Continuing Education and Professional Development 164

TeachSource Video 165 Professional Affi liations 165 Knowledge of Career Options 165 Cultural Competency 165 Advocacy 166 Becoming a Whole Teacher 166

Th e Teacher’s Role: Professionalism in Action 167

Defi ning the Early Childhood Teacher’s Roles 167 Professionalism in the Classroom 167 Out-of-Class Responsibilities 169 Personal Qualities of Early Childhood Educators 171

A Collaborative Eff ort: Team Teaching 174 Team Composition 174 Role Defi nition and Satisfaction 174 Flexibility 175 Open and Frequent Communication 175 Who Am I? 175 Mutual Respect and Acceptance 175 Evaluation 176 Advantages of Team Teaching 176 Challenges 176

Evaluating Teachers: A Key to Quality 176 Why Evaluate? 177 Components of an Eff ective Evaluation 178 Issues in Teacher Evaluations 178

Th e Beginning Teacher 184 Th e Student Teacher 184

Insights from the Field: Teaching: A Professional Commitment by Barbara Biglan, M.A., Ph.D. 186

ixContents

Summary 187 Key Terms 187 Review Questions 187 Learning Activities 188 Helpful Websites 189 References 189

CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children 191

Seeing Children through Observation 192 What Is Observation? 192 Why Observe? 193

Understanding What We Observe 197 Children as Individuals 197 Children in General 198 Developmental Relationships 199 Infl uences on Behavior 199 Understanding of Self 200

Recording What We See 200 Common Elements of Observations 201 Types of Observations 201 How to Observe and Record Eff ectively 209

Assessment: Evaluating Children 212 Why Evaluate? 212 Types of Assessments 221 Early Learning Standards 223 Testing and Screening 225 Concerns about Assessment 227

TeachSource Video 228 Using Observation and Assessment Information 228

Insights from the Field: The Portfolio: An “Unfolding” of the Child by Kären Wiggins-Dowler, B.A. 229 Summary 230 Key Terms 230 Review Questions 230 Learning Activities 231 Helpful Websites 232 References 232

CHAPTER 7 Guiding Children’s Behavior 235

Th e Guidance Triangle 236 Understanding Behavior 236

Th eories 237 Factors Th at Aff ect Behavior 237

Guiding Young Children 243 What Is Guidance? 243

TeachSource Video 244 What Is Discipline? 244 What Is Punishment? 244 Toward Self-Discipline 244 Developmentally Appropriate Guidance 246 Culturally Appropriate Guidance 246 Th e Language of Guidance and Discipline 247

Implications for Teaching 248 A Behavior Model 248 Consistency 248 Realistic Expectations 248 Actively Observe 249 Prevent Misbehavior 249

Th e Guidance Continuum: Ten Essential Strategies 250

Ignoring Behavior 250 Active Listening and “I” Messages 250 Reinforcement 251 Redirecting and Distraction 251 Giving Children Choices 251 Setting Limits 252 Active Problem Solving 253 Natural and Logical Consequences 254 Time Out 255 Physical Intervention 255

Behavior Th at Is Challenging 256 Insights from the Field: Tantrums as a Teaching Tool: Ways to Help Children Learn by Elizabeth Crary, M.S. 258 Summary 259 Key Terms 259 Review Questions 259 Learning Activities 259 Helpful Websites 260 References 260

CHAPTER 8 Families and Teachers: Partners in Education 261

A Historical Overview 262 Historical Precedent 262 Decades of Change 262 Mutual Collaboration 262

Strengthening the Partnership 263 What Families Contribute 263 What Teachers Contribute to the Partnership 265 Becoming Full and Equal Partners 267

TeachSource Video 268

x Contents

Today’s Families 269 What Is a Family? 269 Understanding Parenthood 269 Families with Diverse Needs 270 Valuing All Families with Diverse Needs 272

Separation: Th e Beginning of Trust 273 Helping Parents and Children Separate 273 Working Together 273

Communicating with Families 274 Parent/Family Education and Involvement 274

Insights from the Field: It All Starts with the Stories by Libby Miles, M.A., Ph.D. 277 Summary 278 Key Terms 278 Review Questions 278 Learning Activities 278 Helpful Websites 279 References 279

CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments 281

What Is the Environment? 282 Defi nition 282

Characteristics of the Environment 282 Physical Plant 283 Resources 283 Program Goals 284 Principles for Developing Appropriate Learning Environments 285 Th e Anti-Bias Environment 289 Self-Help Environment 291 Th e Inclusive Environment 292

Planning for the Environment 295 Who Is in the Environment? 295 Health and Safety in the Environment 296

Creating the Environment 301 Th e Physical Environment 301 Playground Designs 310 Th e Temporal Environment 310 Th e Interpersonal Environment 319

TeachSource Video 321

Insights from the Field: Thinking about the Environment: Inspirations from the Reggio Approach by Louise Cadwell, M.E., Ph.D. 322 Summary 324 Key Terms 324 Review Questions 324

Learning Activities 325 Helpful Websites 326 References 326

SECTION 4

What Is Being Taught? 329

CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play 330

Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum 331 What Is Curriculum? 331 Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum 332 Culturally Appropriate Curriculum 332 Inclusive Curriculum 334

Eff ective Curriculum: Four Basic Factors 335 Integrated Curriculum 335 Emergent Curriculum 337 Multiple Intelligences 338

Play-Based Curriculum: Th e Foundation for Learning 344

Th e Teacher’s Role in Play 344 TeachSource Video 346

Setting the Stage for Play 346 Planning Curriculum 347

Factors Th at Enhance Maximum Learning 347 Culturally Responsive Teaching 349 Integrating Learning Standards 350 Setting Goals 352 Teacher-Directed Learning 352

Written Plans for Creating Curriculum 355 Advantages of Written Plans 355 Planning by Objectives 355 Elements of Written Plans 356 Webbing 357 Th emes 359 Th e Project Approach 361

Play-Based Curriculum Models 363 High/Scope: Cognitively Oriented Model 363 Bank Street: Developmental-Interaction Model 363 Th e Schools of Reggio Emilia 364 Waldorf Schools 366 Montessori Schools 366

xiContents

Insights from the Field: Making a Difference in Young Children’s Lives by Marjorie Kostelnik, Ph.D. 368 Summary 369 Key Terms 369 Review Questions 369 Learning Activities 370 Helpful Websites 370 References 370

CHAPTER 11 Planning for the Body: Physical/Motor Development 372

Learning through Movement 373 In the Beginning 373 Learning Is Integrated 373 Program Needs 373

Physical Growth/Motor Development 374 Physical Growth 374 Gender Diff erences 375 Ethnic Variations 375 Including Children with Special Needs 375 Motor Development 377

Physical/Motor Skills in Early Childhood 379 Types of Movement 379 Learning Motor Skills 379 Practicing Basic Skills 380

TeachSource Video 381 Role of the Teacher 381

Considerations 381 A Safe and Challenging Environment 383 Playground Enrichment 383 A Child’s Self-Concept 385 Encouraging Physical Play 386 Curriculum Planning for Physical/Motor Development 386

Insights from the Field: Is Competition Developmentally Appropriate? By Rae Pica 390 Summary 391 Key Terms 391 Review Questions 391 Learning Activities 392 Helpful Websites 392 References 392

CHAPTER 12 Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development 394

Learning through Cognitive Experiences 395

Th e Development of Cognition: Multiple Perspectives 396

An Eclectic Point of View 396 A Piagetian Perspective 396 Vygotsky, Th inking, and Culture 397 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences 397 Brain-Based Research 398

Cognitive Skills 400 Skills of Inquiry 400 Knowledge of the Physical World 401 Knowledge of the Social World 401 Classifi cation 401 Seriation 402 Numbers 402 Symbols 403 Spatial Relationships 403 Time 404

TeachSource Video 404 Role of the Teacher 405

Considerations 405 Curriculum Planning for Cognitive Development 407

Computers in the Classroom 413 Developmentally Appropriate Software 413 Websites 414 Integrating the Computer into Learning 414

Insights from the Field: How Does Technology in the Early Childhood Classroom Relate to Children’s Learning? by Arleen Prairie, M.Ed. 416 Summary 417 Key Terms 417 Review Questions 417 Learning Activities 418 Helpful Websites 418 References 418

CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development 420

Learning through Language Experiences 421 Language Development 422

What Research Tells Us 422 Stages of Language Development 423 Dual Language Learning 423

Language Skills 429 Articulation 429 Receptive Language 429 Expressive Language 429 Graphic Language 430

xii Contents

TeachSource Video 430 Enjoyment 430

Role of the Teacher 431 Considerations 431 Curriculum Planning for Language Development 434

Early Literacy 438 Children and Reading 439 Children and Writing 443

Children’s Literature 447 Creating a Rich Literary Environment 448 Extending Literary Experiences 449

Insights from the Field: Welcoming English Language Learners to the World of Language and Literacy by Wilma Robles de Meléndez, Ph.D. 453 Summary 454 Key Terms 454 Review Questions 454 Learning Activities 455 Helpful Websites 455 References 455

CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development 458

Learning through Psychosocial Experiences 459 Th e Psychosocial Domain 459 A Sense of Self 460

Emotional Growth 462 Th e Development of Emotions 462 Emotional Skills in Early Childhood 463 Role of the Teacher 469

Social Growth 475 Th e Development of Social Competence 475 Social Skills in Early Childhood 482 Role of the Teacher 484

Creative Growth 493 Th e Development of Creativity 493 Creative Skills 495

Role of the Teacher 497 Considerations 497

Spiritual Development 502 Issues to Consider 502 Th e Teacher’s Role 503 Children as a Spiritual Resource 503

Art 504 TeachSource Video 505

Insights from the Field: The Peace Table in Action by Sue Warford, M.Ed. 508 Summary 509 Key Terms 509 Review Questions 509 Learning Activities 509 Helpful Websites 510 References 510

SECTION 5

How Do We Teach for Tomorrow? 513

CHAPTER 15 Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education 514

Changing Issues/Changing Times 515 Ethic of Social Reform 516

Child Care 516 Education Reform 519

TeachSource Video 519

Th e Importance of Childhood 520 Childhood Stress 521 Child Abuse and Neglect 522 Poverty 523 Family Support 524

Transmitting Values 527 Th e Media Culture 527 Violence and Disaster 529 Social Diversity 531

Professionalism 536 Standards 536 A Reason to Teach 538 Advocacy 539

Insights from the Field: How Do We Teach for Tomorrow? by Dr. Sharon L. Kagan 541 Summary 542 Key Terms 542 Review Questions 542 Learning Activities 542 Helpful Websites 543 References 544

Appendix 547 Glossary 554 Subject Index 562 Name Index 570

Our Viewpoint Th e early childhood fi eld is a dynamic profession full of many challenges and great rewards. Teachers being trained today have the opportunity to respond to and aff ect the critical issues facing early childhood educa- tors now and in the future. Students will confront the challenge of teaching a diverse group of learners diff er- entiated by their abilities, ethnic and cultural back- grounds, family support, values, and beliefs. Th ey will learn to navigate the tension between standards and assessments and developmentally appropriate princi- ples and practice. As the fi eld experiences changes and growth, new teachers must understand the meaning of professionalism and how their personal development fosters their professional commitment. In order to ac- complish this daunting but exciting task, students need a text that is current, comprehensive, and able to con- nect knowledge and theory to the classroom—one that has eclectic viewpoints and a variety of models and that deepens their understanding of themselves as members of a lively and fulfi lling profession. Beginnings and Be- yond: Foundations in Early Childhood Education accom- plishes that goal.

Th e purpose of Beginnings and Beyond is to pro- mote the competence and eff ectiveness of new teachers through a presentation of basic knowledge, skills, atti- tudes, and philosophies based on the premise that new teachers must have opportunities to learn fundamental skills as they begin their teaching experience. Th e text expresses a viewpoint about quality early education and what practices ensure excellence. In the area of cultural sensitivity and multicultural relationships, we promote a “ both/and” attitude, following the National Associa- tion for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) guidelines for Developmentally Appropriate Practices. Th is attitude is a change from an “either/or” approach

to deciding what is appropriate practice and what is not. Th e “ both/and” thinking provides a more fl exible, non-polarizing approach to the complexities of early childhood practices. Readers will fi nd the “ both/and” infl uence throughout the text but especially in the areas of early literacy, spiritual development, discipline, di- versity, and anti-bias strategies. Th e point of “ both/ and” is particularly emphasized in school and family relationships where cultural diff erences and distinc- tions are always at play.

Demographic issues drive the direction of early childhood programs, and the text refl ects that fact. Be- ginnings and Beyond maintains the emphasis that every child and family is unique and that they deserve the re- spect and affi rmation of their cultural identity. Th is edition, therefore, weaves a strong multicultural per- spective and consciousness throughout the text in or- der to help prospective teachers and caregivers increase their sensitivity to diff erent cultural practices and val- ues. Th is feature has become one of the book’s stron- gest points.

How Do We Meet the Needs of Today’s Learners? Beginnings and Beyond is intended for college students who are interested in young children, beginning teach- ers who plan to engage in early care and education, practitioners in direct service to children and families, and professionals in the workforce who are enlarging their knowledge base. Th rough our comprehensive chapter coverage and unique pedagogical features, we provide a resource that meets the needs of today’s early child educators.

Preface

xiii

xiv

Chapter Organization Th e overall organization of the book takes the student from the history of early childhood education to current issues and future trends. Four key themes emphasized in the beginning and ending chapters weave the past and present together as students learn about (1) social re- form, (2) the importance of childhood, (3) transmitting values, and (4) professionalism.

Five basic questions set the tone for each section by asking the reader to refl ect on the wide-ranging nature of early childhood education. Th e book’s fl exibility allows instructors to begin with any section that seems appro- priate to meet the needs of their classes. Th e fi ve sections and chapter descriptions are as follows: ■ What Is the Field of Early Childhood Educa-

tion? In Section 1, descriptions of early childhood history and the types of programs provide a basis for understanding the complexity of the fi eld.

Chapter 1 describes the origin of early education through history, which forms the theory on which students will base their teaching, and then students learn about events that have shaped the fi eld. Stu- dents meet the many contributors to early child- hood education, such as the famous (Rousseau, Dewey, & Hill), the ancient (the Greeks), and con- temporary infl uences (Reggio Emilia).

Chapter 2 moves the student directly into the variety of programs and the importance of devel- opmentally appropriate practice (DAP) in creating good programs for young children. Th e principles of DAP are matched with examples of DAP in action so that students will see a direct correlation between the DAP criteria and classroom application.

■ Who Is the Young Child? Section 2 begins with a discussion of the young child’s growth, followed by an overview of the developmental and learning the- ories that form the cornerstone of our knowledge about children.

Chapter 3 provides students with an understand- ing of the nature of the children they will teach and their common characteristics and wide individual diff erences. Word Pictures, which are age-level de- scriptions, are a popular feature with students who have used this text, as they enable students to antici- pate children’s needs and plan appropriate experi- ences to reorganization of key chapters.

Chapter 4 gives the student a concise descrip- tion of universal and life-span theories and other developmental topics on which sound teaching prin- ciples and practices are based. Play, as a cornerstone

of learning, and updated information on brain- based research provide further application of theory to classroom use.

■ Who Are the Teachers? Section 3 defi nes the ag- gregate of infl uences that act as teachers in the early childhood setting. Each chapter enlarges the stu- dent’s view of what makes up a professional teacher.

Chapter 5 describes the roles and responsibili- ties of an early childhood teacher as “professionalism in action” and introduces students to a broader defi - nition of teaching. Examples of everyday ethical di- lemmas provide opportunities for students to dis- cuss their own values and beliefs in response to the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct. Th e chapter also explores team-teaching situations and the im- portance of teacher evaluations.

Chapter 6 enhances the student’s ability to ob- serve and record the behavior of young children. Along with a comprehensive description of observa- tional tools and eff ective techniques, there are up- dated segments about child evaluation, early learn- ing standards, and concerns about testing and screening.

Chapter 7 demonstrates how guidance and be- havior are critical factors in the life of a classroom teacher through vignettes that help the student un- derstand how and why young children behave as they do. Problem solving, confl ict resolution, and a wide range of guidance techniques give students the necessary tools to guide young children’s behavior.

Chapter 8 off ers the student a perspective on the all-important collaboration of families and teachers in creating the best possible learning environment for young children. Discussions of the defi nition of a family, today’s family structures, and challenges facing parents bring a relevancy to students.

Chapter 9 defi nes the characteristics of high- quality environments that include elements of health, safety, and nutrition, as well as an anti-bias approach and the inclusion of children with varying abilities. Key dimensions of the physical, temporal, and interpersonal environments help students un- derstand how the deliberate use of the environment serves as a teaching strategy for appropriate behav- ior and learning.

■ What Is Being Taught? Section 4 is a composite answer to the all-important question, what are we teaching our children? Th e fi rst chapter in the sec- tion, Chapter 10, discusses the role of the curricu- lum and is followed by four chapters that address individual developmental domains.

Preface

xvPreface

Chapter 10 is based on the premise that a play- based curriculum is the foundation for early child- hood learning, and the chapter provides students with examples and models of developmentally and culturally appropriate approaches to a play-based curriculum. Students will learn the importance of play, how to develop emergent and integrated curri- cula, and how to create projects. Th ey will under- stand how diff erent learning styles can be applied to curriculum development and will look at fi ve popu- lar curriculum models.

Chapter 11 explores the physical and motor skills of young children, the importance of outdoor play, and basic skills children need to learn. Th is chapter helps the student plan appropriate experi- ences and curriculum that will strengthen children’s physical growth.

Chapter 12 translates research in cognitive- developmental psychology, such as multiple intelli- gences and brain-based research, into curriculum practices that include constructive play, language/ pre-reading, and math learning and special topic of computers.

Chapter 13 addresses the many ways teachers provide language experiences for children, with ad- ditional focus on dual language learners and special topic of literacy.

Chapter 14 off ers conceptual information about the psychosocial domain (emotional, social, creative, and spiritual dimensions) and also additional infor- mation about emotional intelligence, resilience, bul- lying, and confl ict resolution. A special topic on art is also included.

■ How Do We Teach for Tomorrow? Section 5, which encompasses Chapter 15, helps the student take a broad look at issues facing the early childhood fi eld today. It also serves as a bookend to the fi rst chapter, repeating the four basic themes of the text in light of current needs. (1) “Ethic of Social Re- form” refl ects current issues such as aff ordable child care, universal preschools, and the infl uence of No Child Left Behind. (2) “Th e Importance of Child- hood” explores childhood stress, abuse and neglect, poverty, and divorce and their eff ects on children. (3) “ Transmitting Values” includes the media culture, the eff ect of violence and disasters, and class diff er- ences. (4) In the “Professionalism” section, standards are discussed, as are wages and work conditions and child advocacy. In each of these sections, the students learn about the reality of children’s lives and how early childhood professionals can help them prepare for the challenges and responsibilities of adult life.

Special Features and Pedagogy We off er numerous learning aids and engaging features to enrich the learning experience of students and to con- nect theory to practice. Th ese include:

■ NEW—Preview Questions at the beginning of the chapter match the main chapter headings to provide students with a clear road map to the topics they will encounter in each chapter.

■ NEW—The NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct, which highlights core values, ideals, and principles that apply to the chapter content, is featured at the beginning of each chapter. Th is feature provides op- portunities for students to become familiar with the Code of Eth- ical Conduct and see its direct appli- cation to the teaching experience.

C H A P T E R

10

CURRICULUM: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

■ What is developmentally appropriate curriculum?

■ What are the four basic factors in creating eff ective curriculum?

■ Why is play a foundation for learning?

■ What does curriculum planning involve?

■ Why are written plans important and how are they developed?

■ What are four eff ective curriculum models?

NAEYC CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Th ese core values and sections from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct are ad- dressed in this chapter. As you read, note how the Core Values, Ideas, or Principles listed here apply to the topics in this chapter.

I-1.2 To base program practices upon current knowledge in the fi eld of child devel- opment and related disciplines and upon particular knowledge of each child.

1-1.3 To recognize and respect the uniqueness and potential of each child. P-1.4 For every child we shall implement adaptations in teaching strategies, learn-

ing environments, and curricula, consult with the family, and seek recom- mendations from appropriate specialists to maximize the potential of the child to benefi t from the program.

I-3B.1 To assist the program in providing the highest quality of service. I.4.1 To provide the community with high quality (age and individually appro-

priate, and culturally and socially sensitive) education/care programs and services.

■ NEW—TeachSource Video Case features allow students and instructors to relate important chap- ter content to real-life scenarios in early child care settings. Th e Video Cases provide students with an opportunity to hear from real educa- tors who are doing the work that they are pre- paring to do. Th e Video Cases and other engag- ing video clips provided on the premium website off er critical-thinking questions and give students ample opportunities for refl ection and discussion.

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled, “Cur- riculum Planning:Implementing Developmentally Appropriate Practice in an Early Childhood Set- ting.” After you study the video clip, view the arti- facts, and read the teacher interviews and text, re- fl ect upon the following questions:

1. “Play is the child’s work,” according to one teacher in this case. How is that ideal imple- mented throughout the program?

2. How did the teaching staff at this preschool center demonstrate that they value meeting the needs of individual children?

TeachSource Video

❙ ❙

xvi

■ Insights from the Field is a popular staple of each chapter. In order to engage the student more eff ec- tively, experienced practitioners in early childhood education write about an experience that illustrates a fundamental part of the chapter. Insight contribu- tors to this edition are Scott Williams, the late Edith Dowley, Francis Wardle, Rosalind Charlesworth, Barbara Biglan, Kären Wiggins- Dowler, Elizabeth Crary, Libby Miles, Louise Cadwell, Marjorie Kostelnik, Rae Pica, Arleen

Prairie, Wilma Robles de Meléndez, Sue Warford, and Sharon Kagan. Th ey add a useful and relevant opinion to every chapter. ■

of creating programs and building curricula based on an understanding of the nature of the child and the factors aff ecting a child’s growth and develop- ment. We believe it is important that students real- ize the deep and crucial contributions that children’s family, culture, and language make to development. NAEYC’s years of experience in the defi nition and application of developmentally appropriate practice have given us further insights, which are refl ected throughout the book.

■ Th e What Do You Think? box in each chapter brings atten- tion to a relevant topic and invites the student to refl ect on the concept in rela- tion to his or her own life and learning.

■ The newly designed Word Pictures special section in Chapter 3 describes the major character- istics of children from infancy through 8 years of age. Th is popular feature helps students become fa- miliar with expected behaviors in young children as a frame of reference for creating programs and plan- ning curriculum that responds to the children’s in- terests as well as their abilities and needs.

are respectful of the backgrounds of the children and families in the group.

A developmentally appropriate curriculum takes into account knowledge of child development theory, research, and practice. It includes various related disciplines, cul- tural values, parental desires and concerns, community context, individual children, teachers’ knowledge and ex- perience and is related to overall program goals.

Th e foundation for developmentally appropriate practices and curriculum content is historically rooted in John Dewey’s vision that schools prepare students to think and reason in order to participate in a democratic society (see Chapter 1). Figure 10-1 lists 20 guidelines jointly endorsed by the National Association for the Edu- cation of Young Children and the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education to ensure developmentally appropriate curric- ulum. It can be used as a checklist as you move through the next three chapters, which focus on curriculum.

DAPDAP

p that dominates American schools. A transformative cur- riculum helps a teacher view events and situations from diff erent perspectives. Th is approach, for instance, would encourage teachers to look at Christopher Columbus from the perspective of a Native American Indian before creating a curriculum about Th anksgiving, the Pilgrim, or Native Americans. Transformation curriculum is a way to help develop more positive attitudes toward all racial, ethnic, and cultural groups.

Th e common practice in many early childhood pro- grams of cooking ethnic foods or celebrating ethnic or cultural holidays as isolated experience often trivializes or stereotypes groups of people. Folk tales, songs, food, and dress are symbols and expressions of a culture, not the culture itself. For children to gain any meaningful knowledge, the content must contribute to a fuller un- derstanding of human diversity, not just a special occa- sion topic. Including diverse food, music, and clothing are important artifacts in the curriculum only when they

DAP There is no “recipe” for developmentally appropriate practice; rather, sound practice is related to individual children, families, and the community in which one teaches.

What do you think are the most compelling arguments that play is a necessary part of any early childhood program? How

would you respond to a kindergarten teacher who thought too much time was devoted to play and that the academics needed more emphasis? What would you say to a parent who was interested in enrolling a child into your program but wanted to know why so much time was devoted to play?

What Do

YOU Think?

368 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Nurturing children’s development and learning through-out the early years is an exciting and awesome respon- sibility. As an early childhood educator, you will constantly be faced with situations in which you must make judgments about how to support and guide the children in your care. On any given day, you may wonder:

■ Should I insist that all children play together and that ev- eryone be “friends?”

■ What should I do to help a child who has diffi culty cutting with scissors?

■ When is it reasonable to expect children to begin recogniz- ing the letters in their names?

■ What are sensible expectations when it comes to children following rules?

■ How can I help children develop empathy and respect for all kinds of people?

How you answer questions like these and the actions you take can be more or less helpful to children. Your actions could enhance children’s feelings of self-worth or detract from them. Your responses could increase children’s interpersonal abilities or leave children at a loss about how to interact eff ectively. You could either promote or inhibit children’s developing literacy, numeracy, or motor skills. Although there is not just one right answer for any of these situations, the things you say and do will make a real diff erence in children’s lives.

What resources are available to help you frame the most eff ective responses? Your past experiences with children, advice or models provided by colleagues, and your intuitive feelings about what is best all contribute to your knowledge base. How- ever, it is not suffi cient to guide your actions professionally. Your personal qualities and experiences must be supplemented by theory and research regarding how children develop and learn. Th is knowledge extends beyond what you have absorbed from encountering the fi ve, 10, or even 100 children with whom you have interacted so far. It encompasses the accumu- lated wisdom of our profession that goes back further than any of us have been alive. Such knowledge includes terms, facts, principles and concepts that will help you understand how and why children think and behave as they do. It will also provide evidence-based insights into potentially useful intervention techniques. Ultimately, this combination of personal, concep- tual, and research-based understandings will help you make the transition to bona fi de early childhood professional.

As part of your professional education you will become fa- miliar with common sequences of development and what char-

acterizes typical development in various domains (cognitive, emotional, language, social, physical) at diff erent ages. Th is knowledge helps determine reasonable expectations for children, so you can plan educational activities that are age appropriate. You will also learn how rates of development vary from child to child. Th is will sensitize you to the wide range of abilities repre- sented among the youngsters in your group and help you create activities that are best suited to children’s individual needs.

Likewise, there are theories and research describing how young children learn. For instance, as you become more famil- iar with children’s learning styles and the role of play in chil- dren’s learning, you will be able to create educational environ- ments that suit how children learn best. Finding out what researchers think about teaching by example, the use of re- wards and consequences, and diff erent ways to coach children in the learning process will give you much to think about re- garding your interactions in the early childhood setting. In addition, becoming more aware of research that describes how children’s families and cultural contexts impact the educa- tional process will help you develop approaches that are so- cially and culturally relevant.

Some of the professional knowledge base seems logical, but some is counterintuitive. For example, common sense might tell you that praising children when they do something well is a good strategy for increasing positive behaviors in the future. Yet, researchers have found that certain kinds of praise actually interfere with children’s learning and make it less likely that they will repeat desired actions.

Finally, you need to put these learnings into practice. You need to gather both time-honored curriculum and innovative ways to organize the environment and the daily schedule. You must work to plan activities that help all children learn in ev- ery domain. While professionals in the fi eld have attempted to catalogue such practices in a variety of documents, you will have to do more than memorize or copy them. Th ere is more than one way to think about things; there are contradictory ideas to consider; diff erent contexts will demand diff erent ap- proaches. In the end, you have to make your own judgments about how to interpret and respond to children in a variety of circumstances. And that will help you defi ne what is being taught to young children.

Marjorie Kostelnik, Ph.D., has been an early childhood educator for 30 years. Currently, she is Dean of the College of Education and Human Sciences at the University of Nebraska. Most recently, she and her coauthors have writ- ten Guiding Children’s Social Development (5th ed.), Delmar Publishing, and Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum: Best Practices in Early Child- hood Education, Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Making a Difference in Young Children’s Lives by Marjorie Kostelnik, Ph.D.

Insights from the fi eld

Social-Emotional 0–1 month: cries to express emo-

tions; bonding begins 4–10 weeks: makes social smiles 2 months: begins social games 3 months: distinguishes familiar

faces*; turns head toward human voice; smiles in response to a smile; kicks, smiles, waves in re- sponse; cries when left alone; recognizes parent

4 months: has a genuine laugh; smiles when spoken to; loves attention

5 months to 1 year: begins to exhibit stranger anxiety*

6 months: distinguishes between voices: smiles; babbles at strang- ers; develops attachment to par- ents, caregivers; begins to play imitation games; plays peek-a-

6–12 months: plays imitation sound games; responds to variety of sounds*; makes vowel sounds;

9 months: creeps 10 months: feeds self with spoon 11 months: stands alone; cruises 12 months: takes fi rst steps Late infancy: can move hands in ro-

tation to turn knobs Newborn motor activity is mostly

refl exes

Creative Discovers and explores hands and

feet Expresses and discovers emotion Talks by babbling, cooing, and

gurgling Plays peek-a-boo Responds to facial expressions

Cognitive 0 1 h d h ’

WORD PICTURES

INFANT

C o u rt

e sy

o f

th e a

u th

o r

NEW—Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP) References are used throughout the text to emphasize material that represents a DAP. Th is fea- ture, highlighted via a marginal icon and corre- sponding footnote, gives the student reader a con- crete example of DAP in action. Culturally Appropriate Practice and Developmentally Appro- priate Practice continue to be the subthemes of Be- ginnings and Beyond. We emphasize the importance

■ New and improved end-of-chapter aids provide the student with an overall review of the material within the chapter. Th e Summary and Key Terms remind students of the most important concepts; the Review Questions are aligned to the Preview

Preface

xviiPreface

Questions in the chapter opening; the Learning Ac- tivities suggest practical ways to integrate knowl- edge, theory, and experience; and the Helpful Web- sites and References provide added resources for students to expand their knowledge.

■ NEW—A correlation chart to the latest NAEYC Standards for Early Childhood Profes- sional Preparation is found on the back inside cover of this book. Th e handy chart makes it easier for students to see where the key standards in the fi eld are addressed in specifi c chapters and topics throughout the text.

What’s New in This Edition Th e eighth edition of Beginnings and Beyond represents a completely updated work, both in the content and pre- sentation. Some highlights of the new coverage and fea- tures include:

■ Students will fi nd information that is presented in a truly accessible manner, from the all-new chapter opening pedagogy and learning aids (such as the new Preview Questions keyed to chapter headings and the NAEYC Code of Ethics listings) to the comprehen- sive study and review materials at the end of the chapter. In addition, we streamlined and reorganized several key chapters for better c omprehension.

■ Up-to-date Developmentally Appropriate Prac- tice (DAP) discussions and references are found throughout, including the new DAP marginal icon and footnotes in every chapter.

■ Updated coverage of standards and accountabil- ity, which are important areas of concern for early childhood professionals. Chapter 6, in particular, has been completely updated to cover the latest in these key areas.

■ Expanded coverage of key content areas, includ- ing play-based learning, children with special needs, behavior that is challenging, team teaching, diversity, emergent curriculum, brain-based learning, technol- ogy use, professionalism, and current issues and trends in the fi eld.

■ New TeachSource Video features integrated into each chapter to illustrate topics and best practices.

■ A completely new and improved design to strengthen our presentation and to improve stu- dents’ comprehension.

Accompanying Teaching and Learning Resources Th e eighth edition of Beginnings and Beyond off ers many ancillary materials that can support and enhance the text experience and an instructor’s presentation of the course. From planning to presentation to testing, materials are available to provide students with an engaging and rele- vant exposure to the broad scope of topics in early child- hood education.

Instructor’s Manual Th e updated instructor’s manual provides a chapter-by- chapter plan for organizing a course using Beginnings and Beyond. In addition to chapter overviews, outlines, key terms, resource lists, discussion topics, and teaching tips, this manual will include a complete list of PowerPoint masters, arranged by chapter on the PowerLecture. In- structions for using the PowerLecture are also part of the manual.

Premium Website Th e premium website off ers students a variety of study tools and useful resources, such as additional informa- tion or activities, critical-thinking questions and activi- ties for each “Insights from the Field” found in the text, and questions relevant to chapter learning objectives, which are presented for individual or group consider- ation. Th e website also off ers access to the new Teach- Source Video Cases and other video clips that are inte- grated into the text. Th e Video Cases are 4- to 6- minute video and audio modules presenting actual early child- hood education scenarios, supported by viewing ques- tions, teacher interviews, artifacts, and bonus videos that allow you to realistically and thoroughly analyze the problems and opportunities in the case. Th e Video Cases let you experience the complex and multiple dimensions of education that early childhood teachers face every day. Go to http://www.cengage.com/login to register or purchase access.

Professional Enhancement Series An additional supplement to accompany the eighth edi- tion is the Introduction to Early Childhood Education Pro- fessional Enhancement resource for students. Th is re-

xviii

source, which is part of Wadsworth Cengage Learning’s Early Childhood Education Professional Enhancement Series, focuses on key topics of interest to future early childhood teachers, directors, and caregivers. Th is sup- plement, and other “primers” on key areas in early child- hood education, can be bundled with this text upon re- quest. Some of the tools provided are:

■ tips for getting off to a great start in your new environment.

■ suggestions for materials that promote development for children from infancy through primary grades.

■ tools to assist in observing children and in gathering data to help set appropriate goals for individual children.

■ case studies of relevant, realistic situations and best practices for successfully navigating them.

■ insights into issues and trends facing early child- hood educators today.

WebTutor Toolbox WebTutor™ Toolbox for WebCT™ or Blackboard® pro- vides access to all the content of this text’s rich Book Companion Website from within your course manage- ment system. Robust communication tools—such as a course calendar, asynchronous discussion, real-time chat, a whiteboard, and an integrated e-mail system— make it easy for your students to stay connected to the course.

PowerLecture A special new accompaniment to this edition of Begin- nings and Beyond is our PowerLecture, which integrates Internet technology and early childhood education. Th e PowerLecture includes an electronic copy of the Instruc- tor’s Manual, PowerPoint Masters, and the ExamView Computerized Test Bank (CTB).

Th e updated computerized test bank allows instruc- tors to create student exams composed of multiple choice, true/false, short answer, and completion questions for each chapter. Th e CTB provides approximately 1,000 questions in addition to the following features:

■ Multiple methods of question selection ■ Multiple outputs (print, ASCII, and Rich Text

Format) ■ Graphic support ■ Random questioning output ■ Special character support

About the Authors Ann Miles Gordon has been an early childhood profes- sional for more than 40 years as a teacher of young chil- dren, a teacher of parents, and a teacher of college stu- dents. She has taught in laboratory schools, church-related centers, and private and public preschool and kindergar- ten programs. Ann taught at the Bing Nursery School, the laboratory school for Stanford University’s Depart- ment of Psychology, where she was a head teacher and lecturer in the Psychology Department. Ann also served as an adjunct faculty member in several community col- leges, teaching the full gamut of early child- hood courses. Ann served as executive di- rector of the National Association of Epis- copal Schools for 14 years, where more than 1,100 early childhood programs were a part of her network. Ann is semi-retired and a hands-on grandmother of two, through which she brings an enhanced perspective on infants and tod- dlers to Beginnings and Beyond, as well as up-to-date ex- perience with center-based child care.

Kathryn Williams Browne has been teaching chil- dren, families, and students for more than 30 years. First a teacher of young children—nursery school, parent co- operative, full-day child care, pre-kindergarten, bilingual preschool, kindergarten, and fi rst grade—she later moved to Stanford University’s lab school, where she served as head teacher and psychology lecturer. Coauthoring Beginnings and Beyond with Ann was enhanced by Kate’s role as a parent: her two children were born during the fi rst two editions, so the book grew along with them. Her consultant and School Board experience off ered perspectives into public policy and reform. Kate teaches in the California Community College system and the Early Childhood Mentor program, which off er the rich- ness of a diverse student population coupled with the challenges of access and privilege that parallel those in the early education fi eld itself. Th e balance of career and family, of work with children and for children, and of the special challenges of diversity and professionalism of early childhood education guide her work.

Ann and Kate are also coauthors of To Teach Well: A Student Practicum Guide (Merrill, 2009), Guiding

Preface

xixPreface

Young Children in a Diverse Society (Allyn & Bacon, in revision), and Beginning Essentials in Early Childhood Education (Delmar Cengage Learning, 2007).

Acknowledgments We owe a great deal to the colleagues who contributed their thoughts through their “Insights from the Field” articles and we thank them for adding relevancy to this edition. Th anks also to Louise Boyd Cadwell for fur- nishing pictures of the St. Louis-Reggio Collaborative classrooms. At Cengage Learning, we would like to thank Lisa Mafrici, senior development editor, for her skillful guidance, constant encouragement, and gentle nudging; Chris Shortt, education editor, for having a new and refreshing vision for Beginnings and Beyond and

making it a reality; and to the rest of the team at Cengage Learning for their professionalism and support.

Our reviewers, whose valuable gift of time and en- ergy enhances the book’s usefulness, have been superb with their insights and suggestions. We want to thank:

Linda Aiken, Southwestern Community College Betty Ruth Baker, Baylor University Audrey W. Beard, Albany State University Wendy Bertoli, Lancaster Country Career and Technol-

ogy Center Diane E. Craig, Kent State University Veronica Getskow, Los Angeles Valley College Marilyn L. Haller, Oklahoma Baptist University Kathy-Ann Hernandez, Temple University Denise J. McConachie, Missouri Baptist University Jean C. Murphy, Chicago State University

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© Cengage Learning

S E C T I O N

1 What Is the

Field of Early Childhood

Education?

CHAPTER 1 History of Early Childhood Education | 2

CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs | 40

© Cengage Learning

C H A P T E R

1

History of Early Childhood Education

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

■ What distinguishes early childhood education from other levels of education?

■ Why is it important to know about the history of early childhood education?

■ What are the major infl uences from abroad and in America?

■ What nontraditional perspectives are included in our thinking?

■ What impacts have other fi elds had on the development of the early childhood philosophy?

■ What have been the basic themes in early childhood edu- cation throughout history?

■ How do current political, social, and economic events af- fect the direction of early education?

Please refer to Figure 1-2, An Abbreviated Timeline for Early Childhood Educa- tion, and online for an expanded timeline as you read this chapter.

NAEYC CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Th ese Core Values and sections from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct are addressed in this chapter. As you read, note how the Core Values, Ideals, or Principles listed here apply to the topics in this chapter. (Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

Core Values: We have committed ourselves to helping children and adults reach their full potential in the context of relationships that are based on trust, respect, and mutual regard. Section I: Ethical Responsibilities to Children—Childhood is a unique and valuable stage in the life cycle. We are committed to support children’s development, respect individual

3CHAPTER 1 History of Early Childhood Education

diff erence, help children learn to live and work cooperatively, and promote health self-awareness, competence, self-worth and resiliency. Section II: Ethical Responsibilities to Families—Families are of primary importance to children’s development. Section III: Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues—In a car- ing, cooperative workplace, human dignity is respected, profes- sional satisfaction is promoted, and positive relationships are modeled. Section IV: Ethical Responsibilities to Community and Society—Early childhood programs operate within a context of an immediate community made up of families and other institutions concerned with children’s welfare.

Introduction to the Field Early childhood education has a rich and exciting his- tory. In this chapter, the story of its development is also the chronicle of courageous people who took steps to- ward improving children’s lives. Critical events have had a hand in shaping the history of early childhood educa- tion. As the images of the child change through the cen- turies, so, too, does the education of the young child and the educators themselves.

For the moment, imagine yourself as a time traveler. As you go back in time, you span the centuries and meet the people whose vision helped to shape our profession. You learn how Froebel’s own unhappy childhood in- spired a new way of teaching called the kindergarten. You see the passion and struggle of Montessori as she convinces the world that “slum children” can learn and succeed. In the 1960s, you witness the dedication of America to create a program for preschoolers known as “Head Start.” You see early childhood teaching become a profession that includes infants and toddlers, as well as kindergarten and early primary grades.

New models are forged through necessity and inno- vation, thus changing what we know about children and their care and education. Th e energies of so many on be- half of children have produced bold ideas, creative mod- els, even contrary beliefs and practices. Across the globe and through the centuries, the education of young chil- dren has evolved.

Why History? Most early childhood students and many educators know little about the origins of their chosen profession. Th e names of Rousseau, Froebel, Montessori, and Dewey may not seem to have much signifi cance at this time (al- though many teachers are familiar with some of their

techniques), but knowing something about the roots of this profession is important. Every time period has social and political events that infl uenced the reaction of people at the time, which then infl uenced how children were raised and educated. Further, most of these individuals were crusaders for education, often engaging in social re- form and making the work of teaching into a legitimate profession. Th eir thinking was revolutionary, going against the mainstream of the time to emphasize the im- portance of childhood, and always off ering insights that changed our ways of educating children and how we transmit our values to the next generation. Let their voices be heard, so you can develop your own.

Th ere is a sense of support that comes from knowing that history. Contemporary education has its roots in the past; fi nding a suitable beginning point for that past helps provide an educator with perspective. New in- sights blend with ideas from past traditions, as the his- tory of early childhood education is truly a history of rediscovery.

Th ink about this: the “education” of the 21st century actually stems from children’s schooling thousands of years ago. For instance, works of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are part of the philosophical foundation on which our educational practices are built. Schools in ancient Greece and Rome taught literature, the arts, and science. Th ese subjects are part of schools across the country today. One can see how traditional early childhood practices refl ect and reinforce the European values and beliefs.

However, in order to recognize and respect all cul- tures of our children, we need to look beyond the domi- nant culture. Unfortunately, most common historical documents are works of Western Europe and European- American only. Searching for historical records from di- verse cultures would be benefi cial to understanding the

Do you currently work in a center or family child-care setting? What is its history? Which people or ideas inform the school’s

approach? Who of the historical fi gures in this chapter infl uences you as you arrange the environment? Plan the curriculum? Interact with children and their families?

What Do

YOU Think?

4 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

full “American” educational experience. For instance, both oral and written records exist that describe educa- tion in Africa, particularly those cultures found in the Nile Valley (Hilliard, 1997). In more current terms, teachers must educate themselves about the culturally diverse roots of early educational practices.

Knowing that early childhood philosophy has deep roots can be an inspiration and helps teachers develop professional expression. As early childhood educators, we must learn to express our ideas, fi nding our own voice. Professionalism in education “relates to doing things well, at the right time, and for the right reason” (Spodek, Saracho, & Peters, 1988) and is one of the key themes of our fi eld, as you will see at the end of the chapter. Th e past as well as the present and future must be considered when developing sound educational pro- grams for young children. Th e tenets expressed by past educators help develop better methods of teaching. Looking at history gives an overview of how various ages looked at children and their learning based on the religious, political, and economic pressures of the time. Reviewing the professional record demonstrates how the needs of society aff ect education. Perhaps some of the mistakes of the past can be avoided if history is remembered.

Drawing upon knowledge of the past creates an awareness and understanding of changes in education. Into the fabric of early childhood education are woven many threads of infl uence that are responsible for cur- rent philosophies. By understanding and telling the story of the past, we are better equipped to interpret our own history, to have a sense of mission and purpose. “Doing history” is a good idea for early childhood educators, for Spodek tells us:

When we [become] early childhood educators, each of us accepts as our own, either deliberately or implicitly, the mission that is central to our fi eld: We are committed to enhancing the educa- tion, development, and well-being of young chil- dren. Our saga helps renew our sense of identity and commitment to our profession. (Spodek in Bauch, 1988)

We also get in touch with our own early childhood and education (see “Insights from the Field” by Scott Williams at the end of this chapter), thus connecting us to the children of long ago, ourselves, and those we care for every day.

All professions have a canon of beliefs and practices. As you acquire this knowledge, you begin to develop your own philosophy of teaching (based, in part, on information gathered in this chapter). As you do, be sure to constantly rethink your practices. All professionals should reexam- ine themselves on a regular basis, and each professional teacher must do the same. For while understanding his- torical records makes sense for professional development, recognizing that they are a refl ection of certain cultural norms is also crucial. Remember that the voices you hear in these chapters are not from on high. Learn to be par- ticularly suspect of the current proclaimed universal American practices that have to do with:

■ Early attainment of individuality and independence. ■ Th e necessity of early and free exploration. ■ Th e critical importance of the early stimulation of

intellect and language.

Th ese are the three areas that previous research has seen as universal, which cross-cultural research has shown not to be. Th e fi rst refl ects a priority of many Western European cultures, but it is not a common practice in societies that promote group harmony and interdepen- dence. Second, many indigenous groups hold their very young children close, carrying them along while they work; there is no data that indicate these children de- velop poorly. Th ird, while American educational systems of the early 21st century are building on increasing aca- demic and intellectual standards, there is no universal mandate for an exclusive focus on this developmental domain in the early years. Figure 1-1 off ers other tradi- tional educational practices, their historical context, and alternatives to consider as you create your own educa- tional philosophy.

As authors, we strive to off er a broader view of our fi eld, including its history. We recognize, for instance, that schools of the past were overwhelmingly created for boys and young men. Th is gender bias added to the un- derdevelopment of girls and women and prevails today in some parts of the world. By understanding the con- cepts of institutional and individual oppression, teachers can begin to examine their own notions and become “critical consumers” of information, both from the past and present. However, educational programs that in- cluded girls and the role of people of color in the early childhood movement are documented, if not always in the dominant literature of the time (see nontraditional perspectives later in this chapter).

DAPDAP

DAP “Meet children where they are, as individuals and as a group,” is a cornerstone of teaching children in developmentally appro- priate ways.

5CHAPTER 1 History of Early Childhood Education

Every culture has had and still does have the task of socializing and educating their young. So, although the written record may document a part of educational phi- losophy and teaching, there is no single monopoly on ideas about raising and educating children. Educational changes of a more recent nature follow. Th e impact of other disciplines, such as medicine and psychology, and the recurrent themes of early childhood education are also explored.

Defi ning the Terms Th e term early childhood education refers to group set- tings deliberately intended to aff ect developmental changes in children from birth to 8 years of age. In school terms, it includes group settings for infants through the primary years of elementary school, kindergarten through 3rd or 4th grade in the United States. In programmatic terms, the education of young children includes formal and infor-

Educational Practice Historical Context and ECE

Trend/Practice Think Again . . .

Same-age grouping K–12 schools in the United States since 1850s target curriculum goals.

■ Learning takes place with “guided collaboration,” which often occurs with an older “expert.”

■ Children learn when challenged to accommodate to higher level thinking, likely to occur with a mixed-age range.

■ Developing values of caring and responsibility happen best when children practice helping and protecting younger children.

■ Reduced family size indicates that multi-age experiences should happen in schooling.

■ Diversity (gender, culture, exceptionality, etc.) makes strict target goals unrealistic.

Daily schedules Routines are the framework for programs, offering security and predictability.

■ Children’s sense of time is unlike that of adults, so rigid schedules do not correspond to their development.

■ Brain research indicates a need for stimulation, change, and challenge rather than the same structure constantly.

Curriculum is at the center of good programs.

A plan for learning should be driven by specifi c outcomes in order to be assured that children are learning.

■ Not following an adult-planned and driven curriculum worked well for geniuses such as Einstein, Erikson, and Bill Gates.

■ Educators as diverse as Dewey and Steiner promoted curricula based on children’s interests or innate spirit.

■ Children appear to learn well through a curriculum that emerges, following their interests and timetable.

Refl ecting on Practices: Building Your Philosophy of Teaching

FIGURE 1-1 As you develop a philosophy of teaching, be sure to examine common beliefs and practices of the profession.

6 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

mal group settings regardless of their initial purpose. For instance, after-school programs for elementary ages are included, as are their formal academic sessions.

Early childhood educators thus build bridges be- tween a child’s two worlds: school (or group experience) and home. It is during these years that the foundation for future learning is set; these are the building block years, during which a child learns to walk, talk, establish an identity, print, and count. In later years, that same child builds on these skills to be able to climb mountains, speak a second language, learn to express and negotiate, write in cursive, and understand multiplication.

Infl uences from Abroad When did early childhood education fi rst begin? Refer to Figure 1-2, An Abbreviated Timeline for Early Childhood Education, and to the expanded timeline on the accompa- nying website, as you read this chapter. Getting a visual sense of when and where things happened can help you make sense of the various threads in our tapestry of early childhood educational history. It is impossible to pinpoint the origins of humankind because there are few records from millions of years ago. Some preparation for adult life was done informally, mostly through imitation. As lan- guage developed, communication occurred. Children learned dances, rituals, and ceremonies, and both boys and girls were taught skills for their respective roles in the tribe. Ancient historical documents seem to indicate that child- rearing practices were somewhat crude; DeMause (1974) even suggests that the further one goes back in history, the more likely the case of abandonment and brutality.

In Ancient Times Th e defi nition of childhood has varied greatly through- out history. For example, in ancient times children were considered adults by age 7. A society’s defi nition of childhood infl uences how it educates its children.

Many of our own practices are founded on those de- veloped in Greece and Rome. Greek education—and vir- tually all classical European schooling—was provided for the boys of wealthy families, while girls and working-class children received training for domestic work or a trade.

Education began by age 6 or 7, although Plato and Aristotle both spoke of the need to educate the younger child. Some ancient Romans felt that education should begin at home as soon as a child began to talk, and they highlighted the use of rewards and the ineff ectiveness of corporal punishment (Hewes, 1993).

Probably the fi rst education in schools outside the home or homelike apprenticeship was in ancient Greek and Roman times. Plato (427 BC), Aristotle (384–323 BC), Cicero (143–106 BC), and Polybius (222–204 BC) founded schools, with the model of small-group tutoring, teaching wealthy boys thinking skills, governing, military strategy, and managing commerce. Our word educate comes from a Latin verb educare, through a French verb educere, to draw forth or to lead.

As the Roman Empire deteriorated and society fell apart (400–1200 AD), childhood lasted barely beyond infancy. Although education was the responsibility of parents, most were busy fi ghting for survival. Childhood was not seen as a separate time of life, and children were used in the labor force. People left villages and towns for the safety of a local baron or king, and schools ceased to exist. Few members of the ruling class could read or write their names, and the monastery schools were for priests and religious instruction only.

Th e education of children was fairly simple before the 15th century; there was no educational system, and the way of life was uncomplicated as well. Th e church control of school in the medieval period meant that edu- cation projected a view of children as basically evil in their natural state. Th e value of education was in prepa- ration for an afterlife. Children learned mostly through their parents or by apprenticeship outside the family. Th e child was expected and encouraged to move into adulthood as fast as possible. Survival was the primary goal in life. Because the common religious belief was that people were naturally evil, children had to be directed, punished, and corrected constantly.

What little we know of systematic learning devel- oped during the Dark Ages through the policies of Charlemagne—who proclaimed that the nobility should know their letters—and from monastery schools that maintained libraries. A new social class in the form of craft guilds began to grow as apprenticeships expanded. Although education was sparse, the seeds of learning were planted, including the introduction of the concepts of equality and brotherhood, a continuing concern of educators today.

European Renaissance and Reformation Th e European Renaissance and Reformation (1400– 1600) brought more ease and freedom for the common person. Children were seen as pure and good. Th e print- ing press, invented by Johannes Gutenberg in 1439,

7CHAPTER 1 History of Early Childhood Education

An Abbreviated Timeline for Early Childhood Education

1880 First teacher-training program for kindergartners, Oshkosh Normal School, Pennsylvania.

1892 International Kindergarten Union founded; becomes the Association for Childhood Education in 1930, increasing its scope to include elementary education.

1896 John Dewey establishes a laboratory school at the University of Chicago and develops a pragmatic approach to education, becoming the father of the Progressive Movement in American education.

1897 My Pedagogic Creed is published, detailing the opposition to rote learning and the philosophy of educating “the whole child.”

1903 The Committee of Nineteen, a splinter group of the International Kindergarten Union, forms to report various philosophical concepts. Members include Patty Smith Hill, Lucy Wheelock, and Susan Blow.

1907 Casa di Bambini (Children’s House) is opened by Maria Montessori in a slum district in Rome, Italy. She later develops an educational philosophy and program to guide children’s growth through the senses and practical life experiences.

1909 First White House Conference on Children is held by Theodore Roosevelt, leading to the establishment of the Children’s Bureau in 1912.

1911 Deptford School, an open-air school in the slums of London, is opened by Margaret McMillan. The school emphasizes health and play, thus coining the phrase “nursery school.”

1915 First U.S. Montessori school opens in New York City.

1916 The Bureau of Educational Experiments, which becomes Bank Street College of Education (and laboratory school) in 1922, is founded by L. S. Mitchell, who is a leading proponent of progressive education at the early childhood level.

1423 & 1439 The invention of printing and movable type allows knowledge to spread rapidly; ideas and techniques become available to large numbers of people; printing is credited with bringing about the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance.

1657 Orbis Pictus, by Comenius, is the fi rst children’s book with pictures.

1690 John Locke published his essay, which postulated that children are born with a tabula rasa, or clean slate, on which all experiences are written.

1740–1860s Sabbath Schools and Clandestine Schools are established as facilities to educate African Americans in the United States.

1762 Emile, by Rousseau, proclaims the child’s natural goodness.

1801 How Gertrude Teaches Her Children, by Pestalozzi, emphasizes home education.

1826 Education of Man, by Froebel, describes the fi rst system of kindergarten education as a “child’s garden,” with activities known as “gifts from God.”

1837 Froebel opens the fi rst kindergarten in Blankenburgh, Germany.

1860 Elizabeth Peabody opens the fi rst English- speaking kindergarten in Boston.

1861 Robert Owen sets up infant school in New Lanark, England, as an instrument of social reform for children of parent workers in his mills.

1871 The fi rst public kindergarten in North America opens in Ontario, Canada. (First public American kindergarten: 1873).

1873 The Butler School at Hampton Institute is opened as a free school for black children, including kindergarten curriculum for fi ve-year-olds.

Authors’ Note: A debt of gratitude is owed to D. Keith Osborn for his outstanding historical research and to James L. Hymes, Jr., for his generous time and perspective.

5th–3rd centuries BC to AD 1400s Few records exist concerning child-rearing practices; the development of cities gives rise to schooling on a larger scale.

FIGURE 1-2 An Abbreviated Timeline for Early Childhood Education (see the premium website for an expanded version).

(continues)

8 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

1943–1945 Kaiser Shipyard Child Care Center, run by Lois Meeks Stolz, James Hymes, and Edith Dowley, operates 24-hour care in Portland, Oregon.

1944 Young Children is fi rst published by NAEYC.

1946 Dr. Spock’s Baby and Child Care is published. It advocates a more permissive attitude toward children’s behavior and encourages exploratory behavior.

1946 Loris Malguzzi starts school of Reggio Emilia, Italy, emphasizing the child’s individual creative expression.

1948 USNC OMEP, the United States National Committee of the World Organization for Early Childhood Education, is founded to promote the education of children internationally and begins to consult with UNICEF and UNESCO in the United Nations. It starts publishing a journal, The International Journal of Early Childhood, in 1969.

1956 La Leche League is established to provide mothers with information on breast-feeding, childbirth, infants, and child care.

1960 Katherine Whiteside Taylor founds the American Council of Parent Cooperatives, which later becomes the Parent Cooperative Pre-schools International.

1960 Nancy McCormick Rambusch founds the American Montessori movement.

1962 Perry Preschool Project, directed by David Weikart, opens in Ypsilanti, Michigan, and conducts longitudinal study to measure the effects of preschool education on later school and life.

1964–1965 The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 passes, becoming the foundation of Head Start Programs in the United States, as part of a federal “War on Poverty.”

1966 The Bureau of Education for the Handicapped is established.

1966 NANE becomes National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC).

1969 Pediatrician T. Berry Brazelton publishes Infants and Mothers, along with several other books and numerous articles advocating a sensible and intimate relationship between parents and children.

1916 First Cooperative Nursery School opens at the University of Chicago.

1918 First public nursery schools are opened in England.

1921 A. S. Neill founds Summerhill school in England, which becomes a model for the “free school” movement (the book entitled Summerhill is published in 1960).

1922 Abigail Eliot opens Ruggles Street Nursery School and Training Center.

1925–1926 The National Committee on Nursery Schools is founded by Patty Smith Hill; it becomes NANE and eventually NAEYC.

1926 Gesell establishes the Clinic of Child Development at Yale University and studies norms of child growth and behavior.

1926–1927 Research facilities are founded at several American universities and colleges (e.g., Smith College, Vassar College, Yale University, and Mills College).

1927 Dorothy Howard establishes the fi rst Black Nursery School in Washington, DC, and operates it for over 50 years.

1929 Lois Meeks Stolz names the fi rst President of the National Association for Nursery Education (later to become National Association for the Education of Young Children), and joins the Teachers College (Columbia University) faculty to start the laboratory school and Child Development Institute. Stolz later becomes the Director of the Kaiser Child Service Centers during World War II.

1929 Susan Isaacs publishes The Nursery Years, which contradicts the more scientifi c psychological view of behavior shaping and emphasizes the child’s viewpoint and the value of play.

1929–1931 Hampton Institute, Spellman College, and Bennett College open Black laboratory nursery schools, emphasizing child development principles as in other lab schools and serving as training centers.

1933 WPA (Works Projects Association) opens emergency nurseries for Depression relief of unemployed teachers.

1935 First toy lending library, Toy Loan, begins in Los Angeles.

1936 The fi rst commercial telecast is shown in New York City, starring Felix the Cat.

FIGURE 1-2 (continued)

9CHAPTER 1 History of Early Childhood Education

1990 The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is passed, requiring programs of all sizes to care for and accommodate the needs of children with disabilities whenever they are reasonably able to do so.

1991 “Ready to Learn/America 2000,” part of the U.S. government’s educational strategy for reforming American public schools, is published.

1991 The fi rst Worthy Wage Day, organized by the Child Care Employee Project, is held on April 9, drawing attention to the inadequate compensation of early childhood workers and how this affects the retention of a skilled and stable work force.

1993 The Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) passes, providing new parents with 12 weeks of unpaid, job-protected leave.

1996 The fi rst “Stand for Children” demonstration is held in Washington, DC, drawing 200,000 participants.

Rethinking the Brain, published by the Family and Work Institute, summarizes the new research on children’s brain development.

1997 The Child Development Permit Matrix is adopted by the California Commission on Teacher Credentialing, introducing the career ladder concept into early childhood public education.

1998 The 100,000th CDA Credential is awarded by Carol Brunson Phillips, Executive Director of the Council for Early Childhood Professionals.

2002 In the U.S., the “Leave No Child Behind” legislation is passed.

2003 Universal preschool is considered as a next step in providing equal access to quality early educational experiences for all children under 5 years of age.

2007 State-funded preschools rose in per-child funding, expanded access, and moved toward higher quality standards.

2008 12 states in the US still provide no state preschool for their children.

1969 The Ford Foundation, Carnegie Corporation, and the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare subsidize the Children’s Television Workshop, which develops Sesame Street.

1971 Stride-Rite Corporation of Boston opens a children’s program on site, becoming a vanguard for employer-supported child care.

1972 The Child Development Associate Consortium is started by Edward Ziegler to develop a professional teacher training program (now known as CDA).

1975 PL 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children bill, passes, mandating appropriate education for special needs children in the “least restrictive environment” possible, thus defi ning the concepts of “mainstreaming” and “full inclusion.”

1979 The United Nations declares an International Year of the Child.

1982– Marion Wright Edelman establishes the Children’s Defense Fund, a Washington- based lobby on behalf of children, and particularly children of poverty and color.

1984 NAEYC publishes a report entitled “Develomentally Appropriate Practices,” which outlines what is meant by “quality” work with young children from infancy through age 8.

1985 NAEYC establishes a National Academy and a voluntary Accreditation system for centers, in an effort to improve the quality of children’s lives, and confers its fi rst accreditation the next year.

1986 U.S. Department of Education declares the Year of the Elementary School. PL. 99-457, amending 94-142, establishes a national policy on early intervention for children as young as infants.

1990 The Child Care Development Block Grant is established to improve the quality, availability, and affordability of child care programs.

1990 U.N. Children’s World Summit includes the following goals to be reached by the year 2000: (1) to reduce child mortality below age 5 by one third; (2) to provide universal access to basic education; and (3) to protect children in dangerous situations.

10 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

made books more available to the common person rather than exclusively to the domain of monks and church- sponsored schools. Martin Luther (1482–1546) urged parents to educate their children by teaching them mor- als and catechism.

Th e fi rst humanist educators began to advocate a ba- sic education for all children, including girls and the poor. Th e call for a universal education and literacy are two fundamental eff ects of this period on education as we know it today. Concern for the common man was on the rise, as skilled craftsmen formed a kind of middle class. By the 1500s, schools that taught subjects such as reading, writing, arithmetic, and bookkeeping were fairly common throughout Europe.

Th e German school system was established at this time and would infl uence education in all parts of Eu- rope. People changed the way they looked at children

and their education. Towns grew and expanded, and there was an opportunity to move to new lands. Living conditions improved and infant mortality waned. Chil- dren were living longer. Th e acquisition of knowledge and skills at an earlier age became important. If edu- cated, children could be expected to help their family improve its situation. Parents found they needed help in teaching their children.

Into Modern Times Comenius John Amos Comenius (1592–1670), a Czech educator, wrote the fi rst picture book for children. Called Orbis Pictus (Th e World of Pictures, 1658), it was a guide for teachers that included training of the senses and the study of nature. Comenius fostered the belief that educa- tion should follow the natural order of things. His ideas included the “school of the mother’s lap,” in which chil- dren’s development follows a timetable of its own and their education should refl ect that fact. Comenius advo- cated approaching learning based on the principles of nature. He believed that “in all the operations of nature, development is from within,” so children should be allowed to learn at their own pace. He also proposed that teachers should work with children’s own inclinations, for “what is natural takes place without compulsion.” Teachers must observe and work with this natural order—the timetable—to ensure successful learning. Th is idea was later refl ected in Montessori’s sensitive pe- riods and Piaget’s stages of development. Today it is rec- ognized as the issue of school readiness.

Comenius also stressed a basic concept that is now taken for granted: learning by doing. He encouraged parents to let their children play with other children of the same age. Rather than pushing a standard curricu- lum, Comenius said that “the desire to know and to learn should be excited … in every possible manner” (Keatinge, 1896). He also refl ected the growing social reform that would educate the poor, as well as the rich.

In summary, probably the three most signifi cant con- tributions of Comenius are books with illustrations, an emphasis on education with the senses, and the social re- form potential of education.

Locke An English philosopher of the 1600s, John Locke (1632– 1714) is considered to be the founder of modern educa- tional philosophy. He based his theory of education on the scientifi c method and the study of the mind and learning. Locke theorized the concept of tabula rasa, the

Orbis Pictus, by John Comenius, is considered the fi rst picture book written for children.

11CHAPTER 1 History of Early Childhood Education

belief that the child is born neutral, rather than evil, and is a “clean slate” on which the experiences of parents, soci- ety, education, and the world are written. He based his theory on the scientifi c method and approached a child as a doctor would examine a patient. He was one of the fi rst European educators to discuss the idea of individual dif- ferences gleaned from observing one child rather than simply teaching a group. Education needed to take the individual learner into account.

Th e purpose of education, he claimed, is to make man a reasoning creature. A working knowledge of the Bible and a counting ability suffi cient to conduct busi- ness was the fundamental education required of adults, so children were taught those basics. Locke suggested that such instruction should be pleasant, with playful activities, as well as drills. Locke’s infl uence on education was not felt strongly at the time. Later, however, his best ideas, such as the notion that the teacher must work through the senses to help children reach understanding, were popularized by Rousseau. Today, teachers still em- phasize a sensory approach to learning.

In summary, Locke’s contribution is felt most in our acceptance of individual diff erences, in giving children rea- sons as the basis for helping children to learn, and in his theory of a “clean slate” that points to the eff ect of the en- vironment on learning.

Rousseau After Comenius, new thoughts were everywhere in Eu- rope. Locke off ered some educational challenges, and Darwin brought a change to science. Th e time was ripe for new ideas about childhood. Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), a writer and philosopher, proposed that children were not inherently evil, but naturally good. He is best known for his book Emile (1761) in which he raised a hypothetical child to adulthood. He reasoned that education should refl ect this goodness and allow spontaneous interests and activities of the children. “Let us lay it down as an incontrovertible rule that the fi rst impulses of nature are always right; there is no original sin in the human heart … the only natural passion is self- love or selfi shness taken in a wider sense.”

Rousseau’s ideas on education in and of themselves were nothing short of revolutionary for the times. Making what might be considered the fi rst comprehensive attempt to describe a system of education according to nature, his concern for the learner led him to these ideas:

■ Th e true object of education should not be primar- ily a vocational one.

■ Children only really learn from fi rsthand information.

■ Children’s views of the external world are quite dif- ferent from those of adults.

■ Th ere are distinct phases of development of a child’s mind and these should coincide with the various stages of education.

■ Teachers must be aware of these phases and coordi- nate their instruction appropriately (Boyd, 1997).

Although he was not an educator, Rousseau suggested that school atmosphere should be less restrained and more fl exible to meet the needs of the children. He insisted on using concrete teaching materials, leaving the abstract and symbolism for later years. His call to naturalism trans- formed education in such a way that led educators to eventually focus more on the early years. For instance, he encouraged others to “sacrifi ce a little time in early child- hood, and it will be repaid to you with usury when your scholar is older” (Emile, 1761). Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Montessori were greatly infl uenced by him. Th e theories of developmental stages, such as of Jean Piaget and Arnold Gesell (see Chapter 4), support Rousseau’s idea of natural development. In Europe, his ideas had a ripple eff ect that sent waves across the Atlantic Ocean.

Rousseau advocated that children were naturally good and should have a fl exible and less restrained school atmosphere.

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12 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

Rousseau’s ideas are still followed today in early childhood classes. Free play is based on Rousseau’s belief in children’s inherent goodness and ability to choose what they need to learn. Environments that stress autonomy and self-regulation have their roots in Rousseau’s phi- losophy. Using concrete rather than abstract materials for young children is still one of the cornerstones of devel- opmentally appropriate curriculum in the early years.

Pestalozzi Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746–1827) was a Swiss educator whose theories on education and caring have formed the basis of many common teaching practices of early childhood education. Like Rousseau, he used na- ture study as part of the curriculum and believed that good education meant the development of the senses. Rather than simply glorify nature, however, Pestalozzi became more pragmatic, including principles on how to teach basic skills and the idea of “caring” as well as “edu- cating” the child. Pestalozzi stressed the idea of the inte- grated curriculum that would develop the whole child. He wanted education to be of the hand, the head, and the heart of the child. Teachers were to guide self-activity through intuition, exercise, and the senses. Along with intellectual content, he proposed that practical skills be taught in the schools. He diff ered from Rousseau in that he proposed teaching children in groups rather than us- ing a tutor with an individual child. Pestalozzi’s works, How Gertrude Teaches Her Children and Book for Moth- ers, detail some procedures for mothers to use at home with their children. Probably his greatest contribution is the blending of Rousseau’s strong romantic ideals with his own egalitarian attitude: “I wish to wrest education

from the outworn order of doddering old teaching hacks as well as from the new-fangled order of cheap, artifi cial teaching tricks, and entrust it to the eternal powers of nature herself ” (in Silber, 1965).

In summary, Pestalozzi’s contributions are strongest around the integration of the curriculum and group teach- ing. He initiated sensory education and blended both free- dom and limits into working with children.

Froebel Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel (1782–1852) is one of the major contributors to early childhood education, particu- larly in his organization of educational thought and ideas about learning, curriculum, and teacher training. He is known to us as the “Father of the Kindergarten,” not only for giving it a name, but for devoting his life to the devel- opment of a system of education for young children. Th e German word kindergarten means “children’s garden,” and that is what Froebel felt best expressed what he wanted for children less than six years of age. Because his own childhood had been unhappy, he resolved that early education should be pleasant. He attended a training in- stitute run by Pestalozzi and left to promote children’s right to play, to have toys, and to be with trained teachers by founding a Play and Activity Institute. Early child- hood historian Dorothy Hewes (1993) notes:

Froebel started his kindergarten in 1836, for children aged about two to six, after he had studied with Pestalozzi in Switzerland and had read the philoso- phy promoted by Comenius two hundred years ear- lier. His system was centered around self-activity and the development of children’s self- esteem and self-

A Froebelian kindergarten at the end of the nineteenth century.

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13CHAPTER 1 History of Early Childhood Education

confi dence. In his Education of Man, he wrote that “Play is the highest phase of child development—the representation of the inner necessity and impulse.” He had the radical idea that both men and women should teach young children and that they should be friendly facilitators rather than stern disciplinarians.

Over 100 years ago, Froebel’s kindergartens included blocks, pets, and fi nger plays. Froebel observed children and came to understand how they learned and what they liked to do. He developed the fi rst educational toys, which he termed “gifts” (gaben in German) (Figure 1-3).

Angeline Brooks (1886), a teacher in an American Froebelian kindergarten in the late 1800s, described the gifts this way:

Froebel regarded the whole of life as a school, and the whole world as a school-room for the education of the [human] race. Th e external things of nature he re- garded as a means to making the race acquainted with the invisible things of the minds, as God’s gifts for use in accomplishing the purpose of this temporal life. Re- garding the child as the race in miniature, he selected a few objects which should epitomize the world of mat- ter in its most salient attributes and arranged them in an order which should assist the child’s development at successive stages of growth.

Some of his theories about children and their education later infl uenced Montessori and were refl ected in the ed- ucational materials she developed.

Every day, teachers in centers and homes across the country practice the Froebelian belief that one’s fi rst edu-

cational experiences should be a child’s garden: full of pleasant discoveries and delightful adventure, where the adults’ role is to plant ideas and materials for children to use as they grow at their own pace.

Montessori At the turn of the century, Maria Montessori (1870– 1952) became the fi rst female physician in Italy. She worked in the slums of Rome with poor children and with mentally retarded children. Sensing that what they lacked was proper motivation and environment, she opened a preschool, Casa di Bambini, in 1907. Her fi rst class was 50 children from two to fi ve years of age. Th e children were at the center all day while their parents worked. Th ey were fed two meals a day, given a bath, and provided with medical attention. Montessori designed materials, classrooms, and a teaching procedure that proved her point to the astonishment of people all over Europe and America.

Before her, no one with medical or psychiatric train- ing had articulated so clearly the needs of the growing child. Her medical background added credibility to her fi ndings and helped her ideas gain recognition in this

Froebelian Gifts

When the children are just making friends with the teacher and with each other, it is very interesting and profi table for them to formulate their mite of knowledge into a sentence, each one holding his ball high in the air with the right hand and saying:

My ball is red like a cherry. My ball is yellow like a lemon. My ball is blue like the sky. My ball is orange like a marigold. My ball is green like the grass. My ball is violet like a plum.

FIGURE 1-3 When introducing the gifts, the teacher in Froebelian settings would teach children rhymes and fi nger plays.

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Maria Montessori designed materials, classrooms, and learning methods for young children.

14 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

country. Th e Montessori concept is both a philosophy of child development and a plan for guiding growth, believing that education begins at birth and the early years are of the utmost importance. During this time, children pass through “sensitive periods,” in which their curiosity makes them ready for acquiring certain skills and knowledge.

Montessori was an especially observant person and used her observations to develop her program and phi- losophy. For instance, the manipulative materials she used were expensive so they were always kept in a locked cabinet. One day the cabinet was left unlocked, and the children took out the materials themselves and worked with them quietly and carefully. Afterward, Montessori removed the cabinet and replaced it with low open shelves. She noticed that children liked to sit on the fl oor so she bought little rugs to defi ne the work areas. In ana- lyzing how children learn, she concluded that they build themselves from what they fi nd in their environment, so she designed the school around the size of the children. Because of her enlightenment, a carefully prepared envi- ronment with child-sized furniture and materials are common features of early educational classrooms.

By focusing on the sequential steps of learning, Montessori developed a set of learning materials still used widely today. One of her most valuable contribu- tions was a theory of how children learn: children teach themselves if only we will dedicate ourselves to the self- creating process of the child. She believed that any task could be reduced to a series of small steps. By using this process, children could learn to sweep a fl oor, dress themselves, or multiply numbers.

After Montessori was introduced in the United States in 1909, her methods received poor reception and were often misunderstood. Chattin-McNichols (1993) notes that “adaptation of her methods in a vari- ety of ways, a focus on academics by demanding middle- class parents, and a fl ood of ‘trainers’ and authors eager

to capitalize on Montessori contributed to a rapid downfall of Montessori schools in the United States by 1925 or so.” A second American Montessori movement began in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Diff erences between European and American society and education generated the American Montessori Society, founded by Dr. Nancy McCormick Rambusch. According to Chattin-McNichols (1993):

Today with a much wider range of children than ever before, the majority of Montessori schools are private preschools and child care centers, serving 3- to 6-year-old children. But there are many which also serve elementary students and a small (but growing) number of programs for infants, toddlers, and middle-school students. … Th e word Montessori, however, remains in the public domain, so that Montessori in the name of a school or teacher education program does not guarantee any adherence to Montessori’s original ideas.

To summarize, Montessori’s contributions were sub- stantial to all we do in early childhood programs today. A prepared environment, self-correcting and sequential materials, teaching based on observation, and a trust in children’s innate drive to learn all stem from her work. (Montessori education as a curriculum model is dis- cussed in Chapter 10.)

Steiner Rudolf Steiner (1861–1925) was an Austrian philoso- pher, scientist, and artist whose lectures for the German factories of Waldorf-Astoria led to the establishment of schools now known as Waldorf Schools. Th is system has infl uenced mainstream education in Europe, and its inter- national reputation is felt in North America today. Steiner theorized that childhood is a phase of life important in its own right, and the environment must be carefully planned to protect and nurture the child (see Figure 1-4).

Age Span Child Learns by ... Emphasis

The Will 0-7 Imitation Role models and beautiful environment

The Heart 7-14 Authority Consistency with enthusiasm and feeling

The Head 14+ Challenge Intellectual study for real mastery

Steiner’s Ages of Childhood

FIGURE 1-4 Rudolf Steiner created a system of education in the early 1900s that was based on educational goals for the whole child and the transformation of the spirit/soul.

15CHAPTER 1 History of Early Childhood Education

Steiner’s philosophy, known as anthroposophical spiri- tual science, emphasized the children’s spiritual develop- ment, imagination, and creative gifts. As did Froebel and Montessori, Steiner emphasized the whole child and be- lieved that diff erent areas of development and learning were connected into a kind of unity. Th e role of the teacher is that of a mother fi gure, and her goal is to allow the child’s innate self-motivation to predominate. Th e teacher is to understand the temperament of each child, and to go with it; thus, play has a large place in Waldorf classrooms.

Self-discipline will emerge from the child’s natural willingness to learn and initiate, and the classroom needs to support this self-regulation process. Yet, while the child’s inner life is deeply valued by Steiner, experiences in early childhood must be carefully selected. For in- stance, fairy stories help children acquire time-honored wisdom; modern Waldorf followers insist that television be eliminated.

In summary, for Steiner, the people with whom the child interacts are of central importance. (Waldorf schools are addressed with curriculum models in Chapter 10.)

Nontraditional Perspectives You can likely notice how traditional early childhood educational practices reinforce European-American val- ues and beliefs. Education is often built from the knowl- edge base of its teachers; curriculum usually draws from the system—cultural, economic, or political—that is most familiar. If teachers are trained on European writ- ings and the ideas of university-educated Americans, then their own teachings would likely refl ect those philosophies.

But there have always been other infl uences on our child-rearing and educational practices, especially those of our own upbringing or of the communities whose children and families we teach. We know that there is more than one “right way” to care for and educate children.

What nontraditional perspectives infl uenced early childhood education? As mentioned before, information about non-Western early childhood history is not easily accessible (see Additional Resources” for a reading list).

DAPDAP

Gonzalez-Mena (2001) summarizes some of these per- spectives in this way:

Historically, attitudes toward childhood in China and Japan were infl uenced by Confucius’ writings (551–479 B.C.), which stressed harmony. Children were seen as good and worthy of respect, a view not held in Europe until more recently.

Native-American writings show close ties and interconnectedness, not only among families and within tribes but also between people and nature. Teaching children about relationships and intercon- nectedness are historical themes of early education among many indigenous peoples. Strong kinship net- works are themes among both Africans and African Americans; people bond together and pool resources for the common good. Whether these contemporary tendencies come from ancient roots, historic, and modern oppression, or all three, remains unclear.

Latin American and Hispanic cultures value children highly and emphasize the importance of cooperation and sensitivity to authority fi gures. Families from the Pacifi c Islands stress the connection to family, as well as the importance of respecting one’s elders.

Early education practices have been infl uenced by many of these perspectives. For instance, understanding and accepting each child’s family and cultural perspec- tives includes a working knowledge of the variations in attitudes and child-rearing practices. Learning about nontraditional cultures and behaviors has become criti- cal for professional teachers to honor diversity both in the classroom and in the larger societal context (see Chapters 3 and 9–15).

American Infl uences

Colonial Days Th e American educational system began in the colonies. When thinking of Colonial America, people often envi- sion the one-room schoolhouse. Indeed, this was the mainstay of education in the New England colonies. Al- though home-teaching of the Bible was common, chil- dren were sent to school primarily for religious reasons. Everyone needed to be able to read the Bible, the Puritan

DAP Whether or not an activity or program is developmentally suited to a particular age or individual was put into more modern context in the mid-1980s when specifi c descriptions were required to support NAEYC’s efforts to accredit early education pro- grams. The dynamic nature of “DAP” allows for both basic principles and variation, refl ecting the best thinking of the fi eld, as well as requiring periodic evaluation and revision.

16 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

fathers reasoned. All children were sent to study, though historically boys were educated before girls. Not only was the Bible used in school, however; new materials like the New England Primer and the Horn Book were also used.

Early life in the New England colonies was diffi cult, and estimates run as high as 60 percent to 70 percent of children under age four dying in colonial towns during the “starving season.” Discipline was harsh, and children were expected to obey immediately and without ques- tion. Parents may have loved their children, but Puritan families showed little overt aff ection. Children were im- portant as economic tools, and they worked the land and were apprenticed into trades early.

In the South, it was a diff erent story. Plantation own- ers imported tutors from England or opened small pri- vate schools to teach just their sons to read and write. Although the reasons were diff erent from those in New England, the results were similar: a very high percentage of adult readers. From these came the leaders of the American Revolution and the new nation. History can provide us with reminders of the strides that have been made in American history and that the challenge of over- coming bias and unequal access continues.

Th e Revolutionary War brought the establishment of both the Union and religious freedom. By affi rming fundamental principles of democratic liberty, the Found- ing Fathers paved the way for a system of free, common, public school systems, the fi rst the world had seen (Cubberly, 1920). However, after the Revolutionary War, there were no signifi cant advances in education until the late 1800s. Leaders such as Th omas Jeff erson felt that knowledge ought to be available to all, but that opinion was not widely shared. Most of the post- Revolutionary period focused on growing crops and pioneering the frontier, not teaching and educating chil- dren. Even by the 1820s, education for the common man was not readily available. Industrialization in both the North and South did little to encourage reading and writing skills. Manual labor and machine-operating skills were more important. Although public schools were accepted in principle, in reality, no tax basis was established to support them.

Children in Enslavement Th e fi rst African Americans were not slaves but inden- tured servants, whose debts repaid by their labor would buy them their freedom. However, by 1620, Africans were brought to the New World as slaves. In many states, children of slaves were not valued as human be-

ings but rather as property of the owner. During the Revolutionary War, many Americans turned against slavery because of the principles of the natural rights of the individual, as embodied in the Declaration of Inde- pendence and the United States Constitution. By the early 1800s, most northern owners had freed their slaves, although living conditions for them were gener- ally poor.

Because of the high economic value of children as future laborers, there was a certain level of care given to pregnant women and babies. Osborn (1991) tells of a nursery on a South Carolina plantation around 1850 in which

… infants and small children were left in a small cabin while the mothers worked in the fi elds nearby. An older woman was left in charge and assisted by several girls 8–10 years of age. Th e infants, for the most part, lay on the cabin fl oor or the porch—and once or twice daily, the mother would come in from the fi eld to nurse the baby. Children of toddler age played on the porch or in the yard and, at times, the older girls might lead the group in singing and dancing.

Prior to the Civil War, education was severely lim- ited for African Americans. Formal schools were scarce, and most education came through the establishment of “Sabbath schools.” As part of religious instruction, slaves were often provided literary training. However, many plantation owners found these schools threaten- ing and banned them by making laws prohibiting the teaching of slaves. Another facility then developed— the clandestine, or midnight, school. Because of its necessary secretive existence, few records are available, although it is reasonable to conclude that the curricu- lum was similar to that of the prohibited Sabbath schools.

After the Civil War, private and public schools were opened for African Americans. Major colleges and uni- versities were founded by the end of the 1800s. Booker T. Washington, born into slavery, founded the Tuskegee Normal & Industrial Institute in Alabama in 1881 and emphasized practical education and intercultural under- standing between the two races as a path to liberation. Many former slaves and graduates established schools for younger children. Of integrated schools, Osborn (1991) reports:

Generally, however, if the schools accepted Blacks at all, it was on a strictly quota basis. … Blacks were often excluded from kindergartens. Th us as the early

17CHAPTER 1 History of Early Childhood Education

childhood education movement began to grow and expand in the years following the Civil War, it grew along separate color lines.

Hampton Institute of Virginia established a labora- tory kindergarten for African Americans in 1873, and by 1893, the Institute off ered a kindergarten training school and courses in child care. Th e graduates of Hampton In- stitute became the teachers at the laboratory school because, in the words of its principal, “[the] students know the children and the infl uences surrounding them. … Th eir people are proud to see them teaching. Th ey furnish what has always been a missing link be- tween me and the parents” (Pleasant, 1992). It would be worth investigating whether all laboratory schools for African Americans copied European models, as did those of most American universities, or if they refl ected some African infl uences.

A Progressive Era By the end of the 1800s, however, a nationwide reform movement had begun. Th e Progressive Movement of the late 1800s and fi rst half of the 20th century changed the course of education in both elementary and nursery schools in America. Coinciding with the political pro- gressivism in this country, this philosophy emphasized a

child-centered approach that gained advocates from both the scientifi c viewpoint (Dewey, Hall) and those of a psychoanalytic bent (Hill, Isaacs). Some of the major features of the educational progressive philosophy were:

1. We must recognize individual needs and individual diff erences in children.

2. Teachers [must be] more attentive to the needs of children.

3. Children learn best when they are highly motivated and have a genuine interest in the material.

4. Learning via rote memory is useless to children. 5. Th e teacher should be aware of the child’s total

development—social, physical, intellectual, and emotional.

6. Children learn best when they have direct contact with the material (Osborn, 1991).

Th ese beliefs were instrumental in changing the old traditional schools from a strict and subject-based cur- riculum to one that centered on children’s interests as the foundation for curriculum development. Progressives wanted educators to work on “how a school could be- come a cooperative community while developing in indi- viduals their own capacities and satisfying their own needs” (Dewey, 1916). Although Dewey (1858–1952) and others did not reject the teaching of basic skills, the shift was away from such subject matter education.

Music time at Hampton Institute kindergarten.

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18 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

Dewey John Dewey was the fi rst real American infl uence on American education. Raised in Vermont, he became a professor of philosophy at both the University of Chi- cago and Columbia University. In the years that followed, Dewey was responsible for one of the greatest impacts on American education of all time.

Dewey believed that children were valuable and that childhood was an important part of their lives. Like Froebel, he felt that education should be integrated with life and should provide a training ground for cooperative living. As did Pestalozzi and Rousseau, Dewey felt that schools should focus on the nature of the child. Until this time, children were considered of little consequence. Childhood was rushed. Children as young as seven were a regular part of the work force—on the farms, in the mines, and in the factories. Dewey’s beliefs about chil- dren and learning are summarized in Figure 1-5.

Dewey’s ideas of schooling emerged from his own childhood and his family life as a parent. Jane Dewey, his sixth child, off ered that “his own schooling had bored John; he’d disliked the rigid, passive way of learning forced on children by the pervasive lecture-recitation

method of that time” (Walker, 1997). Furthermore, the Deweys’ parenting style caused a stir among friends and neighbors; the children were allowed to play actively in the same room as adult guests, to ignore wearing shoes and stockings, and even to “stand by during the birth [of brother Morris] while Mrs. Dewey explained the pro- cess” (Walker, 1997). His passionate belief in the innate goodness of children, in the principle of mind-body unity, and in the encouragement of experimentation shaped John Dewey’s ideals.

A new kind of school emerged from these ideals. Even the buildings began to take on a diff erent look. Movable furniture replaced rows of benches. Children’s projects, some still under construction, were found everywhere. Th e curriculum of the school began to focus on all of the basics, not just on a few of the academics. If a group of six-year-olds decided to make a woodworking table, they would fi rst have to learn to read to understand the direc- tions. After calculating the cost, they would purchase the materials. In building the table, geometry, physics, and math were learned along the way. Th is was a group eff ort that encouraged children to work together in teams, so school became a society in miniature. Children’s social

My Pedagogic Creed—John Dewey What It Means Today

1. “... I believe that only true education comes through the stimulation of the child’s powers by the demands of the social situations in which he fi nds himself.”

This tells us that children learn to manage themselves in groups, to make and share friendship, to solve problems, and to cooperate.

2. “... The child’s own instinct and powers furnish the material and give the starting point for all education.”

We need to create a place that is child-centered, a place that values the skills and interests of each child and each group.

3. “... I believe that education, therefore, is a process of living and not a preparation for future living.”

Prepare children for what is to come by enriching and interpreting the present to them. Find educational implications in everyday experiences.

4. “... I believe that... the school life should grow gradually out of the home life ... it is the business of the school to deepen and extend ... the child’s sense of the values bound up in his home life.”

This sets the rationale for a relationship between teachers and parents. Values established and created in the home should be enhanced by teaching in the schools.

5. “... I believe, fi nally, that the teacher is engaged, not simply in the training of individuals, but in the formation of a proper social life. I believe that every teacher should realize the dignity of his calling.”

This says that the work teachers do is important and valuable. They teach more than academic content; they teach how to live.

Dewey’s Pedagogic Creed

FIGURE 1-5 John Dewey expressed his ideas about education in an important docu- ment entitled “My Pedagogic Creed.” (Washington, DC: The Progressive Education Association, 1897)

19CHAPTER 1 History of Early Childhood Education

skills were developed along with reading, science, and math. Th e teacher’s role in the process was one of ongoing support, involvement, and encouragement.

Th e contribution of John Dewey to American educa- tion cannot be underestimated. Dewey’s ideas are part of today’s classrooms in several ways. His child-oriented schools are a model of child care centers and family child care homes, as learning and living are inseparable. As the following sections on kindergarten and nursery schools il- lustrate, John Dewey had a vision that is still alive today.

The Field Expands: Kindergarten Th e word kindergarten—German for “children’s garden”— is a delightful term. It brings to mind the image of young seedlings on the verge of blossoming. Th e similarity be- tween caring for young plants and young children is not accidental. Froebel, the man who coined the word kinder- garten, meant for that association to be made. As a fl ower opens from a bud, so too does a child go through a natural unfolding process. Th is idea—and ideal—are part of the kindergarten story.

Th e fi rst kindergarten was a German school started by Froebel in 1837. Nearly 20 years later, in 1856, Margaretha Schurz, a student of Froebel, opened the fi rst kindergar- ten in the United States. It was for German-speaking children and held in her home in Wisconsin. Schurz in- spired Elizabeth Peabody (1804–1894) of Boston, who

opened the fi rst English-speaking kindergarten there in 1860. Peabody, in turn, after studying kindergartens in Germany, infl uenced William Harris, superintendent of schools in St. Louis, Missouri. In 1873, Harris allowed Susan Blow (1843–1916) to open the fi rst kindergarten in the United States that was associated with the public schools. By the 1880s, kindergarten teachers such as Eudora Hailmann were hard at work inventing wooden beads, paper weaving mats, and songbooks to use with ac- tive 5-year-old children.

Look at kindergarten in a historical perspective to trace the various purposes of this specialized educational experience. At fi rst, Froebel’s philosophy (see section on Froebel earlier in this chapter) was the mainstay of kin- dergarten education. At the same time, kindergartens be- gan to become an instrument of social reform. Many of the kindergartens started in the late 1800s were estab- lished by churches and other agencies that worked with the poor and were called charity kindergartens. For in- stance, “in the early kindergartens, teachers conducted a morning class for about 15 children and made social calls on families during the afternoon. Th e children were taught to address the teachers as ‘Auntie’ to emphasize her sisterly relationship with their mothers” (Hewes, 1993).

Moreover, by early 1900, traditional kindergarten ideas had come under the scrutiny of G. Stanley Hall and others who were interested in a scientifi c approach to ed- ucation. Dewey advocated a community-like (rather than

John Dewey’s lab school involved children in activities of a practical, real-life nature, such as weaving small rugs to use in the classroom.

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20 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

garden-style) classroom. A classic clash of ideals devel- oped between followers of Froebel (conservatives) and those of Dewey’s new educational viewpoint (progres- sives). For those who saw kindergartens as a social service in an era of rising social conscience, the reasons for help- ing the less fortunate were similar to the rationale that led to the creation of Head Start 60 years later.

Th e emphasis in a Froebelian kindergarten was on teacher-directed learning. Dewey’s followers preferred a more child-centered approach, with teachers serving as facilitators of children’s learning. Th is is the same ten- sion that exists today between the “back to basics” move- ment and the supporters of child-centered education. Th e progressives found fault with the “gifts” of Froebel’s curriculum. Th ose who followed Dewey believed that “real objects and real situations within the child’s own social setting” should be used (Read & Patterson, 1980). Froebel was viewed as too structured and too symbolic; Dewey was perceived as child-oriented and child- involved. Even the processes they used were diff erent. Froebel believed in allowing the unfolding of the child’s mind and learning, whereas Dewey stressed adult in- tervention in social interaction.

Th e reform of kindergarten education led to the cre- ation of the modern American kindergarten. By the 1970s, the trend was to focus on the intellectual develop- ment of the child; thus there was an emphasis on aca- demic goals for 5-year-olds. By the late 1990s, the con- cept of developmentally appropriate practices advocated a shift toward more holistic, broad planning for kinder- garten. (Today’s kindergarten programs are discussed in Chapter 2.)

Patty Smith Hill Patty Smith Hill (1868–1946) of Teacher’s College, Columbia University, was an outstanding innovator of the time and one of the Progressive Movement’s most able leaders. It was she who wrote the song “Happy Birthday,” created sets of large blocks (known as “Patty Hill blocks,” now known as hollow and unit blocks) and founded the National Association for Nursery Educa- tion (NANE). Th e largest association of early child- hood educators, it is known today as the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). Trained originally in the Froebelian tradi- tion, she worked closely with G. Stanley Hall and later with John Dewey. Th us her philosophy of classroom teaching was a blended one. She believed strongly in basing curricula and programs on the nature and needs of the children, and she was one of the major education experimenters of her day. She was:

… guided by principles of democracy and respect for individuals. She argued for freedom and initia- tive for children, as well as a curriculum relevant to children’s lives. It was she who originated large- muscle equipment and materials suitable for climb- ing and construction, a departure from the pre- scribed small-muscle activities of the Froebelians. Patty Hill also urged unifi cation of kindergarten and fi rst-grade work, but her objective was not to start 5-year-olds on fi rst grade work, as we today might readily assume. Rather, emphasis was on giv- ing six-year-olds the opportunity for independent, creative activities before embarking on the three R’s. (Cohen & Randolph, 1977)

Th ese ideas became the backbone of kindergarten practice. Moreover, Hill did not work for kindergarten alone. In fact, during the 1920s, Hill rekindled Froebel’s early ideas to promote nursery schools for children too young to attend kindergarten. Regardless of controversy within, kindergartens were still on the fringes of the edu- cational establishments as a whole. In fact, Hill (1941) herself commented that “adjustment to public-school conditions came slowly … [and] until this happy adjust- ment took place, the promotion of the self-active kinder- garten children into the grades has made it possible for the poorest and most formal fi rst-grade teacher to criti- cize and condemn the work of the best kindergarten teacher as well as the kindergarten cause, because of the wide gap that existed between kindergarten and primary ideals at that time… “

As Hill and others prevailed and made continual im- provements in teaching methods, materials, guidance, and curriculum, the interests of kindergarten and pri- mary education could be seen as more unifi ed.

Nursery Schools Establishment in America Th e very phrase “nursery school” conjures up images of a child’s nursery, of a carefully tended garden, and of a gentle place of play and growing. In fact, the name was coined to describe a place where children were nurtured (see the section later in this chapter on the McMillan sisters). Nursery schools have always been a place of “care,” for the physical needs, the intellectual stimulation, and the socio-emotional aspects of young children’s lives.

Early childhood educators took Dewey’s philosophy to heart. Th eir schools refl ected the principles of a child- centered approach, active learning, and social coopera-

21CHAPTER 1 History of Early Childhood Education

tion. By the 1920s and 1930s, early childhood education had reached a professional status in the United States. Nursery schools and day nurseries went beyond custodial health care. Th ey fostered the child’s total development. Th e children were enrolled from middle- and upper-class homes, as well as from working families. However, until the 1960s, nursery schools served few poor families.

Parent education was acknowledged as a vital func- tion of the school and led to the establishment of parent cooperative schools. Brook Farm, a utopian cooperative community in the 1840s, had “the equivalent of an on- site child care center ‘for the use of parents doing indus- trial work’ or for mothers to use ‘as a kindly relief to themselves when fatigued by the care of children’ ” (Hewes, 1993). Th e fi rst of these parent participation schools was developed in 1915 at the University of Chi- cago, where a group of faculty wives started the Chicago Cooperative Nursery School. (Chapter 2 describes the parent cooperative model in detail.)

Research centers and child development laboratories were started in many colleges and universities from about 1915 to 1930. Th ese laboratory schools were active in ex- panding the knowledge of how important a child’s early years are. As Stolz (1978) describes it, “the [preschool] movement from the beginning was integrated with the movement for child development research. Th e purpose … was to improve nursery schools, and, therefore, we brought in the people who were studying children, who were learning more about them, so we could do a better job.” It is noteworthy that professionals such as Hill, Stolz, Dowley, and others encouraged researchers to share their fi ndings with classroom teachers to integrate these discoveries into the daily programs of children.

Th ese schools followed one of two basic models. One model, patterned after the fi rst psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, in 1879, was formed to train psycholo-

gists in the systematic training of child study. Th is model adopted a scientifi c approach to the study of human be- ings, as the fi eld of psychology itself attempted to become more like the biologic sciences. Th e second approach, like the Butler School of Hampton Institute and later Spelman College, was established primarily for training teachers. Th e latter model took its infl uence almost exclusively from educational leaders. Th e nursery school laboratory schools attempted a multidisciplinary approach, blending the voices from psychology and education with those of home economics, nursing, social work, and medicine. By 1950, when Katherine Read Baker fi rst published Th e Nursery School: A Human Relationships Laboratory (now in its ninth printing and in seven languages), the emphasis of the nursery school was on understanding human behavior and then building programs, guidance techniques, and re- lationships accordingly. In her estimate,

… the nursery school is a place where young children learn as they play and as they share experiences with other children. … It is also a place where adults learn about child development and human relationships as they observe and participate in the program of the school. … Anyone working in an educational pro- gram for children, even the most experienced person, needs to be learning as well as teaching. Th e two pro- cesses, learning and teaching, are inseparable.

Lucy Sprague Mitchell Early childhood education in the United States grew out of John Dewey’s progressive movement largely because of Lucy Sprague Mitchell (1878–1967) and her contempo- raries. Raised in an environment of educational and social reform, Mitchell developed the idea of schools as com- munity centers, as well as places for children to learn to think. As Greenberg (1987) explained, Mitchell gathered together, in a democratic, cooperative venture, many tal- ented people to brainstorm, mastermind, and sponsor:

■ A remarkable Bureau of Educational Experiments ■ A school to implement and experiment with these

principles ■ A laboratory to record and analyze how and why

they function as she knew they did (and as we know they do!)

■ A teachers’ college to promote them ■ A workshop for writers of children’s literature (a

new genre—a number of currently famous authors of juvenile books attended)

■ A bulletin to disseminate it all, as well as to dissem- inate what a plethora of progressive educators were up to elsewhere, beginning in 1916!

Traditional nursery and kindergarten included circle time.

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Strongly infl uenced by John Dewey, she became a major contributor to the idea of “educational experi- ments,” that is, trying to plan with teachers the curricu- lum experiences that would then be observed and ana- lyzed “for children’s reactions to the various learning situations [and] the new teaching techniques” (Mitchell, 1951). For instance, Mitchell suggested that teachers ex- pand on what they knew of children’s “here-and-now” thinking by making

… trips with kindergarteners to see how work was done—work that was closely tied up with their per- sonal lives … the growth in thinking and attitudes of the teachers had moved far … toward the concep- tion of their role as a guide as diff erentiated from a dispenser of information.

By establishing Bank Street College of Education (and its laboratory school), Lucy Sprague Mitchell em- phasized the link between theory and practice—namely, that the education of young children and the study of how children learn are intrinsically tied together.

Abigail Eliot Th e nursery school movement was pioneered by Abigail Eliot (1892–1992). A graduate of Radcliff e College and Harvard University, Eliot had worked with the

McMillan sisters (see section in this chapter) in the slums of London. A social worker by training, she be- came interested in children and their relationships with their parents. Eliot had a lively and clear view of what good schools for children could be. She is generally credited with bringing the nursery school movement to the United States. She founded the Ruggles Street Nursery School in the Roxbury section of Boston, teaching children and providing teacher training, and served as its director from 1922 to 1952, when it was incorporated into Tufts University. Today, it is known as the Eliot-Pearson Department of Child Study.

Eliot became the fi rst woman to receive a doctoral degree from Harvard University’s Graduate School of Education and, after retiring from Tufts, moved to Cali- fornia where she helped establish Pacifi c Oaks College. In all her work, she integrated Froebel’s gifts, Montessori’s equipment, and the McMillans’ fresh air, as well as her own ideas. As she put it (Hymes, 1978):

… the new idea—was program. I had visited many day nurseries in Boston as a social worker. I can re- member them even now: dull green walls, no light colors, nothing pretty—spotlessly clean places, with rows of white-faced listless little children sitting, do- ing nothing. In the new nursery school, the children were active, alive, choosing.

Celebrating a birthday in a WPA (Works Progress Administration) nursery program, provided by the Lanham Act for women in the workforce during World War II.

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Midcentury Developments Even as the economic crisis of the Depression and the political turmoil of World War II diverted attention from children’s needs, both gave focus to adult needs for work. Out of this necessity came the Works Progress Adminis- tration (WPA) nurseries of the 1930s and the Lanham Act nurseries of the 1940s. Th e most renowned program of the midcentury was the Kaiser Child Care Centers.

Kaiser Child Care Centers During World War II, funds were provided to deal with the common situation of mothers working in war-related industries. Further support came from industry during World War II. An excellent model for child care operated from 1943 to 1945 in Portland, Oregon. It was the Kaiser Child Care Centers. Kaiser became the world’s largest such center and functioned “‘round the clock” all year long. A number of services were made available on-site. An in- fi rmary was located nearby for both mothers and children. Hot meals were made available for mothers to take home when they picked up their children. Lois Meek Stolz was the director of the centers, and James L. Hymes, Jr. was the manager. He describes the centers this way:

… Th e centers were to have three distinctive quali- ties. One, they were to be located not out in the community but right at the entrance to the two

shipyards, convenient to mothers on their way to and from work. Th ey were to be industry-based, not neighborhood-centered. Two, the centers were to be operated by the shipyards, not by the public schools and not by community agencies. Th ey were to be in- dustrial child care centers, with the cost borne by the Kaiser Company and by parents using the ser- vice. Th ree, they were to be large centers, big enough to meet the need. In the original plan, each center was to serve a thousand preschool children on three shifts. (Hymes, 1978)

Th ese centers served 3,811 children. As Hymes points out, they provided 249,268 child care days and freed 1,931,827 woman work-hours.

Once the war had ended, though, the workers left. Child care was no longer needed, and the centers closed. Th e Kaiser experience has never been equaled, either in the universal quality of care or in the variety of services. However, it left us a legacy, which Hymes has stressed ever since (in Dickerson, 1992): “It is no great trick to have an excellent child care program. It only requires a lot of money with most of it spent on trained staff .”

Th e model Kaiser Child Care Centers provided for child care remains exemplary.

Equality in Education As early as the beginning of the 20th century, the United States Supreme Court upheld laws concerning “the core of the Jim Crow system, the public schools in which white and black children fi rst experienced the reality of segregation … Jim Crow schools—which taught their students only those skills needed for agricultural work and domestic service—fi t the needs of the whole econ- omy and society” (Irons, 2004). Th e term itself comes from a character in a late 1880s minstrel show and refers to the complete system of segregation.

World War I played an important role in moving large numbers of blacks from the rural South to the cit- ies of the North and West, beginning what has been called the Great Migration. By 1930, the reported liter- acy rate for blacks had doubled from 1900 to just over 80 percent, but “the educational status of blacks in the Jim Crow states remained abysmally low in 1950” (Irons, 2004). Th e Depression was a particularly diffi cult time for African Americans, as the living standards for those Americans in poverty plummeted. Roosevelt’s adminis- tration and the emerging industrial union movement gave impetus to blacks looking for both employment and political change. World War II continued the process of transformation for many adults, but for children, the sit-

Kaiser Shipyard operated a model child care center dur- ing World War II.

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uation was still bleak. Th e stage for another legal chal- lenge to segregation was set. As Weinberg (1977) states, “Midcentury marked a turning point in the history of black America. Th e movement for equality came under black leadership, embraced unprecedented numbers of Negroes, and became national in scope. A persistent black initiative forced a reformulation of public policies in education.”

Th e attack against the segregation system had begun. As seen in the historic cases of McLaurin v Oklahoma (1950) and Brown v Board of Education of Topeka (1954) the concept of “separate but equal” was overturned. Fur- thermore, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 continued to ad- dress the struggle for equality of opportunity and educa- tion, one that persists today in our schools and society (see “Ethic of Social Reform” later in this Chapter).

“Free School” A. S. Neill (1883–1973) was the most famous propo- nent of the “free/natural school” movement of the mid- century. His book Summerhill describes 40 years of that educational program, of which he was headmaster. Neill claimed that most education was defective because it arose from the model of original sin. Assuming children were inherently evil caused educators to force children into doing what was contrary to their nature. Neill shared Rousseau’s belief in noninterference, as he states, “I believe that a child is innately wise and realistic. If left to himself without adult suggestion of any kind, he will develop as far as he is capable of developing” (1960).

Neill’s belief in freedom was practiced in his school, where children governed themselves and worked toward equal rights with adults. Th e benefi ts from such liberties were touted as highly therapeutic and natural, an escape from repression and guilt. Several infl uences are clear in these educational programs: Rousseau’s belief in the child’s innate goodness, Freud’s idea of the dangerous eff ects of guilt, and some of the social idealism of Dewey and the Progressives.

Head Start After the war, few innovations took place until a small piece of metal made its worldwide debut. Sputnik, the Soviet satellite, was successfully launched in 1957 and caused an upheaval in educational circles. Two questions were uppermost in the minds of most Americans: Why were we not fi rst in space? What is wrong with our schools? Th e emphasis in education quickly settled on engineering, science, and math in the hope of catching up with Soviet technology.

Th e civil rights struggle in the early 1960s soon fol- lowed. In pointing out the plight of the poor, education was highlighted as a major stumbling block toward equality of all people. It was time to act, and Project Head Start was conceived as education’s place to fi ght the “war on poverty.” Th e same goals of Froebel and Montessori formed the basis of Head Start: helping dis- advantaged preschool children. Th is was a revolution in American education, not seen since the short-lived child care programs during World War II. Th is project was the fi rst large-scale eff ort by the government to focus on children of poverty.

Project Head Start began in 1965 as a demonstra- tion program aimed at providing educational, social, medical, dental, nutritional, and mental health services to preschool children from a diverse population of low- income families. In 1972, it was transformed into a pre- dominantly part-day, full-year program. Key features in- cluded off ering health services, small groups, parent-teacher collaboration, and the thrill of communi- ties getting involved with children in new ways. Osborn (1965) tells us:

I wish I knew how to tell this part of the story ... the bus driver in West Virginia who took time off from his regular job and went to the Center to have juice and crackers with “his” children because they asked him to. … Th e farmer who lived near an In- dian Reservation and who each morning saddled his horse, forded a river and picked up an Indian child—who would not have attended a Center oth- erwise … they represent the true fl avor of Head Start.

Head Start is the largest publicly funded education pro- gram for young children in the United States.

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Over the years, Head Start has provided comprehensive developmental services to more than 10 million children and their families.

Th is was an exciting time, a national recognition of the needs of young children and a hope for a better qual- ity of life. Head Start was an attempt to make amends, to compensate poor children by preparing them for school and educational experiences. Parents, who were required to participate at all levels, were educated along with their children. Th e purpose of the community- based governing boards was to allow the program to re- fl ect local values and concerns. Concurrently, underprivi- leged, poor people were being encouraged to take part in solving some of their own problems.

Th e spirit of Head Start was infectious. As a result of community interest in Head Start, there was a burst of enthusiasm for many programs for the young child. Th anks to Head Start, there is national attention to the need for providing good care and educational experi- ences for young children. Th e Head Start program is recognized as an eff ective means of providing compre- hensive services to children and families, serving as a model for the development of the ABC Child Care Act. (Th e program is discussed in Chapter 2.)

Early Child Care for the Very Young Some people say we are in the midst of a second child care revolution for young children, as two parents, single par- ents, and step-parents all leave the home to work in greater numbers than ever before. Parents must rely on educators to teach their children from a very young age, including infants. While many European industrialized nations have addressed these issues, the United States has not com- pletely faced this reality or risen to the challenge.

Th e American public is unclear about what is the best way to raise our very young children, especially those under age 3. Women, by and large, are working outside of the home and are not available around the clock to care for infants and toddlers; men are not, by and large, electing to stay home or raise their children full time. Th ere are not nearly enough properly funded centers or family child care homes for very small chil- dren, and the patchwork system of parents, extended family, and neighborhood adults fragments the care.

We need to look carefully at child care for infants and toddlers, questioning the relationship between child care and children’s development. Th e women’s movement of the 20th century brought attention to deeply held beliefs about child-rearing and early education practices. Th en, when America was mobilized around World War II, chil-

dren’s care was addressed so as to enable mothers to work while fathers were in the armed forces. During the last 35 years, both parents have once again focused on work out- side the home. Care for children by extended family, fam- ily child care homes, and centers is on the rise.

Interdisciplinary Infl uences Several professions enrich the heritage of early child- hood. Th is diversity was apparent from the beginning as the fi rst nursery schools drew from six diff erent profes- sions: social work, home economics, nursing, psychology, education, and medicine. Th ree of the most consistent and infl uential of those disciplines were medicine, educa- tion, and child psychology.

Medicine Th e medical fi eld has contributed to the study of child growth through the work of several physicians. Th ese doctors became interested in child development and ex- tended their knowledge to the areas of child rearing and education.

Maria Montessori Maria Montessori (1870–1952) was the fi rst woman in Italy ever granted a medical degree. She began studying children’s diseases and, through her work with mentally defective children, found education more appealing. (Her philosophy is discussed earlier in this chapter and will be part of the Chapter 10 curriculum models.)

Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) made important contri- butions to all modern thinking. Th e father of person- ality theory, he drastically changed how we look at childhood. Freud reinforced two specifi c ideas: 1. a person is infl uenced by his early life in fundamental and dramatic ways, and 2. early experiences shape the way people live and behave as adults. Th us psychoana- lytic theory is mostly about personality development and emotional problems. Freud’s work set into motion one of the three major strands of psychological theory that infl uence the developmental and learning theories of early childhood today. Th ough he was not involved directly in education, Freud and psychoanalytic theory infl uenced education greatly. (Chapter 4 will expand

26 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

on the theory and its application in early childhood education.)

Arnold Gesell Arnold Gesell (1880–1961) was a physician who was concerned with growth from a medical point of view. Gesell began studying child development when he was a student of G. Stanley Hall, an early advocate of child study. He later established the Clinic of Child Develop- ment at Yale University, where the data he collected with his colleagues became the basis of the recognized norms of how children grow and develop. He was also instru- mental in encouraging Abigail Eliot to study with the McMillan sisters in England.

Gesell’s greatest contribution was in the area of child growth. He saw maturation as an innate and powerful force in development. “Th e total plan of growth,” he said, “is beyond your control. It is too complex and mysterious to be altogether entrusted to human hands. So nature takes over most of the task, and simply invites your as- sistance” (Gesell, Ames, & Ilg, 1977).

Th rough the Gesell Institute, guides were published using this theory. With such experts as Dr. Frances Ilg and Dr. Louise Bates Ames, Gesell wrote articles that realisti- cally portrayed the child’s growth from birth to adolescence. Th ese guides have sharp critics regarding their overuse and inappropriate application to children of cultures other than those studied. Moreover, their approach can be limiting, particularly as we think of developmentally appropriate practices and the importance of both individual variation and family and cultural diversity. Still, the “ages and stages” material (described in the Word Pictures of Chapter 3) is used widely as a yardstick of normal development. (Gesell’s maturation theory is discussed in Chapter 4.)

Benjamin Spock Benjamin Spock’s book Baby and Child Care was a main- stay for parents in the 1940s and 1950s. In a detailed “how-to” format, Dr. Spock (1903–1998) preached a common-sense approach that helped shape the child- hood of many of today’s adults. By his death in 1998, the book had sold almost 50 million copies around the world and had been translated into 42 languages.

Spock saw himself as giving practical application to the theories of John Dewey (see this chapter) and Sigmund Freud (see Chapters 1 and 4), particularly in the ideas that children can learn to direct themselves, rather than needing to be constantly disciplined.

Spock suggested that mothers use the playpen less and allow children freedom to explore the world fi rst- hand. To that end, he asked parents to “child proof ” their homes—a radical thought at the time. Th e word permis- siveness, as it relates to child-rearing, became associated with Dr. Spock’s methods, although Spock himself de- scribed his advice as relaxed and sensible, while still ad- vocating for fi rm parental leadership.

Dr. Spock became an outspoken advocate for causes that extended his ideas. He was an active critic of those forces—economic, social, or political—which destroy healthy development. Dr. Spock noted:

Child care and home care, if well done, can be more creative, make a greater contribution to the world, [and] bring more pleasure to family members, than 9 out of 10 outside jobs. It is only our mixed-up, materialistic values that make so many of us think the other way around (1976).

T. Berry Brazelton Dr. T Berry Brazelton (1918– ) is a well-known pedia- trician who supports and understands the development of infants and toddlers. He developed an evaluation tool called the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (the NBAS is also known as “the Brazelton”) to assess new- borns. Co-founder of the Children’s Hospital Unit in Boston, professor emeritus of pediatrics at Harvard Medical School, and a former president of the Society for Research in Child Development, he is also a well- known author. His pediatric guides for parents deal with

DAP One of the tenets of DAP is developing reciprocal relationships with families so that educators can better understand children’s ages and stages in the context of their home, community, and cultural dimensions.

Medical doctors such as Benjamin Spock have contrib- uted to early care and education in signifi cant ways.

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both physical and emotional growth. His writings speak to the parents’ role in child-raising, such as setting limits, listening to what children say, and observing what they do, as in the following discussion:

I think many working parents have a very tough time thinking about limits. Th ey fi nd it diffi cult to say no, to set behavior standards. … Parents tell me, “I can’t stand to be away all day and then come home and be the disciplinarian.” We have to realize how hard it is for parents to discipline these days. Th ey need a lot of reinforcement to understand how important reasonable discipline is to the child. Teachers can be very important here, helping par- ents see the need to expect more adequate behavior (2001).

More recently, Brazelton has advocated a national parental leave standard and is involved in a federal lobby- ing group known as “Parent Action.” He is also a popular TV personality, hosting the nationally syndicated show, What Every Baby Knows. He is co-founder of Touch- points, an educational training center helping profession- als engage and communicate with parents and their in- fants or toddlers.

Education Early childhood is one part of the larger professional fi eld known as education. Th is includes elementary, sec- ondary, and college or postsecondary schools. Along with John Dewey and Abigail Eliot, several other infl u- ences from this fi eld bear attention.

The McMillan Sisters In the fi rst three decades of this century, these two sisters pioneered in early education. Nursery schools in Britain and America probably were developed because of the drive and dedication of the McMillan sisters.

Both women had broad international backgrounds. Th ey grew up in North America and Scotland. Margaret studied music and language in Europe. She was well read in philosophy, politics, and medicine. Rachel studied to become a health inspector in England.

Health studies of 1908 to 1910 showed that 80 per- cent of children were born in good health, but by the time they entered school, only 20 percent could be clas- sifi ed that way. Noticing the deplorable conditions for children under age 5, the McMillan sisters began a cru- sade for the slum children in England. Th eir concern ex- tended beyond education to medical and dental care for young children. In 1910, they set up a clinic in Deptford,

a London slum area, which became an open-air nursery a year later. Th e McMillans called it a “nurture school.” Later, a training college nearby was named for Rachel. With no private fi nancial resources, these two women faced tremendous hardships in keeping their school open. It is to their credit that Deptford still exists today.

Th e McMillans’ theory of fresh air, sleep, and bathing proved successful. “When over seven hundred children between one and fi ve died of measles, there was not one fatal case at Deptford School” (Deasey, 1978). From the school’s inception, a primary function was to research the eff ects of poverty on children.

Of the two sisters, Margaret had the greatest infl u- ence at the school at Deptford. After Rachel died in 1917, Margaret continued to champion early education issues beyond Deptford. “Her clinics, night camps, camp school, baby camp, open-air nursery school, and training college all refl ected her conviction that health was the handmaiden of education” (Bradburn, 2000). Abigail Eliot writes of her:

Miss McMillan invented the name [nursery school]. She paid great attention to health: a daily inspec-

Margaret McMillan, along with her sister Rachel, devel- oped the “open-air” nursery school and training schools in England.

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tion, the outdoor program, play, good food—what she called “nurture.” But she saw that an educational problem was also involved and she set to work to es- tablish her own method of education for young children. Th is was why she called it a “school” (Hymes, 1978).

Susan Isaacs Susan Isaacs (1885–1948) was an educator of the early 20th century whose infl uence on nursery and progressive schools of the day was substantial. In 1929, she pub- lished Th e Nursery Years, which emphasized a diff erent point of view than that of the behaviorist psychologists of the times. She interpreted Freudian theory for teach- ers and provided guidance for how schools could apply this new knowledge of the unconscious to the education of children. She proposed:

… the opportunity for free unhindered imaginative play not only as a means to discover the world but also as a way to reach the psychic equilibrium, in working through wishes, fears, and fantasies so as to integrate them into a living personality (Biber, 1984).

Th e teacher’s role was diff erent from that of a thera- pist, she asserted, in that teachers were “to attract mainly the forces of love, to be the good but regulating parent, to give opportunity to express aggression but in modifi ed form, and not to attract herself to the negative explosive reactions of hatred and oppression” (Biber, 1984).

Isaacs’s infl uence is felt today in schools whose phi- losophy emphasizes the child’s point of view and the no- tion of play as the child’s work.

The Child Study Movement A survey of education infl uences is incomplete without mentioning the Child Study Movement in the United States beginning in the 1920s. It was through this move- ment that education and psychology began to have a common focus on children. Besides the Gesell Institute, many research centers and child development laborato- ries were established at colleges and universities around the country. Th e Merrill-Palmer Institute, for example, began in 1920 as a school to serve Detroit, Michigan’s urban children and later served as a model for the Head Start Program; in addition, it sponsored research and training about children and families. Th ese laboratory schools (discussed further in Chapter 2) refl ect the in- terest of several disciplines in the growth of the young child. Schools of psychology looked for children to ob- serve and study; schools of education wanted demon-

stration schools for their teachers-in-training and for student-teacher placement. Schools of home economics wanted their students to have fi rsthand experiences with children. Schools of education hoped to develop leader- ship from among its teaching and research staff (Harms & Tracy, 2006). Th ese on-campus schools provided a place to gather information about child development, psychology, and educational innovation.

Th is period of educational experiments and child study led to an impressive collection of normative data by which we still measure ranges of ordinary develop- ment. Broman (1978) sums up the infl uence of the movement this way:

From the beginning of the child study movement in the 1920s . . . early childhood was not a major em- phasis in education until after the War on Poverty and the establishment of Head Start in 1965. Th e child study movement, however, was the impetus that began the search for the most appropriate means of educating young children.

The British Infant Schools Developed by Robert Owen in the early 19th century, the British infant schools had a strong commitment to social reform. Owen was a self-made businessman whose philosophy extended to the creation of an ideal commu-

The history of early childhood education includes contri- butions from many ethnic groups. San Francisco’s Golden Gate Kindergarten Association has provided nursery edu- cation for the city’s various neighborhoods from the turn of the century to the present.

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nity. Like Rousseau, he believed that people were natu- rally good but were corrupted by harsh environment and poor treatment. He took his ideas to the British House of Commons, speaking against the common practice of child labor. He then was invited to take over the building of a school in New Lanark, a 2000-person community near several textile mills. Once there, he stopped employ- ment of children under ten, sent younger children to nursery and infant schools he built, and required the mills to allow secondary-age children to reduce their la- bor time to go to school. His son and a daughter immi- grated to the United States and founded the community of New Harmony. Both utopian communities were built on Owen’s ideas of a new social order built on experi- mentation and reform.

In England, the term infant school refers to the kin- dergarten and primary grades. In 1967, the Plowden Report proposed a series of reforms for the schools. Th ese changes paralleled those of Owen and mainstream American early education. Th ree aspects of this open school style that received the most attention were:

1. Vertical (or mixed age) groupings. Children from 5 to 8 years of age are placed in the same classroom. Several teachers may combine their classes and work together in teaching teams. Children may be taught by the same teachers for two or three years.

2. Integrated day. Th e classroom is organized into var- ious centers for math, science, and the arts. Th e teacher moves from one child or center to another as needed. Play is often the central activity, with an emphasis on follow-through with children’s ideas and interests as they arise.

3. Thinking over facts. There is an underlying con- cept that the process of thinking takes precedence over the accumulation of facts. Learning how to think rather than stockpiling data is encouraged. How to identify and solve problems is valued more than having a finished product. Teachers fo- cus on the child’s current learning rather than on the future.

Just as Owen’s ideas took hold in America in the 19th century, so, too, did the 20th century version of the in- fant school fi re the imaginations of teachers in the United States. Th eir tenets of open education are devel- opmentally appropriate for both preschool and primary schools.

Reggio Emilia In the last part of this century, yet another educator and educational system have infl uenced early childhood

thinking. Loris Malaguzzi (1920–1994) developed his theory of early childhood education from his work with infants, toddlers, and preschoolers while working as the founder and Director of Early Education in the town of Reggio Emilia, Italy. His philosophy includes creating “an amiable school” (Malaguzzi, 1993) that welcomes families and the community and invites relationships among teachers, children, and parents to intensify and deepen to strengthen a child’s sense of identity. Malaguzzi continually asked teachers to question their own prac- tices and listen to the children, as we can hear in his let- ter (Gandini, 1994) excerpted below:

My thesis is that if we do not learn to listen to chil- dren, it will be diffi cult to learn the art of staying and conversing with them. … It will also be diffi cult, perhaps impossible, to understand how and why children think and speak; to understand what they do, ask, plan, theorize or desire. … Furthermore, what are the consequences of not listening? … We adults lose the capacity to marvel, to be surprised, to refl ect, to be merry, and to take pleasure in chil- dren’s words and actions.

Reggio Emilia has attracted the attention and inter- est of American educators because of its respect for chil- dren’s work and creativity, its project approach, and its total community support. (Reggio Emilia serves as a model of early childhood curriculum in Chapters 2, 9, and 10.)

Psychology Th e roots of early childhood education are wonderfully diverse, but one taproot is especially deep: the connec- tion with the fi eld of psychology. In this century particu- larly, the study of people and their behavior is linked with the study of children and their growth.

Initially, child development was mostly confi ned to the study of trends and descriptions of changes. Th en, the scope and defi nition of child development began to change. Psychodynamic theories of Freud and Erikson were contrasted by Behaviorist theories of Watson and Skinner and by the Cognitive theories of Piaget and Vygotsky. Bowlby and Ainsworth studied attachment, Kohlberg and Eisenberg moral development, and Maccoby and Gilligan gender diff erences.

Developmental psychologists now study the pro- cesses associated with those changes. Specifi cally, child development focuses on language acquisition, the eff ect of early experiences on intellectual development, and the process of attachment to others. Most recently, so-

30 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

cial learning and self-effi cacy along with brain-based re- search are included to describe these important infl u- ences in early education. Such is the world of early childhood—it is no wonder that we are so closely tied to the world of psychology. (Th is is discussed in depth in Chapter 4.)

Themes in Early Childhood Education When we review the colorful and rich history of early childhood education, four major themes emerge. Each is refl ected in the ensuing thought and theory of each age.

Ethic of Social Reform Th e fi rst theme, the ethic of social reform, expects that schooling for young children will lead to social change and improvement. Maria Montessori, Robert Owen, the McMillans, Patty Smith Hill, Abigail Eliot, and the Head Start program all tried to improve children’s health and physical well-being by attending fi rst to the physical and social welfare aspects of children’s lives. Other more re- cent examples, including Marian Wright Edelman, Louise Derman Sparks, Robert Coles, and Jonathan Kozol, illustrate how important this theme is to our work.

Marian Wright Edelman is an outstanding children’s advocate. A graduate of Spelman College and Yale Law School, Edelman began her career as a civil rights lawyer (the fi rst black woman to be admitted to the Mississippi state bar). By the 1960s she had dedicated herself to the battle against poverty, moving to Washington, D.C., and founding a public interest law fi rm that eventually be- came the Children’s Defense Fund (CDF). CDF has be- come the United States’ strongest voice for children and families (see Figure 1-6).

Th e author of several books, including Families in Peril, Th e Measure of Our Success, and Th e Sea Is So Wide and My Boat Is So Small, Edelman advocates for equity in social reform:

[We] seek to ensure that no child is left behind and that every child has a Healthy Start, a Head Start, a Fair Start, a Safe Start, and a Moral Start in life with the support of caring families and communi- ties (Edelman, 2006).

Th is reform work is being carried on by her son, Jonah, who now organizes the annual Washington, D.C., rally “Stand for Children.”

Louise Derman Sparks, in collaboration with Betty Jones and the Anti-Bias Task Force of Pacifi c Oaks and Julia Olsten Edwards of Cabrillo College, has published several books and countless articles about anti-bias edu- cation. Th ese works outline several areas in which chil- dren’s behavior is infl uenced by biases in our society and suggests a host of ways that teachers (and parents) can begin addressing these issues. Th ese professionals have added an important dimension to the notion of social re- form, for they focus our attention on ourselves, the school environment, children’s interactions, and the community of parents and colleagues in educational settings. DAPDAP

CDF: Child Advocacy as Social Reform

1975 Assisted in passing the Education for All Handicapped Children Act

1979 Blocked attempts to eliminate $200 million for Social Services

1980 Supported Adoption Assistance & Child Welfare Act

1982 Helped forward the Children’s Mental Health Program

1990 Supported Act for Better Child Care (Child Care & Development Block Grant)

1994 Reauthorized Head Start with Quality Improvements

1997 Promoted Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP)

2001 Expanded Child Care Tax Credit 2002 Food Stamp provisions preserved 2003 Preserved CHIP funding to all states 2007 Evaluation of the CDF freedom schools,

summer enrichment programs, fi nd that children score higher on standardized reading achievement tests.

2008 Published its annual State of America’s Children, reporting that it lags behind nearly all industrialized nations in key child indicators.

FIGURE 1-6 Children’s Defense Fund, led by Marian Wright Edelman, has successfully advocated for chil- dren with research and persistence for more than three decades.

DAP In planning appropriate curriculum for young children, teachers must make a comprehensive effort to plan for children’s devel- opment and learning, including integrating cultural awareness and the effects of bias into their daily practices.

31CHAPTER 1 History of Early Childhood Education

Finally, social reform in the last 20 years has been championed by educators and citizens beyond early childhood education. Robert Coles, a psychiatrist and educator, has written and lectured extensively about his observations and work with children of poverty and is best known for Children of Crisis: A Study of Courage and Fear (1971). Jonathan Kozol has spoken extensively about segregation in the schools, most notably in his books Letters to a Young Teacher (2007) and Savage In- equalities: Children in America’s Schools (1991), in which he writes:

Surely there is enough for everyone in this country. It is a tragedy that these good things are not more widely shared. All our children ought to be allowed a stake in the enormous richness of America. Whether they were born to poor white Appala- chians or to wealthy Texans, to poor black people in the Bronx or to rich people in Manhasset or Win- netka, they are all quite wonderful and innocent when they are small. We soil them needlessly.

A challenge of our profession is to create funding mechanisms to provide early educational experience for all children regardless of family income. Founded in 1948, the Annie E. Casey Foundation, one of the larg- est private foundations in the United States, is based on helping vulnerable kids and families succeed. Educa- tors today still assert that tired, undernourished chil- dren are not ready to learn or to be educated. Social re- form can go a step further, such as with Universal Preschool (see Chapter 15), improving access to quality early childhood programs and involving the commu- nity in its eff orts.

Importance of Childhood Th e second theme is the importance and uniqueness of childhood. In fact, the entire notion of the impor- tance of childhood rests on the concept of the child as a special part of human existence and, therefore, a valu- able part of the life cycle. Before 1700 or so, Western society showed little concern for children. Infanticide was pervasive, if not actually accepted. Once families and society began to value children, life changed dra- matically for the young.

Th e saying “As the twig is bent, so grows the tree” could apply to all children and their early childhood learning experiences, as well as to an individual child. When people accepted the importance of childhood, they began to take responsibility for a quality life for children. From Comenius, Rousseau, and Froebel of earlier centu-

ries to Neill, Russell, and the Child Study Movement of the 1900s, society began to provide for the health and physical welfare of children and come to understand the necessity to care for their minds. Refl ecting on public thinking about childhood over the last four centuries re- veals these patterns (Mintz, 2004):

■ pre modern childhood (through 17th century)— children as adults in training

■ modern childhood (18th–20th centuries)— children as innocent and fragile creatures

■ post modern childhood (late 20th to 21st centuries)— children as participants/consumers of culture and the common life

We believe the early years form the foundation for later development, physically, intellectually, socially, and emotionally. Th is viewpoint takes a holistic approach; that is, all developmental areas of a child matter and blend together to form a complete child. Teachers may “sort out” the various aspects of development to con- centrate their focus. (Chapter 4 elaborates on develop- mental issues.) For instance, a teacher may profi le the child’s motor skills or level of language development.

Childhood is a special time of life.

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Even so, we must take into account the whole child, for each part infl uences the whole. A current trend in our fi eld to address the preservation of childhood is NAEYC ’s developmentally appropriate practices (DAP) and accompanying Program Accreditation movement. (Chapters 2 and 9 expand on DAP and Program Quality.)

Moreover, we must take the child in context. Chil- dren come to us with a genetic history and from, as Gonzalez Mena (2001) states, “a family that is part of a racial, ethnic, cultural, language, and socioeconomic group. We welcome not only the individual child into our classroom but also his or her family.” (Chapter 8 de- velops this aspect further.)

Believing that childhood is a special time of life brings with it a commitment to honor what children do during this time. Childhood has always been a biological phase of human development, but “the ways in which childhood and adolescence are conceptualized and expe- rienced are social and cultural constructions that have changed dramatically over time (Mintz, 2004). For ex- ample, we now believe that play is essential to children’s development (see Chapters 3. 9, and 10), but this impor- tance is not widely understood.

One trend that is of increasing concern to childhood advocates is the “pushing” of children toward adulthood too fast and away from childhood too quickly (see Chap- ters 12, 13, and 15 for a discussion of this trend). David Elkind wrote in the 1980s of a “hurried child” syndrome, in which children were pushed unnecessarily out of a re- laxed childhood by a fast-paced society whose pressure to succeed and move fast put children of all ages at risk. As he emphasized (1982):

We should appreciate the value of childhood with its special joys, sorrows, worries, and concerns. Valuing childhood does not mean seeing it as a happy, innocent period but rather as an important period of life to which children are entitled. Th ey have a right to be children, to enjoy the pleasures and to suff er the trials of childhood that are in- fringed upon by hurrying. Childhood is the most basic human right of children.

Children need special attention during these years. Childhood is fundamentally diff erent from adulthood; it needs to be understood and respected as such. Children’s styles of learning, of letting the child “learn by doing” and “learn by discovery,” are part of the essential respect for children and childhood. Public recognition of that need has created a wealth of programs for the young not dreamed of at any other time in history.

Transmitting Values Th e third recurrent theme in our educational heritage is that of transmitting values. What children should ulti- mately do and be is at the core of all child-rearing practices, whether in the home or the school. Values—whether so- cial, cultural, moral, or religious—have been the essence of education for centuries. For example, the Puritan fathers valued biblical theology. Th erefore, schools of their time taught children to read in order to learn the Bible. Rousseau and Froebel valued childhood, so they created special places for children to express their innate goodness and uniqueness. Th e works of Montessori, Dewey, and Steiner refl ected a belief in the worth and dignity of childhood. Th ey transmitted these values into the educational prac- tices we have inherited. Finally, the initiators of Head Start (see Chapter 2) and the Anti-Bias Curriculum (see Chapter 9) realized that the child’s self-worth would be enhanced by valuing one’s culture or origin. Awareness and appreciation of ethnic heritage are becoming a inte- gral parts of the early childhood curriculum.

Many issues clamor for our attention. We live in a world of information overload and are barraged con- stantly by diff erent social, political, economic, and media issues. Especially in the United States, where advertising and consumerism reign, we get distracted and have diffi - culty focusing on our values. “People are so overwhelmed,” wrote Brazelton and Greenspan (2001). “While they’re whirling around, they don’t have time to stop and think, ‘What are my values? Do my children really come fi rst? Am I making time for them in my life?’” Many young families today are aware of this situation and are looking for spiritual and moral direction for themselves and their

Early educational experiences transmit society’s values to children.

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children. Look at “What do you think?” for an outline of issues that indicate priority areas.

We know that children learn what they live. Valuing and connecting home cultural knowledge with an early childhood program is challenging. Successful teaching practices must refl ect teaching practices at home in sub- stantial ways; blending basic life skills, ethics, culture, and traditions builds substance in our children and in our soci- ety. Th is teamwork is possible if (and this is a big if ) adults can fi nd a way to honor diversity and still form a cohesive culture. “An ability to reach unity in diversity will be the beauty and test of our civilization,” said Mahatma Gandhi. It is our ethical responsibility to articulate our values as ed- ucators and to include those of the families we teach.

Teaching children to live in a democratic society has always been valued in the United States. In the curricu- lum from early education through college, this belief is refl ected as we educate our children for citizenship. Be- ing an early childhood educator provides you with the opportunity to be an agent for social change—to actually translate the values of democracy into practice. Valuing and connecting home cultural knowledge with a pro- gram is a challenge that brings together the adults critical to a child’s development (Riojas-Cortz 2003). Successful teaching practices include the process of defi ning our values and working on how we teach them; both are the critical issues in education.

Professionalism Th e fourth recurrent theme is professionalism. “If you are thinking about working with young children as a ca- reer, perhaps you are wondering how early childhood

education compares in prestige and importance with el- ementary or secondary education,” wrote Stanford’s Edith Dowley (1985). As one of the original head teachers of the Kaiser Child Care Centers, Dowley had seen many changes in her nearly half-century in the fi eld: “Is it truly a profession for growth and change? Can a student preparing to work with young children today look forward to a challenging, intellectually stim- ulating, and rewarding future in an early childhood profession?”

If you have read this chapter, then you already know the answer. Th e early years are a special time of life, and those who work with young children can openly declare their calling. Th ere are four aspects of this sense of professionalism:

■ Sense of identity. Early childhood professionals see themselves as caregivers who strive to educate the whole child, taking into consideration the body, the mind, and the heart and soul. (Chapter 3 explains this holistic focus.)

■ Purpose to engage in developmentally appropriate practices (DAP). What constitutes quality care and education calls for blending three knowledge bases:

1. Child development and learning. 2. Th e strengths, interests, and needs of each child. 3. Th e social and cultural contexts in which chil-

dren live.

(You will see DAP icons and comments through- out the text; Chapter 2 further defi nes it, and Chapters 9 through 14 demonstrate how to teach in this way.)

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Teaching as a Profession: An Early Childhood Teacher’s Responsibilities and Development”. After you study the video clip, view the artifacts, and read the teacher interviews and text, refl ect upon the following questions:

1. How does pre-school teacher Samantha Brade show her sense of the importance of early child- hood education, and what values is she trying to transmit?

2. How does Samantha demonstrate professional- ism, and why should this inform one’s teaching?

TeachSource Video

❙ ❙

What are your values for young children? What do you think are priorities in your program? Compare your list with this one, by

Brazelton and Greenspan (2001).

1. Ongoing nurturing relationships 2. Physical protection, safety, and regulation 3. Experiences tailored to individual differences 4. Developmentally appropriate experiences 5. Limit-setting, structure, and expectations 6. Stable, supportive communities and cultural

continuity

What Do

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34 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

■ Commitment to ethical teaching and to child advocacy. Being a professional means behaving with a child’s best interests in mind, keeping confi dentiality when discussing issues in the classroom and about fami- lies, upholding a code of ethics, and taking them- selves and their work seriously. (Chapter 5 elabo- rates on a teacher’s role and includes our Code of Ethical Conduct.)

■ Participation in the work as a legitimate livelihood. Early childhood education is more than glorifi ed babysitting; the people who provide care and educa- tion to young children deserve wages and working conditions that are worthy of their eff orts. Th e Cen- ter for the Study of Child Care Employment, led by Marcy Whitebook and others, is attempting to both defi ne and highlight the issues of labor and employ- ment of early childhood workers as a profession. (Chapter 15 underscores the importance of com- pensation and working conditions.)

“In the last decade and a half, the boundaries of the profession have changed rather dramatically for teachers. As we have become a more complex and diverse society, the roles traditionally ascribed to teachers have taken new meaning and signifi cance. In the case of teachers of young children, their role has expanded to encompass many, heretofore, duties and responsibilities that were often considered to be part of the home” (Cruz, 2008). Th e challenges we face in meeting our professional obli- gations are considerable. Cruz continues:

Aside from the traditional roles that teachers have assumed, they are now expected to serve as curricu-

lum specialists, diagnosticians, health care providers, family counselors, adult educators, program manag- ers, child development experts, child advocates, mental health specialists, nutrition specialists, and many others too numerous to list. At the same time, the teaching profession is confronting new notions of pedagogy and more intense scrutiny by profes- sional groups. With the focus on standards, readi- ness initiatives, assessment, and other forms of ac- countability, the fi eld of early education is truly being reinvented.

So where do we go from here? We have professional organizations to guide us. Th e National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) is the larg- est, best known organization. Two others are the Asso- ciation for Childhood Education International (ACEI) and Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD). Th e Children’s Defense Fund (CDF) advocates for chil- dren, particularly addressing the needs of poor and mi- nority children and those with disabilities. Th ese organi- zations have made improvements in the status of children, and they have begun to outline standards and practices for the people who call themselves “early childhood pro- fessionals.” (See Figure 1-7.)

Th ese four aspects—an ethic of social reform, the importance of childhood, the transmission of values, and professionalism of the fi eld—have been have been at the center of early education for centuries. Occasionally one theme dominates, as it did in the 1960s when the desire for social reform led to the creation of Head Start. At other times, they seem indistinguishable from one an- other. Together, they have shaped the direction of early

Document Goal Source/Access

Code of Ethical Conduct Provide a moral compass for early childhood educators

Feeney & Freeman (1999) Appendix A

Developmentally Appropriate Practices

Provide guidance about current understandings, values, and goals for working with children in group settings

Bredekamp & Copple (1998) Chapters 2 and 9

Program Accreditation Criteria & Procedures

Establish recommended standards for practice, serving as benchmarks

NAEYC Academy (2006) Chapters 2 and 15

Early Childhood Guidelines for teacher education Hyson (2003)

Professional Preparation Advancing careers in child development Sharpe (2002)

Guides to the Early Childhood Profession

FIGURE 1-7 Documents that promote professionalism in early childhood education.

35CHAPTER 1 History of Early Childhood Education

childhood education as we know it today. As we learn more about children, society, and ourselves, the 21st century will be a time to reconsider and redefi ne our aims and directions. It is a formidable challenge—and a

worthy one. “Ours is a profession that is constantly grow- ing,” reminds Dowley, “branching out in many directions and ready to meet emerging challenges in fl exible, inno- vative ways.”

Insights from the fi eld

The fi eld of Early Child Education eagerly awaits, with hopeful expectation, your special contribution. “What could I possibly have to off er?” you ask. Your own history, or life story, is your greatest asset. Tucked away in your own early years are special experiences that can shape the lives of small children.

Your background is vitally important to the lives of others. Th e strengths and weaknesses of your life add a richness and diversity to the ever-growing tapestry of early child education. Your cultural heritage and life experiences enable you to touch children in a unique and powerful way.

A troubled childhood does not make you exempt from being a contributor. Remember Friedrich Froebel, the founder of kindergarten who was inspired to make a diff erence because of his unhappy childhood. Th e diffi culties of our background can create an understanding and sensitivity to the challenges others face. If you were fortunate to be raised in a family with an abundance of love and resources, then children are waiting for you to share your gift with them.

Writing Your Own Story A refl ective search into your own early childhood can reveal these treasures. Writing is a powerful medium to accomplish this. Questions follow that will stimulate your thinking. For many of us, we may not have clear memories of these early stages of life. Th erefore, draw upon the stories and memories that have been off ered by your family and others who knew you then. If you fi nd that you cannot answer a question, simply move onto the next, then plan on asking a family member who may be able to off er insight into your answer. We encourage you to write and save your answers for future reference. Ad- dressing these questions later in your professional journey may provide fresh insights.

When fi nished with these questions, you may want to continue writing your story by responding to the phrase: “When I was a toddler ...” or “When I was six ....”

Regarding your early years:

1. What expectations does your culture have for young chil- dren? (Consider what messages society sends to families about the activities in which these children should partic- ipate.)

2. In which activities did you participate as a child less than eight years old? (Remember the toys with which you may have played or activities your family said you liked.)

3. Did you participate in preschool? If so, what was the set- ting? Was it in your home, the home of others, a neigh- borhood child care facility, or a larger group center? (You might consider how it was physically organized and the people involved.)

4. Were your contacts with others ethnically diverse or lo- calized to one cultural group? (Cultural identity can be defi ned in many ways such as geographical, religious, ra- cial, and so forth. Many of our identities include many cultures; that is, they are multicultural.)

5. What did you gain from those early years that will help you as an early childhood educator? (Look for a way this can be passed to others.)

6. Describe one way you would like to improve the early childhood education you received. (By rethinking what you did not receive, you can change this in the lives of those you are involved with.)

Your personal story and love of children can be your great- est motivators in this fi eld. Return often to your story to fi nd fresh treasures to share with those young people you serve.

Scott M. Williams is on the faculty of California State University at North- ridge in the Human Development department and is in private practice as a marriage, family, and child counselor.

A Delightful Story by Scott M. Williams, M.S.

36 SECTION 1 What is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

SUMMARY Th e history of early childhood education is like a tapes- try—woven of many infl uences. A broad fi eld such as medicine is a thread in this cloth, as is the passion of a Patty Smith Hill or a Lucy Sprague Mitchell. Th e his- tory forms the theory on which we base our teaching. Every child, every class, and every experience translates our history into educational practice and makes another thread in this grand cloth.

Events of history have had a hand in shaping early childhood education. Forces such as war (which produced the Kaiser Shipyards project), political movements (such as progressivism), and the state of the economy (which brought the War on Poverty and Head Start) bring about change and development in how children are cared for in this country. Th e ingredients that early childhood educa- tors consider essential today—that care and education are inseparable, that teaching practices are developmentally appropriate, and that adequate funding is critical for success—all stem from historical events and people.

Several fi elds of study and a number of professions have added to our knowledge of children and thus have aff ected educational theory. From the professions of edu- cation, medicine, and psychology, early childhood educa- tion has developed ideas of what is best for children. Th ese infl uences will be described at length in Chapter 4.

Th e individuals who created our history have had a profound eff ect on early childhood theory and practices.

Th eir strong and passionate beliefs have captured our imaginations and fueled our commitment to enhancing the well-being of children. What John Comenius, Maria Montessori, and Marian Wright Edelman all had in common was a drive to extend themselves on behalf of young children. Th us, early childhood theory has a per- sonal component, an emotional investment that gives each of you a sense of belonging to a larger cause. Th e work that has gone before goes on through us and ex- tends beyond us—to children of all ages and any era.

Each historical fi gure posed questions about the na- ture of childhood, of children, and of teaching. Th e an- swers have infl uenced educational philosophy and prac- tice, and, in turn, have been aff ected by the social, political, religious, and economic forces of the day. Early childhood education itself is an interdisciplinary fi eld, with important contributions from medicine, education, and psychology. From a child’s garden to the child care model, each innovation has added to our “story.” Th e four themes—the ethic of social reform, the importance of childhood, transmitting values, and professionalism— shape our ideas of ourselves in our work.

Th e contributions of many pioneers leave us dreams for the young children of our society. Th is can give mean- ing to our lives as teachers as we continue to create a climate for the child who will make history tomorrow.

KEY TERMS professionalism early childhood education building block years readiness tabula rasa integrated curriculum

kindergarten/children’s garden self-correcting child-centered approach parent cooperative schools open school vertical groupings (mixed age)

integrated day ethic of social reform importance and uniqueness

of childhood transmitting values

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Identify and describe fi ve key people who infl uenced the fi eld of early childhood education. With whom would

you like to have studied or worked? Why?

2. Match the name with the appropriate phrase. Put them in the order that best matches your own theory of early childhood education. State your reasons. Rousseau “prepared environment” Montessori “nurture” school

37CHAPTER 1 History of Early Childhood Education

Froebel children are naturally good Malaguzzi father of kindergarten Dewey common-sense approach Spock fi rst picture book for children McMillan sisters Progressive Movement Comenius Reggio Emilia

3. Defi ne early childhood education in your own words. Include age ranges and what you believe to be its purpose. Contrast this to the text defi nition and defend your position.

4. Name three institutions or living persons who are infl uencing the history of early childhood today. Describe your reactions to each and how they have infl uenced your educational philosophy.

5. Read the list below of some nontraditional and mainstream perspectives as described in the chapter. After each, trace its original root and put at least one example of how this perspective could be practiced in an early child- hood classroom today. Perspective Roots in Early Childhood Practice Harmony Kinship networks Close ties to nature Respect for elders Cooperative work Expressiveness

6. Maria Montessori made several contributions to education. What are some of her theories, and how did she adapt them for classroom use? How are Montessori materials or teaching methods used in your classroom?

7. Name the four themes that have guided early childhood education throughout its history.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Find out when and by whom the school or center in which you are teaching was started. What were some of the

social, economic, and political issues of those times? How might they have aff ected the philosophy of the school?

2. Write your own pedagogic creed. List fi ve of what you consider to be the most important beliefs you hold about educating young children. How do you see those beliefs expressed in school today?

3. Make a list of the values you think are important to teach children. In an adjoining column, add the ways in which you would help children learn those values. In other words, list the materials and curriculum you would use.

4. Consider an informal interview with the director. What philosophies are important? Ask to look at any old pho- tos, handbooks, or newspaper clippings. Do you think starting a history of your program would be useful?

HELPFUL WEBSITES American Federation of Teachers Educational Foundation http://www.aft.org Annie E. Casey Foundation http://www.aecf.org Association for Childhood Education International http://www.acei.org British Infant School http://www.sparatcus.schoolnet.co.uk Center for the Study of the Child Care Workforce http://www.irle.berkeley.edu/cscce

38 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

Th e Children’s Defense Fund http://www.childrensdefense.org National Association for the Education of Young Children http://www.naeyc.org National Center for Children and Poverty http://www.nccp.org National Institute for Early Education Research http://www.nieer.org North American Reggio Emilia Alliance http://www.reggioalliance.org Society for Research in Child Development http://www.srcd.org Waldorf Schools http://www.waldorfanswers.org

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Baker, K. R. (1950). Th e nursery school: A human rela- tionships laboratory. New York: Saunders.

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Boyd, D. (1997). Jean Jacques Rousseau. Unpublished paper. Redwood City, CA: Canada College.

Bradburn, E. (2000). Margaret MacMillan: 1860-1933. In A. Gordon & K. W Browne (Eds.), Beginnings and beyond (5th Ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Brazelton, T. B., & Greenspan, S. (2001). Th e irreduc- ible needs of young children: what every child must have to grow, learn and fl ourish. Cambridge, MA: DaCapo Press.

Bredekamp, S., & Copple, C. (Ed.). (1998). Develop- mentally appropriate practice in early childhood pro- grams. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

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Brooks, A. (1886). Four active workers. Springfi eld, MA: Milton Bradley.

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Coles, R. (1971). Children of crisis: A study of courage and fear. New York, NY: Houghton Miffl in.

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Cottrol, R.J., Diamond, R.T., & Ware, L.B. (2004, Summer). Th e Decline of the Idea of Caste: Setting the Stage for Brown v. Board of Education. American Educator, AFT.

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Additional resources including the TeachSource Videos can be found on the premium website for this book. Go to http://www.cengage.com/login to register your access code.

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Elkind, D. (1982). Th e hurried child. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Feeney, S., & Freeman, N. K. (1999). Ethics and the early childhood educator: Using the NAEYC Code. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

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Kauerz, K. (2005, March). State kindergarten policies: Straddling early learning and early elementary school. Young Children on the Web: Beyond the Journal.

Keatinge, M. W (1896). Th e great didactic of John Amos Comenius (Trans. and with introductions). London: Adams and Charles Black.

Kozol, J. (1991). Savage inequalities: Children in Ameri- ca’s schools. New York: Crown Publishers.

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C H A P T E R

Types of Programs

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

■ What is meant by “developmentally appropriate practices” (DAP)?

■ How do early childhood programs serve diverse needs?

■ What are the core programs of early childhood education?

■ What are some of the variations in early care and education?

■ How is the age range extended in early childhood programs?

■ What are factors that infl uence program quality?

■ Why and how are programs evaluated?

NAEYC CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Th ese Core Values and sections from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct are ad- dressed in this chapter. As you read, note how the Core Values, Ideals, or Principles listed here apply to the topics in this chapter. (Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

Section I: I-1.2 To base program practices upon current knowledge in the fi eld of child devel-

opment and related disciplines and upon particular knowledge of each child. P-1.4 For every child we shall implement adaptations to teaching strategies, learning

environment, and curricula, consult with the family, and seek recommenda- tions from appropriate specialists to maximize the potential of the child to benefi t from the program.

Section II: I-2.5 To interpret each child’s progress to parents within the framework of a devel-

opmental perspective and to help families understand and appreciate the value of developmentally appropriate early childhood practices.

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41CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs

P-2.2 We shall inform families of program philosophy, policies, and personnel qualifi cations, and explain why we teach as we do, which should be in accor- dance with our ethical responsibilities to children.

Section IV: I.4.1 To provide the community with high quality (age and

individually appropriate, and culturally and socially sensitive) education/care programs and services.

P.4-7 We shall be familiar with laws and regulations that serve to protect the children in our programs.

Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Th roughout this text and whenever NAEYC princi- ples are discussed, we use the term developmentally ap- propriate practice. What exactly is developmentally appropriate practice, or DAP, as it is more familiarly known?

More than 20 years ago, NAEYC published a posi- tion paper, which articulated standards for high qual- ity care and education for young children. Th e guide- lines were a response to the need for a set of unifi ed standards for accreditation through NAEYC ’s newly established National Academy of Early Childhood, and gave a necessary antidote to the more teacher- directed, academic preparation and skills-teaching methods that were encroaching on many early child- hood programs.

Th e DAP approach stressed the need for activity- based learning environments based on what we know about children through years of child development re- search and what we observe of their interests, abilities, and needs. Th e position paper was revised by NAEYC in 1996, 2005, and 2009 to be more inclusive by moving away from an “either/or” point of view to that of “both/ and.” In other words, there are many right ways to apply DAP principles.

Three Core Considerations of DAP Th e position statement of “Developmentally Appropri- ate Practice in Early Childhood Programs Serving Chil- dren from Birth through Age 8” (NAEYC, 2009) cites

three core considerations on which teachers and caregiv- ers should base their decisions about young children’s growth and development:

1. What is known about child development and learning— knowledge of age-related characteristics that permit general predictions about what experiences are likely to best promote children’s learning and development. Th is is the core around which the idea of developmen- tally appropriate is built.

2. What is known about each child as an individual— what practitioners learn about each child that has implications for how best to adapt and be respon- sive to individual variations.

3. What is known about the social and cultural contexts in which children live—the values, expectations, and behavioral and linguistic conventions that shape children’s lives at home and in their communities that practitioners must strive to understand in order to ensure that learning experiences in the program or school are meaningful, relevant, and respectful for each child and family.

Th e following scenario shows how these core consid- erations are applied when planning a developmentally appropriate program for toddlers:

1. What does child development tell us about toddlers? We know that toddlers express their need to do ev- erything by themselves, usually more than they can actually achieve. Th ey like to feel independent and learn quickly if given a little help and then encour- aged to do what they can for themselves (see Chap- ters 3 and 4 for more detail).

2. What do we know about each child as an individual? Many of these toddlers rely on their parents to help them put on their clothes, feed them, or put their toys away. Others are being taught these tasks at home. Most of the children come to the teachers for assistance and a few ask for help. One toddler will persist at a dressing task for nearly fi ve minutes while another will throw shoes across the fl oor if they do not fi t the fi rst time.

3. What do we know about the social and cultural context in each child’s life? Most of the children in this group come from homes in which help is readily available from siblings and extended family members. Th e group’s dominant cultural values and child-rearing practices reinforce dependence and community, al- though there is a smaller group of families that want their children to become independent as soon as possible.

42 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

By looking at all three core considerations together, we have some decisions to make about setting goals to- ward greater independence for the toddlers. Respecting cultural and social contexts means we begin by talking to families, perhaps at a parent meeting, in which families are invited to share their child-rearing practices from their cultural viewpoint. Once we have an understanding of what families expect and want, we have an opportu- nity to work together to fi nd a solution that will be ben- efi cial both for the toddlers and for the families. Th is is what Hyun (1998) refers to as “negotiable curriculum, where teachers are no longer the ultimate power holders in any decision-making.” When developmentally appro- priate elements are taken into consideration, the bonds between families and teachers are strengthened and the best interests of the children prevail.

Guidelines for DAP DAP provides the context for learning environments in which children’s abilities are matched to the develop- mental tasks they need to learn. Programs are designed

for young children based on what is known about young children (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). To that mix, we add what we know about the individual children and their families. Th is collective knowledge is applied to each decision that is made about the program. Copple and Bredekamp (2009) suggest fi ve key areas of practice that guide the decision-making process, with references to locations in this text that address these key areas:

1. Creating a Caring Community of Learners. As noted in Chapter 1, from the earliest beginnings, teachers have been encouraged to blend education and care and to create child-centered environments; this chapter defi nes programs that support and value all children, regardless of age, ability, gender, or racial and ethnic background. Chapter 3 describes the many ways chil- dren are alike, yet diff erent and unique. Using the Word Pictures, teachers can develop programs that support a learning community that includes children with special needs. Chapters 7 and 8 discuss the re- spectful, cooperative, and positive relationships that lead to optimum learning conditions. Chapter 9 de- fi nes the total learning environment that has a secure, comfortable, and positive emotional climate to sup- port the learning community.

2. Teaching to Enhance Development and Learning. Chapter 4 provides the theoretical foundation that infl uences learning, and Chapter 5 defi nes teaching practices and relationships that create challenging learning experiences. Chapters 10 to 14 demon- strate how teaching across the developmental domains and disciplines strengthens children’s learning.

3. Planning Curriculum to Achieve Important Goals. Chapter 10 defi nes and elaborates how to create curriculum based on the goals that are set for chil- dren’s learning. Chapters 11 to 14 articulate the learning potential through physical growth, lan- guage, cognition, and social/emotional experience that children need.

4. Assessing Children’s Development and Learning. Observation is a key element in evaluating children’s learning, and Chapter 6 provides many models to follow. Th e same chapter also explores the meaning of assessment in order to implement the practices and programs that will guide teaching and learning.

5. Establishing Reciprocal Relationships with Families. Th e focus of Chapter 8 is developing collaborative relationships with families that promote a sense of partnership based on mutual need, understanding, and negotiation.

A developmentally appropriate program takes into con- sideration this child’s age, individual abilities, and the cul- ture of her home and family.

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43CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs

Each chapter of this text, individually and collectively, supports and demonstrates these fi ve guidelines for de- velopmentally appropriate practices in developmentally appropriate programs.

DAP in Action Developmentally appropriate principles are refl ected when:

■ Programs and curriculum respond to the children’s interests as well as their needs.

Example: While digging in the sand pit, four children uncover water. Others rush to see it. Th e teacher sees their interest and asks them about the bridges and tun- nels they are starting to build. A project in the making: children conduct research, experiment, build, and learn.

■ Children are actively involved in their own learning, choosing from a variety of materials and equipment.

Example: Some children search the yard for materials that will bridge the water. Others go inside to fi nd the big book on bridges. Still others dig in other areas of the sandpit to fi nd more water and to try building tunnels for the water. One child fi nds a walnut shell and fl oats it on the water. Th e teacher encourages and supports each child’s involvement.

• ■ Play is the primary context in which young children learn and grow.

Example: Each day, the children rush outside to see their bridges and tunnels. Th e teacher has helped them fi nd materials that will act as a cover over the bridge. Inside, several children are making dolls from twigs and fabric scraps to use in the project.

• ■ Teachers apply what they know about each child and use a variety of strategies, materials, and learning ex- periences to be responsive to individual children.

Example: Josephina is drawing a picture of the bridge and is having trouble with the arches. Knowing that Josephina is somewhat shy and uneasy in large groups, the teacher asks Aldo (who is easygoing and loves to draw) to look at Josephina’s picture to see if he might help her. Th e two children focus on the drawing, each making observations that help Josephina take the next step in her artwork.

• ■ Teachers consider widely held expectations about each age group and temper that with challenging yet achievable learning goals.

Example: In preparation for a fi eld trip to see two bridges that are near the school, the teacher sets out her expecta-

DAPDAP

tions (walk with a buddy, stay together, stay on the side- walk, do not run, etc.). Because this is their fi rst fi eld trip of the school year, the teacher rehearses the children for several days prior to the trip. Music and rhythm accom- pany them as they practice walking with a friend and play number games of “two-by-two” during group times.

• ■ Teachers understand that any activity has the po- tential for diff erent children to realize diff erent learning from the same experience.

Example: After the fi eld trip, Josephina draws a diff er- ent type of arch for her bridges. Selena, Gracie, and Sam take over the block corner to build bridges and tunnels; three others join them. Maddie fi nds a book on fl owers; they look like some of the fl owers she saw on the way to the bridges. Reilly wants to play London Bridge at group time.

• ■ All aspects of development—physical, social/ emotional, cognitive, and language—are integrated in the activities and opportunities of the program.

Example: Th e bridge project promoted physical (walk- ing, digging), cognitive (learning how bridges and tun- nels are built, researching in books), language (con- struction terms, such as piers, spans, suspension), social-emotional (pairing up two-by-two), and creative (drawing a bridge, adding fl owers, trying tunnels).

Each of these examples shows how to meet the needs of all children, no matter their abilities and background. Keep in mind that while each principle defi nes one par- ticular factor, all of the principles are interrelated and that cultural and social diff erences, for instance, will be a factor in all of the principles.

How DAP Benefi ts Children’s Learning Developmentally appropriate principles benefi t children in many ways including the following:

1. In constructing children’s own understandings of concepts and benefi t from instruction by more com- petent peers and adults.

2. Th rough opportunities to see connections across disciplines through integration of curriculum and from opportunities to engage in in-depth study.

3. With a predictable structure and routine in the learning environment and from the teacher’s fl exibil- ity and spontaneity in responding to their emerging ideas, needs, and interests.

DAP The broad principles of DAP fi t all programs and are based on the decisions that utilize all fi ve of these interrelated guidelines.

44 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

4. By making meaningful choices about what children will do.

5. From situations that challenge children to work at the edge of their capacities and from ample oppor- tunities to practice newly acquired skills.

Developmentally and Culturally Appropriate Practice (DCAP) Culturally appropriate practice is the ability to go be- yond one’s own sociocultural background to ensure equal and fair teaching and learning experiences for all. Th is concept, developed by Hyun, expands DAP to ad- dress cultural infl uences that emphasize the adult’s abil- ity to develop a “multiple/multiethnic perspective” (1998). Preparing teachers and caregivers for multi- culturalism is not just about becoming sensitive to race, gender, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic status, or sex- ual orientation, according to Hyun. It is also related to an understanding of the way individual histories, families of origin, and ethnic family cultures make us similar to and yet diff erent from others. Th rough such insights, teach- ers will be able to respond positively to the individual child’s unique expressions of growth, change, learning styles, culture, language, problem-solving skills, feelings, and communication styles (Hyun, 1998).

Hyun stresses the need for “cultural congruency” be- tween a child’s home and school experience and suggests the following questions as a way to begin addressing the issue:

1. What relationships do children see between the ac- tivity and work they do in class and the lives they lead outside of school?

2. Is it possible to incorporate aspects of children’s cul- ture into the work of schooling without simply con- fi rming what they already know?

3. Can this incorporation be practiced without devalu- ing the objects or relationships important to the children?

4. Can this practice succeed without ignoring particu- lar groups of people as “other” within a “dominant” culture? (1998)

A consistency between home and school would “allow for children to express and show the importance of their own family culture and identity” by “using children’s per- sonal experience, family culture, and diverse language DAPDAP

expressions as important sources of learning and teach- ing” (Hyun, 1998).

Th e third core component of DAP, addressing the social and cultural contexts in which children live, high- lights the importance of connecting a child’s sense of cultural continuity between home and school.

Early Childhood Programs: Serving Diverse Needs From the types available, to the numbers of children who attend these schools, the name of the game in early child- hood programs is diversity. Th e range can encompass a morning nursery school for toddlers, a primary school classroom, an infant-parent stimulation program, or a full child care service for 3- to 6-year-olds. Some pro- grams run for only a half-day; others are open from 6:00 a.m. until 7:00 p.m. Still other centers, such as hos- pitals, accept children on a drop-in basis or for 24-hour care. Child care arrangements can range from informal home-based care to more formal school or center set- tings. Religious institutions, school districts, community- action groups, parents, governments, private social agen- cies, and businesses may run schools.

DAP Schools may be the fi rst place where families and children experience cultures different from their own. It is important that chil- dren learn facts and not stereotypes about other cultures.

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Cur- riculum Planning: Implementing Developmentally Appropriate Practice in an Early Childhood Pro- gram.” After you study the video clip, view the arti- facts, and read the teacher interviews and text, re- fl ect upon the following questions:

1. What examples of Developmentally Appropriate Practices did you see or hear mentioned by pre- school teacher Ke Nguyen and her colleagues? Compare and contrast your observations with the text.

2. How would you judge the quality of this pro- gram? What are some of the criteria you would use?

TeachSource Video

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45CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs

Factors That Determine Types of Programs Programs in early childhood settings are defi ned by many factors, and each is an integral part of the mission of the program. Any given program is a combination of these factors and each has an impact on the quality and type of learning that takes place. Some of the factors that infl uence programs are:

1. Ages of the children who are being served 2. Philosophical, theoretical, or theological ideals 3. Goals of the program 4. Purpose for which the program was established 5. Requirements of sponsoring agency 6. Quality and training of teaching staff 7. Shape, size, and location of physical environment 8. Cultural, ethnic, economic, and social make-up of

the community 9. Financial stability

Programs for young children also exist to serve a number of needs, which impact programs goals and mis- sion. Some of these are:

■ Caring for children while parents work (e.g., family child care homes or child care centers)

■ Enrichment programs for children (e.g., half-day nursery school or laboratory school)

■ Educational programs for parent and child (e.g., parent cooperatives, parent–child public school pro- grams, or high school parent classes)

■ An activity arena for children (e.g., most early child- hood programs)

■ Academic or Readiness instruction (e.g., primary grades and many pre-kindergarten programs)

■ Culturally or religiously specifi c programs (e.g., a school setting with a defi nitive ethnic focus or a church-related school that teaches religious dogma)

Th ese programs generally refl ect the needs of society as a whole. Millions of mothers of children under age 6 are in the labor force as never before. Early childhood schools provide a wide range of services for children from infancy through 8 years of age to meet the demands of today’s working mothers. Approximately two of every three mothers of preschool age children and three of ev- ery four mothers of school-age children are in the labor force (Children’s Defense Fund, 2008).

Special Program Features A program usually has any number of goals or missions. One mission may be to encourage children to learn from one another. Th is philosophy has two important features that are refl ected in many early childhood programs. Th e following two sections describe how mixed-age group- ings and looping contribute to the goals of the program.

Mixed-Age Groupings Placing children of several age levels into the same class- room is called mixed-age grouping. In these classes, younger children learn from older children and older children learn by teaching younger children. Th is prac- tice is often referred to as family, heterogeneous, vertical, or ungraded grouping (Katz, Evangelou, & Hartman, 1990) and, though not new, is an area of considerable interest to early childhood educators.

Th e age range among children in mixed-age groups is usually wider than one year to capitalize on the diff er- ence in age, experience, knowledge, and abilities of the children (Katz, 1995). Mixed-age groupings have been a practice in Montessori programs, in the schools of Reg- gio Emilia, and in one-room schoolhouses for many years. Advocates of mixed-age groups point to a number of developmental advantages when children interact with peers above and below their age level:

■ Th e child’s own developmental level and pace are accommodated, allowing children to advance as they are ready.

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46 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

■ Age and competition are de-emphasized as coopera- tive learning is enhanced.

■ Caring and helping behaviors toward younger chil- dren and a sense of responsibility toward one an- other are fostered.

■ Diverse learning styles and multiple intelligences are accepted.

■ A variety and number of diff erent models for learn- ing and for friendships are available.

■ Children grow in independence in their work and in socialization.

Katz (1995) further asserts that teachers and chil- dren alike tolerate a wider range of individual diff erences and behaviors in a mixed-age group, and cooperation, sharing, and giving help to one another are more fre- quent. Younger children participate in and contribute to more complex projects and activities than they would otherwise. Older children seem to spontaneously help and assist the younger ones (Chase & Doan, 1994).

Th ere are risks associated with mixed-age groupings. Th e potential for older children to take over and/or over- whelm the younger ones is real, as is the possibility that younger children will pester the older children. Th is re- quires monitoring by the teaching staff , and the Reggio Emilia schools off er a good model of this process. In these Italian programs, older children have the responsibility to work with the younger children, explaining things and help- ing them fi nd appropriate roles to take in their projects.

Th e academic and social advantages of mixed-age grouping cannot occur without a variety of activities from which children may freely choose and the opportu- nity for small groups of children to work together. Teachers must be intentional about encouraging chil- dren to work with others who have skills and knowledge they do not yet possess. Other considerations are the optimal age range, the proportion of older to younger children, the amount of time spent in mixed-age groups, and the implementation of a project-oriented curricu- lum (Katz, Evangelou, & Hartman, 1990).

It is easy to see how mixed-age groupings refl ect the principles of Dewey, Piaget, Gardner, and Vygotsky, whose “zone of proximal development” is made more available through the interactions of peers as well as adults. Th e practice of mixed-age grouping has much to commend it and must be seriously addressed as an issue in programs for young children.

Looping Th e practice of keeping a teacher and the same group of children together in the same class for at least two years is called looping. As with mixed-aged grouping, it is an

old idea revisited. Today, looping is customary in the Waldorf Schools, Reggio Emilia programs, and Montes- sori, and it has emerged in other programs for a number of reasons. Proponents of looping suggest that it:

■ Off ers stability and emotional security to children. ■ Gives teachers a greater opportunity to get to know

children and therefore be able to individualize the program for them.

■ Provides more instructional time without time spent at the beginning of the school year on rou- tines of procedures and familiarization.

■ Fosters better social interactions among children. ■ Enhances a sense of family and community within

the classroom (Bellis, 1999; Chapman, 1999).

In the schools in Reggio Emilia, infants and toddlers are kept in the same class with the same teachers for three years to provide a family-like environment. Loop- ing is often paired with multi-aged classrooms, which further extends the natural, family-like atmosphere.

Critics of looping cite the need for experienced teach- ers who enjoy teaching across the age levels and who can work with the same children over an extended period of time. Looping does not fi t all teachers and all children, and it could be off ered as an option for parents and teach- ers to meet the needs of those who believe its advantages are worthwhile (Bellis, 1999; Chapman, 1999).

Any of the following early childhood programs may include mixed-age groups and looping. Th e educational and philosophical goals of the program will determine what features to include.

The Core of Programs of Early Childhood Education Th e following sections explore the diff erent types of programs available to families. Each has unique charac- teristics, emphases, and challenges.

Traditional Nursery School Th e traditional nursery school (often called preschool) exemplifi es a developmental approach to learning in which children actively explore materials and in which activity or learning centers are organized to meet the de- veloping skills and interests of the child. Most of these programs serve children from 2½ to 5 years of age.

47CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs

Th e philosophy of these schools is best described by Katherine Read Baker in her now classic book Th e Nurs- ery School: A Human Relationships Laboratory (1950). First published over sixty years ago, this book serves as an encyclopedia of the traditional nursery school, its methods, and its philosophy, refl ecting the infl uence of Comenius, Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Montessori.

Th e idea of a school as a place of human activity mir- rors the thoughts of Dewey, Piaget, Erikson, and others. Baker develops this philosophy fully with an educational model that emphasizes the human needs, growth pat- terns, and relationships in a young child’s life.

Developmentally, a traditional nursery school focuses on social competence and emotional well-being. Th e cur- riculum encourages self-expression through language, creativity, intellectual skill, and physical activity. Th e ba- sic underlying belief is the importance of interpersonal connections children make with themselves, each other, and adults.

Th e daily schedule (see Figure 2-1) refl ects these be- liefs. Large blocks of time are devoted to free play, a time when children are free to initiate their own activities and become deeply involved without interruptions, empha- sizing the importance of play. In this way, children learn to make their own choices, select their own playmates, and work on their interests and issues at their own rate. A dominant belief is that children learn best in an atmo- sphere free from excessive restraint and direction.

Typically, there is a balance of activities (indoors and out, free choice, and teacher-directed times) and a wide va- riety of activities (large- and small-muscle games, intellec- tual choices, creative arts, and social play opportunities).

A nursery school is often a half-day program, but many off er extended hours.

The Role of the Teacher Th e role of the teacher and methods of teaching are important factors in a traditional nursery school. Th ey assume that young children need individual attention and should have personal, warm relationships with important adults. Th erefore, the groups of children are generally small, often fewer than 20 in a class. Th e teacher–child ratio is low, as few as 6 to 10 children for each teacher. Teachers learn about children’s develop- ment and needs by observation and direct interaction, rather than from formalized testing. Th ey work with children individually and in small groups and often teach through conversation and materials. Teachers encourage children to express themselves, their feel- ings, and their thinking. Such rapport between teacher and pupil fosters self-confi dence, security, and belong- ing. Proponents of the traditional nursery school be- lieve that these feelings promote positive self-image, healthy relationships, and an encouraging learning environment.

Child Care Centers By defi nition, a child care center is a place for children who need care for a greater portion of the day than what the traditional nursery school off ers. Th e school sched- ule is extended to fi t the hours of working parents. A longer day means that ordinary routines such as meals and naps are woven into the program. Th ese full-day op- tions are also educational settings, echoing but extending the curriculum of a half-day program.

Child care needs are met in many ways, from center- based care to family settings. Child care centers can in- clude preschools, employer-sponsored care, Head Start, for-profi t and non-profi t institutions, religious institu- tions, colleges, YMCAs, public schools, social service agencies, and family child care.

Full-day child care is not a modern phenomenon. Some of the fi rst nursery schools in England operated from 8:00 a.m. until 4:00 or 5:00 p.m. (as noted in Chapter 1). At the end of this chapter, an “Insights From the Field” article by the late Edith Dowley tells the fasci- nating story of the child care centers established in the Kaiser Shipyards in Portland, Oregon, during World War II. Th ey are a prime example of the kind of business and political support that is needed to support children and their families today.

Child care centers often serve infants and toddlers, as well as 2½ - to 5-year-olds. Many off er kindergar- ten, before- and after-school options, and summer programs.

Half-Day Schedule

9:00 Children arrive at school 9:00–9:45 Free play (indoors) 9:45 Cleanup 10:00 Singing time (large group) 10:15–10:30 Toileting/snack time (small group) 10:30–11:30 Free play (outdoors) 11:30 Cleanup 11:45 Story time 12:00 Children leave for home

FIGURE 2-1 A sample schedule for traditional half-day nursery schools is the core of early education programs.

48 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

Scheduling Compare the nursery school schedule (Figure 2-1) with the child care schedule (Figure 2-2). Th e morning starts slowly. Children arrive early because their parents must go to work or school. Th e center may supply breakfast, midmorning and midafternoon snacks, and a noon lunch. A nap period for one to two hours for all the children gives a needed rest and balances their active, social day with quiet, solitary time. Th e program also includes ex-

tended experiences outside the school—fi eld trips, li- brary story hour, or swimming lessons—because chil- dren spend the major portion of their waking hours on-site. As the day draws to a close, children gather to- gether quietly, with less energy and activity.

Licensing Licensing is the process of fulfi lling the legal require- ments, standards, and regulations for operating child care facilities. Th ere are no national standards or policies regarding licensing of child care facilities in the United States. Many local and state governments require licens- ing of child care centers and family child care homes, but there is no central licensing agency in every state. De- pending on the state, a license may be issued by the Department of Health, Department of Education, or Department of Social Welfare. Certifi cation of child care workers is also left to local standards.

Early childhood professional groups are calling for increased standardization of licensing procedures to en- sure that children are receiving the best possible care in safe and healthy environments. Th e same minimum stan- dards would apply to adult–child ratios, suitable safety precautions, health and nutrition needs, and the amount of training and preparation required of caregivers.

Children are spending longer hours in child care, and there are more programs sponsored by a variety of agencies such as churches, public schools, and private for-profi t fi rms. With this diverse mix, a common set of standards for licensing is imperative to ensure the best possible care for all children who need these services.

An NAEYC position paper (NAEYC, 1998a) in support of licensing and regulation of early care and edu- cation programs recommends that:

■ All programs providing care and education for two or more unrelated families should be regulated and that there be no exception or exemptions from this requirement.

■ All centers or schools serving 10 or more children that provide services to the public should be licensed.

■ States should establish licenses for individuals, such as teachers, caregivers, and program administrators.

■ Licensing regulations should address health and safety, group size, adult–child ratios, and preservice and inservice standards.

Staffi ng Th e staff in a full-day setting is often called on to deal with the parenting side of teaching. Children in full-day care may need more nurturing and clearer consistency in

Routines, such as eating, provide a balance to an active and busy day at the child care center.

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7:00-8:30 Arrival/breakfast; limited indoor play 8:30 Large group meeting 8:45–9:45 Free play (inside) 9:45 Cleanup/toileting 10:00 Snack time (small groups) 10:15–11:30 Free play (outside) 11:30 Cleanup/hand-washing 12:00 Lunch 12:30 Toothbrushing/toileting 1:00–2:00 Nap time 2:00–3:00 Free play (outside) 3:00 Group time 3:15 Snack time (small groups) 3:30–5:00 Inside and outside free play/library hour 5:00 Cleanup 5:15–5:30 Departure

FIGURE 2-2 A typical full-day care schedule. Most child care programs combine education and caring for basic needs.

49CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs

behavioral limits. At the same time, they need individual fl exibility, understanding, and regular private time with caring adults.

Parents’ needs also may be greater and require more of the teachers’ time. Child care parents may require ex- tra eff ort; they have full-time jobs as well as child-rearing responsibilities draining their energies. It takes a strong team eff ort on the part of the teacher and the parent to make sure the lines of communication stay open and that families and schools are mutually supported.

Th e teaching staff undoubtedly has staggered sched- ules, perhaps a morning and an afternoon shift. Admin- istration of this type of program is therefore more com- plex. An eff ort must be made to ensure that all teachers get together on a regular basis to share the information and details about the children in their care. Both shifts must be aware of what happens when they are not on- site to run the program consistently. (See Chapter 15 for further discussion on child care issues.)

Family Child Care In family child care, the provider takes care of a small number of children in a family residence. Th e group size can range from two to 12, but most homes keep a low adult–child ratio, enrolling fewer than 6 children. It is reminiscent of an extended family grouping.

Nearly 20 percent of working mothers with chil- dren under age 5 select family child care (U. S. Census Bureau, 2005). Th e home setting, sometimes right within the child’s own neighborhood, off ers an inti- mate, fl exible, and convenient service for working par- ents. Th ere are more than one million family child care providers in the United States today (National Asso- ciation for Family Child Care, 2005). Children in a family child care home can range from infants to school-age children who are cared for after regular school hours.

Th e developmental ranges that family child care pro- viders must meet may range from infancy up to 12 years, which poses a challenge to develop experiences and ac- tivities for a mixed-age group of children. Family child care providers work and live in the same environment posing logistical problems of storage, space defi nition, and activity space. Often, family child care providers care for their own children within their programs, leading to problems with separation and autonomy of their chil- dren and providing enough time to the child as a parent. Family child care providers are administrators and man- agers, as well as teachers and caregivers, faced with bud- gets and fee collections.

Advantages Family child care is good for children who do well in small groups or whose parents prefer to place them in a family-style setting. Th is is especially true for infants and toddlers. Family child care homes often schedule fl exible hours to meet the needs of parents who work. Th e wide age range can be advantageous as well. Consistency and stability from a single caregiver throughout the child’s early years and a family grouping of children provide a homelike atmosphere that is especially appropriate for infants and toddlers.

Family child care providers own and operate their own small business in their homes. Providing child care is a way for women who want to remain at home with their children to contribute to the family income. Meeting the requirements for licensing, fulfi lling all the administrative tasks of a business and an educa- tional program, and keeping current with the local, state, and federal tax requirements are part of the pro- fessionalism required for this type of child care arrangement.

Challenges Many homes are unregulated; that is, they are not under any sponsorship or agency that enforces quality care, and many are exempt from state licensing. Family child care providers often lack knowledge of child development and early education and are not required to take courses. Th e National Association for Family Child Care has es- tablished an accreditation system and promotes high- quality family child care through professional develop- ment, public education, and policy initiatives (NAFCC, 2009).

Family child care providers can feel isolated from others in the child care fi eld. A hopeful sign, however, is that more articles on family child care are being included in professional publications, and early childhood confer- ences and workshops are now including issues related to the family child care provider. Th is type of care could be a star in the galaxy of child care options. Small and per- sonalized, it off ers parents an appealing choice of home- based care. It is obvious, though, that further regulation of standards, availability of training for providers, and an awareness of the advantages of family child care need to be addressed. For those who need child care, this should be a viable alternative; for those who want to work at home, this type of career should be given serious consideration.

Th e options for child care are many. In Figure 2-3, the choices that parents make when looking for child care are addressed.

50 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

Head Start: An Early Intervention Model In 1965, the federal government created the largest pub- licly funded education program for young children ever. Head Start began as part of this country’s social action in the “war on poverty,” and the implications of the pro- gram were clear: If at-risk poverty-stricken children could be exposed to a program that enhanced their schooling, their intellectual functions might increase, and these gains would help break the poverty cycle.

Over the last 45 years, Head Start has served more than 25 million children and their families (Head Start, 2009). Th e success of Head Start can be attributed to its guiding objectives and principles, most notably expressed through:

■ Its comprehensive nature. Th e child is seen as a whole, requiring medical, dental, and nutritional as- sessment, as well as intellectual growth. Extensive health, education, and social services are off ered to children and their families.

■ Parent participation and involvement. Head Start ex- pects parents to serve as active participants and get involved in the program at all levels: in the class- room as teacher aides, on governing boards making decisions about the program, and as bus drivers and cooks.

■ Services to families. Many of the comprehensive ser- vices off ered to children are extended to parents as well to assist them in their fi ght against poverty.

Paid jobs in the program, continuing education, job training, and health care are some of the support services families received.

■ Community collaboration. Interest and support from the local community help Head Start respond to the needs of the children and families it serves. Pub- lic schools, religious institutions, libraries, service clubs, and local industry and businesses help to fos- ter responsible attitudes toward society and provide opportunities for the poor to work with members of the community in solving problems.

■ Multicultural/multiracial education. Since its incep- tion, Head Start has sought to provide a curriculum that refl ects the culture, language, and values of the children in the program. Head Start eff orts in this regard have been the models for other early child- hood programs.

■ Inclusion of children with special needs. Since 1972, Head Start has pioneered the inclusion of children with disabilities in its classrooms. Head Start has the distinction of being the fi rst and largest federally funded program for children with special needs (Greenberg, 1990).

■ Ecology of the family. Head Start programs look at children within the context of the family in which they live and view the family in the context of the neighborhood and community. Th is concept of tak- ing the many forces that work against low-income families and viewing them as interrelated is a key factor in Head Start’s success. (See also Chapters 1 and 15.)

Relatives

Child Care Centers

Parents

Family Child Care Providers

Other

In-Home Caregivers

3.6%

13.2%

19.4%

21.6%

23.8%

25.8%

FIGURE 2-3 Child care options (Data from: U.S. Bureau of Census. “Who’s Minding the Kids?” Childcare Arrangements, Spring, 2005. Survey of Income and Program Participation.

51CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs

Th e success of Head Start led to the creation of three specifi c programs that furthered the goals of Head Start: Parent & Child Centers, which serve infants and toddlers and their families; the Child and Family Resource Pro- grams, which provide family support services; and the Child Development Associate credential, which provides early childhood training and education for Head Start teachers.

It should be noted that, at the beginning, one aim of Head Start was to change the language and behavior patterns of the low-income children served, many of whom came from minority groups, and to resocialize them into cultural patterns and values of the main- stream, middle class. Head Start was a “compensatory” program, and the implications were that children from poor or minority families were unprepared for the de- mands of school in terms of language and cognitive skills, achievement, and motivation. Th is widely held perspective of the 1960s was known as the “cultural dis- advantage” model, which suggests that any language, cognitive, or relational style that diff ers from the Anglo, mainstream, middle-class style is necessarily detrimental to rather than supportive of the educational process.

Contrast this view with the more recent, pluralistic perspective, called the “cultural diff erence” model, which affi rms that no one way of “behaving and believing” should be required for successful participation in school or soci- ety. Figure 2-4 summarizes today’s Head Start programs.

Early Head Start Early Head Start was established in 1994 as part of the Head Start Reauthorization Act. Th is program serves low-income families with infants and toddlers and preg-

nant women and is based on Head Start’s four corner- stones: child development, family development, staff de- velopment, and community building.

Nine principles guide the eff orts of Early Head Start: (1) high quality; (2) prevention of developmental concerns and promotion of healthy child development; (3) positive relationships and continuity in care-giving; (4) parent involvement; (5) inclusion; (6) culture; (7) comprehensiveness, fl exibility, responsiveness and in- tensity to respond to families needs; (8) smooth transi- tions into Head Start programs; and (9) collaboration with local communities to maximize resources available to families.

Evaluating Early Intervention Effectiveness Two studies have helped highlight Head Start’s im- pact over the years. One, the Consortium for Longitu- dinal Studies, pooled data from a number of smaller studies in the hope that clear trends regarding early intervention could be identified. Brown (1985) noted two significant findings: (1) that Head Start children were less likely to be placed in special education classes, and (2) that early intervention programs were associated with a significant increase in IQ and school achievement.

Th e second study, the High/Scope Perry Preschool Project, was not of a Head Start program but had an

There are similarities among all programs, but the rela- tionship among parents, children, and caregiver is the universal consideration.

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A Picture of Head Start

Enrollment 908,412 children

Ages Enrolled 5-year-olds: 3% 4-year-olds: 51% 3-year-olds: 36% Under 3: 10%

Race/Ethnic Population Native American/Alaskan Native: 4% Hispanic/Latino: 35% Black/African American: 30.1% White: 39.7% Asian/Pacifi c Islander: 2.5% Biracial/Multiracial: 4.9% Other: 18.8%

FIGURE 2-4 Head Start continues to be a vital pro- gram that serves the needs of a diverse population. This information is for the fi scal year 2007. (U.S. De- partment of Health and Human Services, the Offi ce of Head Start, 2009.)

52 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

enormous impact on policy makers and government of- fi cials and aff ected Head Start funding in signifi cant ways.

The High/Scope Perry Preschool Study. Th is proj- ect presented the most convincing evidence to date of the eff ectiveness of early intervention programs for low- income children. Started in the 1960s, it is the fi rst lon- gitudinal study to measure the eff ects of preschool edu- cation and to track the children from preschool years through age 27.

Children from one randomly assigned group were placed in high quality early childhood programs at age 3; the other group did not attend preschool. Th e results showed great diff erences between the children who had the advantage of a high quality program and those who did not. Low-income children who had attended pre- school signifi cantly outperformed those who had not.

Th e children attending the preschool program were better educated, spent fewer than half as many years in special education programs, had higher earnings, were less likely to receive welfare, and were fi ve times less likely to be arrested (Schweinhart & Weikart, 1993).

Gender diff erences were also noted. Preschool pro- gram girls had a signifi cantly higher rate of graduation than did the girls who did not attend preschool, whereas, in comparison, preschool program boys completed slightly less schooling than nonpreschool boys (Cohen, 1993b).

Not only does this study underscore the need for high quality preschool programs for children who live in poverty, but it also demonstrates the potential impact that Head Start has on the country’s future. It is the fi rst study of its kind to suggest the economic impact of early intervention. Because most of the children in the high quality early childhood program required less remedial education, had better earning prospects, and were less costly to the welfare and justice systems, early interven- tion in education was shown to be cost-eff ective.

Head Start Today Head Start has had a rocky history, its contributions notwithstanding. Struggling against budget cuts and controversy over its eff ectiveness, Head Start has under- gone program improvements and expansions.

Th e original vision of Head Start was improved and expanded for the 1990s as a model that challenges the eff ects of poverty and promotes physically and mentally healthy families. Head Start has a formidable challenge ahead as it protects the high quality of its original char- ter while expanding and increasing services.

Variations on Early Childhood Core Programs Th ere are many variations of the core programs that provide care and education for young children. Th ese programs diff er primarily due to the sponsoring agen- cies, the children they serve, their underlying mission, and whether or not they are non-profi t or for-profi t organizations.

Universal Preschools Increasing numbers of school districts off er prekinder- garten programs for 4-year-olds, although some include 3-year-olds as well. Depending on their goal, these pro- grams fall somewhere between traditional nursery schools and not quite full-day care. For some, the focus is on school readiness; others give priority to children at risk for school failure, children who come from families in which English is not spoken, or low-income families. In states in which early education has achieved a level of support, all 4-year-olds are eligible for enrollment, re- gardless of income. More than one million children at- tend these state-funded preschools in 38 states plus the District of Columbia (Barnett et al, 2007). Th e concept for universal preschools is and will be a continuing issue. (See Chapter 15 for further discussion.)

Laboratory Schools Th e college and university laboratory schools were among the fi rst preschools established in the United States. Th ey focus on teacher training, research, and in- novative education.

As part of the Child Study Movement, laboratory schools gathered information previously unknown about children and child development. Early schools include the Hampton Institute which began in 1873, the Uni- versity of Chicago founded by John Dewey in 1896, the Bank Street School in 1919 which was started by Har- riet Johnson, and the laboratory nursery school at Co- lumbia University’s Teachers College, started in 1921 by Patty Smith Hill. In the late 1920s, Vassar, Smith, and Mills colleges all opened laboratory schools. Shortly af- ter World War II, the Bing Nursery School at Stanford University opened. More recently, community college campuses have followed the lead of these pioneers. Cam- pus child care centers are beginning to combine child care services with the laboratory function of teacher

53CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs

training in one setting. Th e types and roles of the schools vary, depending on the educational philosophy and needs of the college and its students.

Regardless of their specifi c purposes, laboratory schools increase our understanding of children. Th ey are often excellent places for beginning teachers to learn good teaching practices. Th ey encourage the joining of psychology, medicine, and other related fi elds to early education, and they serve as professional models for the public as to what is good in child care and education.

Parent Cooperatives Parent cooperative schools are organized and run by parents. Th is type of early childhood setting off ers a unique opportunity for parents to be involved in the ed- ucation of their child. Faculty wives at the University of Chicago started the fi rst parent cooperative, the Chicago Cooperative Nursery School, in 1915.

Parent cooperative schools may off er half-day or full- day child care programs and are usually nonprofi t organ- izations. Th ey are similar to other nursery schools, with two notable exceptions. First, parents organize and main- tain the school: they hire the teachers, buy supplies and equipment, recruit members, raise funds, infl uence school philosophy, and manage the budget.

Second, parents or their substitutes are required to participate in the classroom on a regular basis. In light of current family work patterns and the unavailability of many parents, this requirement has been modifi ed in some programs. Professional teachers are hired, or other parents who are available are paid to substitute for par- ents who cannot work at the center.

Cooperative schools work well for many reasons. Popular with young families, they have low operating costs, off er interaction with parents in similar circum- stances, and off er the mutual support generated among members of a co-op. Friendships grow among parents who share child rearing as participants in their own and in their child’s education. But what a co-op does not cost in dollars, it may cost in time. By their very nature, coop- eratives can exclude working parents unless another adult is able to substitute for them in classroom partici- pation. Maintenance is very much the parents’ responsi- bility; co-ops must regularly schedule work parties to re- furbish the facility.

Depending on the size of the school, parents hire one or more professional teachers. Th ese teachers must be able to work well with adults, have curriculum-building skills, and model good guidance and discipline tech- niques. Because many parent cooperatives require a

weekly or monthly parent meeting, the teaching staff must also be competent in parent education. Child de- velopment and child-rearing topics are part of almost any cooperative nursery school discussion and require the leadership of a practiced teacher. Th e role of the teacher in this setting, then, is twofold: to provide for a sound educational experience for young children and to guide and direct parents in their own learning.

Employer-Sponsored Child Care Employer-sponsored child care refers to child care fa- cilities on or near the job site and supported by the busi- ness or industry. Hospitals, factories, colleges, and mili- tary bases often provide this service.

Th e number of women working outside the home and the increase in single-parent families encourage us to look at the workplace as a logical solution for child care needs. Employers who have implemented child care claim that the benefi ts are increased employee morale and bet-

A mother arrives at the co-op school for her day of participation.

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54 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

ter recruitment and retention of employees. For parents, there is the added appeal of having their children close by and being part of their educational process.

Industry responded to the need to create a support- ive structure for workers to combine work and family. Child care has become a corporate issue, with both large and small corporations participating. Government agen- cies are among the largest employers off ering child care options, primarily for use by military personnel (Neugebauer, 2001).

More companies are hiring management organiza- tions to operate their child care facilities rather than maintaining them themselves. Employers are also insist- ing on quality, and centers are being accredited through NAEYC. Th e rising cost and upgraded professional re- quirements of the recent NAEYC accreditation process has caused some companies to look for alternate mea- sures of quality (Neugebauer, 2008).

Benefi ts to employees may include the option for one or more of the following: parental leave, fl exible hours, corporate group discounts at local centers or family child care homes, resource and referral services, pretax salary reductions for child care, vouchers to purchase child care, and reserved spaces in specifi c child care settings sup- ported by the company. Companies located near each other may collaborate on the costs of these benefi ts. An extra benefi t is that employers may provide a 25 percent tax credit for costs associated with providing child care and a 10 percent tax credit for child care resource and referral (Neugebauer, 2001).

While employers have continued to support child care assistance for their employees, the Families and Work Institute (2008) reports that the percentage of employers providing child care has not changed from 1998 to 2008. Th e recent economic upheaval is causing employers to question whether or not they can still af- ford to support this program (Neugebauer, 2008).

For-Profi t Child Care Sometimes called “proprietary child care,” the for-profi t establishments comprise over one third of all child care centers. A number of national chains of child care centers developed rapidly over the last 40 years, with some controlling anywhere from seven to 2400 centers (Neugebauer, 2006).

For-profi t child care is viewed as a good investment opportunity. A few very large companies dominate the scene, creating child care chains across the country, pri- marily as managers of employer-sponsored programs or franchisers of centers.

For-profi t centers off er a variety of programs to meet parents’ needs. Infant and toddler programs, preschools, kindergartens, before-school and after-school care, and summer sessions accommodate working parents. Many programs are expanding into kindergarten and primary grades. Th e major concerns of the chief executives of the nation’s for-profi t child care organizations are the short- age of qualifi ed teachers, public school early childhood programs, and the economy (Neugebauer, 2006).

Nanny Care Nannies are professional in-home child care providers. Originating in England, the nanny movement became popular during the 1980s as a child care option for par- ents who could aff ord to have child care in their homes.

Th e International Nanny Association emphasizes training and professionalism and provides training and mentoring programs, publications, and a Nanny Creden- tial exam. Nanny training programs can be found in community colleges and vocational schools where their training may include child development, nutrition, and family relationships. Living arrangements vary; nannies may or may not live in the child’s home and they may or may not be responsible for housekeeping or meal preparation.

It should be noted that everyone who is called a “nanny” does not have the professional training and knowledge that is necessary to qualify as a professional nanny.

Au pairs diff er from nannies in that they are allowed to spend only one year in the United States and do not receive any special training for their child care role.

Programs in Religious Facilities Th roughout this nation’s history, religious institutions have demonstrated their concern for the welfare of chil- dren and their families. It was the religious institutions that established many of the early schools, advocating the education of children. At the turn of the last century, day nurseries and settlement houses sponsored by reli- gious groups cared for children of immigrants and poor working mothers. Later, hospitals and orphanages were founded, and religious leaders spoke out for children’s rights and the creation of child labor laws. In each era, depending on social and economic conditions, the reli- gious community has responded to the needs of children.

Programs in religious facilities fall into two groups. A faith-based early childhood program expresses its reli-

55CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs

gious beliefs within the context of the program and cur- riculum. Other programs sponsored by religious organi- zations do not include religious dogma as a part of their program. As one of the largest single providers of child care in the United States, religious-based centers provide a variety of early childhood programs and their numbers continue to grow (Neugebauer, 2008).

Th e curriculum in religious facilities depends on the program’s philosophy and the involvement of the congre- gational leadership. Many faith-based programs include Bible study as an integral part of the curriculum. Each setting is diff erent, even within the same denomination. Some programs integrate philosophies from Reggio Emilia, Bank Street, High/Scope, and Waldorf into their curriculum.

A program can be the direct operation of an individ- ual congregation that has full and programmatic control over the center. A program can also be an indirect opera- tion where the congregation incorporates the center as a separate, nonprofi t agency but maintains representation on the governing board. A third option is an indepen- dent operation where the congregation rents out space to a secular or nonprofi t center (Hampton, 2002).

Most programs that operate in religious facilities ac- knowledge four purposes for housing an early childhood program (Hampton, 2002):

1. Pastoral Care—as a service to families within the congregation.

2. Community Service—as a service to families within the local community.

3. Education/Enculturation—to teach religious beliefs. 4. Social Justice—as an outreach to low-income fami-

lies or those with special needs.

Known as “benign landlords” (Lindner, et al., 1983), programs in religious institutions typically off er free or reduced-cost rent and may subsidize utilities, mainte- nance services, repairs, and some insurance. Th eir non- profi t tax-exempt status is usually applied to child care programs that exist as part of the congregation’s minis- try. Programs housed in religious facilities, however, suf- fer the same diffi culties as other child care facilities, such as low staff wages and poor or nonexistent benefi ts.

Common problems that arise in religious facilities include sharing space with other congregational pro- grams, frequent changes in leadership in the congrega- tion’s governing body, unclear policies and procedures regarding decision-making groups within the congrega- tion, and inappropriate governance structures regulating the operation of the child care program.

For those families who seek alternative education in a religious context, religious-based schools fi ll the need. Many denominations serve children from early child- hood through high school. Th e relationship with the in- dividual religious organizations and the academic phi- losophy will vary from setting to setting.

Other Programs Teen Parent Programs Many high schools now have on-campus child care pro- grams. Some serve as laboratory facilities to introduce adolescents to child care principles and practices before they become parents. Others are part of a growing trend to provide support services to teenage parents. Young parents are encouraged to complete their high school ed- ucation by returning to campus with their children. In addition to their regular academic classes, parents are re- quired to participate in parent education classes, in which they discuss child-rearing practices and parenting concerns. Th ey also spend time in the children’s class- room, applying their skills under the supervision of early childhood professionals.

Th e aim of these programs is to help meet the long- term needs of adolescent parents by providing educa- tional skills necessary to secure a job. At the same time, valuable support and training for parenthood help teen- agers deal with the reality of the young children in their lives.

Early Intervention and Special Education Programs Programs for children with special needs off er a combina- tion of educational, medical, and therapeutic services. Early Childhood Special Education (ECSE) is a relatively

In some child care centers, parents and teachers commu- nicate by writing notes.

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56 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

new fi eld and includes programs for early intervention for infants and toddlers through age 2, and preschool special education for 3 to 5-year-old children with exceptionali- ties or developmental delays. A team of professionals, in- cluding early childhood special educators, social workers, and physical, language, and occupational therapists, work together with parents to enhance each child’s progress.

Any inclusive early childhood program may be an appropriate setting for children with special needs as long as there is adequate planning and support (Allen & Cowdery, 2009). (Further discussion of programs for children with special needs follows in Chapter 3.)

Migrant Children’s Programs Early childhood programs serve the needs of migrant farm families and rural poor families. Often migrant farm worker mothers are employed to work alongside the early childhood professionals. Th e focus of these programs is often on improving the child’s primary lan- guage skills and developing a second language, job train- ing, and access to health care and social services.

Hospital Settings Hospitals may provide group settings for children who are confi ned for a period of time. Many hospitals provide on-site child care for their employees as well.

Meeting the Needs of Children Who are Homeless In any given year, approximately 1.35 million children will experience homelessness (National Coalition for the Homeless, 2007). Th ese children may attend schools closest to the shelter in which they stay for a brief time and then change schools when their parents move to an- other shelter. Many times these are children who already experience problems and failures in school. State and federal legislation is now being enacted to ensure full and equal educational opportunities for children who are homeless. (See Chapter 15, “Endangered Childhood,” for a discussion of children at risk from abuse or neglect.)

Extending the Age Range Early childhood programs throughout the country de- liver services to a wide range of ages in a variety of pro- grams geared to various age levels and needs. As children move into kindergarten and primary school, their early childhood experiences change.

Infant/Toddler Programs Th e inclusion of infants and toddlers in group care is the result of more mothers in the workforce. Infant/toddler programs may be full-day centers or they may be part- time. Most are a combination of physical care coupled with intellectual simulation and development.

Parent relationships are an especially important part of any program for babies and toddlers. Th e gen- eral intention of these centers is to provide care that is supplemental to family life and that supports the child’s family structure. To do that, the caregiver at an infant/toddler center involves the parents in the every- day decisions about the care of their child, provides them with information about the child’s day, and strengthens the child’s sense of belonging to that par- ticular family.

Philosophy of Infant/Toddler Care Th rough the insights of Piaget and Erikson (see Chap- ter 4), we have come to view the infant more and more as an involved person, one who experiences a wide range of intellectual and emotional abilities. Although they may appear to be helpless beings, babies are in fact persons with feelings, rights, and an individual nature. Th e care- giver in a quality infant/toddler center understands that feeding, diapering, and playing are the curriculum of this age group.

Caregiving routines are at the heart of the infant/ toddler program. Th e challenge is to fi nd ways to use these daily routines to interact, develop trust and secu- rity, and provide educational opportunities. In many cases, the caregiver’s role extends to helping parents use these same common occurrences to promote the optimal development of their child. Magda Gerber, a pioneer in infant care, coined the term educaring to describe the relationship between an infant and an adult. Observing, listening, and reading babies’ cues are key elements in educaring.

Gerber’s philosophy is based on the use of responsive and reciprocal interactions in which baby and caregiver learn about each other. Communicating through care giving routines (diapering, feeding) in one-to-one in- tense and focused interactions is a foundation of Gerber’s approach to caring for infants and toddlers (Gerber, 1979).

Program Differences Infant and toddler programs diff er from preschool pro- grams in a number of ways. Th e young infant (birth to 9 months) needs security; mobile infants from 8 to

57CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs

18 months need opportunities for exploration; toddlers (16–36 months) are in the process of forming their iden- tity (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Infant and toddler programs refl ect these needs by:

■ Creating a stable environment with low staff turn- over and low caregiver–child ratios.

■ Providing more one-to-one physical care. ■ Ensuring immediate response from adults. ■ Following up with parents and families on a daily

basis. ■ Using ordinary routines as learning opportunities. ■ Developing skills that go beyond teaching: mother-

ing, being a playmate. ■ Promoting intentional rather than discovery

learning. ■ Developing fi nely tuned interpretation skills to rec-

ognize need and distress signals in young children. ■ Understanding the signifi cance of cultural sensitiv-

ity as children gain a sense of their own identity.

Th e distinction between programs for infants and those for toddlers is also important. Just as a scaled- down version of preschool is not a toddler program, nei- ther is a scaled-down version of a good day for toddlers an appropriate model for infants. Th e mobility of the toddler, for instance, requires diff erent amounts of space and time in the schedule than those required for infants. Babies sleep more their fi rst year of life; their rhythm of eating, sleeping, and playing must be met. Th ey thrive when someone responds to their smiles and developing skills. Common routines provide the caregivers time to talk with the babies about what they are doing and what is happening to them. Th ey get babies to focus on them- selves through gentle, extensively personal involvement. Good programs for babies recognize their capacities and the extent of their awareness of themselves and others in their environment.

Routines are also the focus of the toddler’s day but in a somewhat diff erent way. Mealtimes and toileting provide daily opportunities for toddlers to explore and to express their emerging sense of self. Hand- washing—even eating—becomes a time to fi ll, to taste, to dump, and to pick up. Again, the curriculum emerges from a developmental need toddlers have of “Me! Mine!” To foster that independence, that wanting to “do it myself,” routines that allow for experimentation, mis- takes, and messes make a good toddler curriculum. Good programs for infants and toddlers, then, are dis- tinctly arranged for their developmental needs and are not simply modifi ed versions of what works well in a program for 3-year-olds.

Infant Care and Attachment An important consideration in infant care is the daily separation of parent and child. As you will learn in Chapter 4, attachment is the deep bond and personal relationship that connects infants to the important people in their lives, such as parents and caregivers. Th e more secure the attachment, the more positive eff ects it has on the child. Research on the infl uence of daily separation suggests that it is the quality of care that im- pacts attachment security (Berk, 2009). When the caregiver–infant ratio is low and the caregiver’s interac- tions are warm, positive, and knowledgeable about child development, children’s cognitive, social, and emotional development thrive (McCartney et al, 2007).

Kindergarten Th e kindergarten year is one of transition from early childhood programs into a more formal school setting. While some kindergartens extend the “learning through play” philosophy found in developmental preschool pro- grams, others become more focused on the academic skills of 5-year-olds and less on developmentally appro- priate practices.

Kindergarten programs abound throughout the United States. Th ey are found in elementary public and private schools, religious institutions, and as part of pre- school child care centers. Ninety-fi ve percent of all 5-year-olds are enrolled in a kindergarten program (Na- tional Center for Education Statistics, 2008).

Active involvement with people and objects helps infants and toddlers develop feelings of self-identity, curiosity, and creativity.

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Length of Day Th e length of kindergarten programs is under debate in many states and schools districts. Nine states require a full-day kindergarten and 43 states off er only half-day kindergarten. Seven states do not off er kindergarten at all. Nationally, approximately 60 percent of kindergar- teners attend a full-day program (Education Commis- sion of the States, 2006).

Too often the arguments regarding the costs of such programs overshadow a more basic question: What are the best and most appropriate kindergarten programs, teaching methods, and curricula, regardless of the length of day? Th e following should be considered in response to this question:

■ Th e purpose of the kindergarten program. How will the kindergarten program foster the goals in appro- priate curricula and adapt to the needs of children? Th e goal should begin with the child and build the program to fi t the child’s needs, skills, and develop- ing abilities.

■ Th e eff ects of a full day on children. Many children have already been in a child care setting for up to 10 hours a day and have shown they thrive in programs that are suited to their ages, development styles, and needs. Th ere is no question that most children can handle a full-day kindergarten program, providing it is adapted to their age, interests, and abilities.

■ Th e needs and concerns of families. Some families may want a full-day program because they work and need a safe and nurturing place for their children. Others who do not work outside the home may want to keep their children with them a while lon- ger. Families need to have a choice about the type of program that best suits their family.

■ Th e eff ect on teachers. A full-day kindergarten means that class is extended for a longer period of time, providing opportunities to improve the quality of the program by individualizing the curriculum. Teachers in half-day kindergartens often teach one class in the morning and one in the afternoon. Th e negative eff ects on planning, continuity, parent rela- tionships, and individualizing curriculum are obvi- ous, not to mention the risk of teacher burnout.

■ Th e concerns of the administration. Th e cost eff ective- ness of extending a kindergarten program all day will undoubtedly require more staff , more supplies and equipment, and greater food-service costs. Th e policy makers in any school setting must take these into account along with the other issues, but one would hope they would not be limited by them.

■ Th e nature and quality of the extended-day program. Often, in programs in which children are in half- day kindergarten, the quality of the extended-care part of their day is not equal to their school experi- ence. In many extended-day programs, the staff is untrained, has a high turnover rate, and does not re- fl ect the same program goals for the kindergartener.

School Entry Age Most states establish an arbitrary date (e.g., December 1) by which children must be a certain age to enter kinder- garten. In the United States, compulsory age for kinder- garten ranges from 5 to 8; most children are age 5½ at the beginning of the school year. A few of the states have a cutoff date of August 15, ensuring that all of the chil- dren are 5 years old as they enter kindergarten (Kagan & Kauerz, 2006).

Several trends are adding to the discussions about kindergarten. Lowering and raising the age for beginning kindergarten is debated frequently. Some parents hold children out of kindergarten for one year and enroll them when they are age 6, a practice called “redshirting” (Katz, 2000). Teachers retain many children each year in kindergarten; and administrators have created an array of kindergarten-substitute programs such as “develop- mental,” “extra-year,” or “transitional” kindergartens. By the time they fi nally reach kindergarten, children are now in class with late 4-year-olds, 5- and 6-year-olds—a vast developmental span under one roof. Research shows mixed results for these practices.

Some of the methods used to create more homoge- neous kindergarten classrooms or to raise expectations for kindergarten admittance are:

■ Inappropriate uses of screening and readiness tests. ■ Discouragement and/or denial of entrance for eligi-

ble children.

Do you think that all kindergartens should be full day? Why? Should half-day kindergartens be retained? Why? Are

“transitional” or “developmental” kindergartens useful? How? What do you think about the use of more testing as a way to assess kindergartners’ success in school?

What Do

YOU Think?

59CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs

■ Creation of transitional classes for those who are considered not ready for kindergarten.

■ An increasing use of retention (NAECS/ NAEYC, 2001).

Curriculum: Developmental or Academic Critical issues such as school-entry age and length of school day are deeply related to kindergarten curricu- lum issues. Kindergarten programs range from rela- tively traditional classes to highly structured, academi- cally oriented classes. Over the last 20 years, the push to teach separate skills, such as reading, writing, and math, has created more and more academically focused kindergartens in which worksheets and teacher- directed lessons are the norm. As kindergartens have changed, there is greater pressure on teachers to accel- erate children’s learning. Hatch (2005) cites three spe- cifi c changes that have altered the course of kindergar- ten programs:

1. Children today experience very diff erent childhoods than even a decade ago.

2. Knowledge of how children learn and develop has expanded.

3. Th e standards-based reform movement has changed expectations for kindergarteners by imposing arbi- trary standards of performance. Th is increases the academic expectations on them and the pressure on teachers to comply with regulations.

Hatch recommends a more balanced approach to kindergarten teaching that would merge the traditional and emerging knowledge and understanding of what children are like with what they need to meet the chal- lenges of the accountability movement.

It is clear that some of Froebel’s “children’s garden” has wandered far from its child development roots. Cur- ricula in which play is not respected as a vehicle for learning, reading is taught as a separate skill, and at- tempts are made to accelerate children’s learning are at odds with kindergarten history. Revisit Chapter 1 and read again about Froebel, Dewey, Piaget, Patty Smith Hill, Susan Isaacs, and other pioneers and their ap- proach to learning. Educating the whole child is very much in evidence in their work as is their basic connec- tion to child development theory and research. (For fur- ther discussion on the negative eff ects of early academics, see Chapter 3 for developmental ranges and Word Pic- tures for appropriate expectations. In Chapter 6, the re- lated questions of standardized testing and screening are discussed. In Chapters 10 and 15, related issues are explored.)

Kagan and Kauerz (Gullo, 2006) provide four refl ec- tions on what kindergartens can and should be in the future. Th ey integrate concerns about the developmen- tally appropriate integrity of kindergartens and the dom- ination of imposed standards and testing:

1. Kindergarten must remain “special,” that unique year in which play is a legitimate medium for establish- ing children’s learning patterns, and in which curric- ulum, standards, and assessments are in sync with preschool and fi rst grade.

2. Kindergarten must keep the child front and center, even with the new emphasis on content. Curriculum must address the full range of developmental do- mains (social, emotional, cognitive, and physical) to prepare children for more formally taught content. Children’s curiosity, enthusiasm, initiative, and will- ingness to learn must be nurtured to enhance their overall ability to learn.

3. Kindergarten must acknowledge and support diff er- ences in the needs of children and their families. Diff erent learning styles in children must be ad- dressed as well as family needs for fl exibility in the structure, such as full- or half-day sessions.

4. Kindergarten must foster positive relationships be- tween the children and their teachers, between fam- ilies and the school, and between the school and the community. Th e success of these relationships can help establish trust and respect that last throughout the child’s school years.

Kindergarten is a signifi cant transition in the lives of children and families and a critical year in a child’s

Kindergarteners are able to enjoy close friendships.

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growth and development. It should be made available and accessible to all children in the United States.

Primary Grades Early childhood is defi ned as children from birth through age 8. Primary grades, in both public and private schools, focus on the basic academic skills of reading, writing, math, science, social studies, art and drama, health and safety, and physical education. While these subjects are usually taught separately, the curriculum should be inte- grated so that children learn subject matter through a variety of activities.

Dramatic changes are taking place in the primary- age child. Children this age are eager to learn and are developing logic and reasoning skills as they move from Piaget’s preoperational stage to one of concrete opera- tions (see Chapter 4). Th eir learning tasks are more diffi cult than in kindergarten and require greater per- sistence and eff ort. Starting at about age 6, children be- gin to plan out and think through their actions and take others’ views into consideration. As they grow more independent in their learning, primary-age chil- dren like choosing their own tasks, working coopera- tively in small groups with their classmates, and partici- pating in planning each day’s work. Group discussions and planning projects address the child’s needs to be part of the planning process. Enhancing the child’s en- thusiasm for learning is a primary task for the teachers of this age group.

Play for the primary-age child now revolves around rules that accompany organized games, board games, and cards. Learning still takes place through indepen- dent exploration and manipulation of materials, so class- room centers are an important part of the environment. Th e classroom itself may be more structured but it is important that developmentally appropriate early child- hood principles, practices, and environments are applied through third grade.

Teaching in the primary grades presents more chal- lenges due to the pressure of local, state, or national standards that dictate what children need to learn at this age and grade level. All states now have these stan- dards for each grade level and each subject matter. As a result, teachers may have little or no control over what they teach and the unfortunate result may be a curricu- lum that “teaches to the test;” that is, one that stresses only the subject matter on which the child will be tested. As Copple and Bredekamp (2009) note, teach- ers should “include balancing children’s need for fo- cused instruction about a specifi c subject area or con- cept with children’s need to build on what they already

know.” Th e best curriculum for the primary child is one that is in alignment with the standards so that the subject matter matches what the standards say children should know and do at this grade and subject level. Accountability through learning standards will con- tinue to have a strong impact on the early elementary years. (Further discussion of early learning standards and their eff ect on teaching and learning will follow in Chapter 6.)

School-Age Child Care Before-school and after-school programs are designed for children before they start or after they fi nish their regular academic day. Th is type of care is usually avail- able for children from ages 5 to 12. Th e most common nonparental care arrangements for school-age children are center-or school-based programs (Lawrence et al, 2006).

Staff for after-school programs comes from a variety of backgrounds, most of which include some experience with children, such as teachers, recreation specialists, or specialists within the arts. As with most child care pro- grams, however, high turnover and low wages aff ect the quality of the service. Finding qualifi ed staff is the major challenge facing school-age providers, along with fi nding space and funding (Neugebauer, 2007).

Two national organizations, the National School- Age Care Alliance and the School-Age Child Care Proj- ect (now called the National Institute on Out-of-School Time) joined forces to create an accreditation system for after-school care. Th eir goals are to set professional stan- dards, accredit high quality programs, and support pro- gram improvement.

Th ere is a critical need for safe, recreational programs for after-school care. Six percent of children ages 5 to 11 and 33 percent of children ages 12 to 14 regularly care for themselves (U.S. Census Bureau, 2005). America Af- ter 3 PM reports that 14.3 million children are in self- care in the afternoons. Too often, these children go home with a house key around their neck or in their pocket. Th ey are instructed to look after themselves and possibly a younger sibling until the parent (or parents) comes home from work. Th ese self-care children are a young and vulnerable population.

Children need the safety, the creative opportunity, and the emotionally supportive relationships that out- of-school care can provide. A quality after-school pro- gram has the potential to increase school attendance and positively aff ect learning. Th ese programs are natural ex- tensions of responsible child care and are essential ser- vices to children and their families.

61CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs

Homeschooling Th e homeschool movement began in the 1950s as an alter- native to public education and was illegal in many states (Cloud & Morse, 2001). Homeschooling is now legal in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Today, approxi- mately 1.5 million students are homeschooled (National Center for Education Statistics, 2008), refl ecting a diverse range of participants. About 75 percent are non-Hispanic whites in contrast to 65 percent in public schools. Nearly four percent are African American and another four percent are Hispanic (Bieleck, Chandler, & Broughman, 2001).

Th ree reasons why parents select homeschooling are school environment, to provide religious instruction, and dissatisfaction with the academic instruction available elsewhere. From 2003 to 2007, the percentage of students whose parents reported that religious instruction was the most important factor increased from 73 to 83 percent (National Center for Education Statistics, 2008).

Th e educational philosophies and methods used in homeschooling are widely diverse and range from pre- packaged curriculum that parents buy to “relaxed home- schooling” and “unschooling” (Cloud & Morse, 2001). Th e “relaxed” or “natural” homeschooling method in- volves real-life projects as teaching opportunities, such as taking care of the farm animals or building a table. Using real life’s teachable moments, the education is often tai- lored to the child’s interests and abilities. About seven percent of homeschoolers use no curriculum plans, and children pursue their own interests in the method called “unschooling” (Cloud & Morse, 2001). If some of this seems familiar, you might want to look back at Chap- ter 1 and review the various educational philosophies on which early childhood programs are based.

Th ere are a number of concerns expressed by educa- tors regarding homeschool educational programs which include: (1) lack of quality control due to varying regula- tions; (2) lack of socialization opportunities for students; (3) lack of sports opportunities; (4) the extreme time commitment demanded of parents; (5) lack of account- ability, regulations, and policies surrounding homeschool- ing; and (6) the loss of revenue for public education.

The Issue Is Quality Each day, nearly 12 million children under the age of 5 are in some type of child care arrangement (U.S. Census Bureau, 2007) and each of these early childhood settings

will diff er in the level of quality they provide. What does it mean to have a “high quality” program that benefi ts children and their families?

Indicators of Quality Early childhood programs vary greatly in their educa- tional goals and practices, their methods of instruction, and even in the kind of social “mood” or atmosphere they create.

Yet the quality of these programs is based on three essential factors:

1. Th e teacher–child ratio; that is, the number of chil- dren cared for by each staff member (see Chapter 9)

2. Th e total size of the group or class 3. Th e education, experience, and training of the staff

(see Chapter 5)

Th e importance of these three factors cannot be under- estimated, and they underscore each of the principles that follow.

Th e National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), has established a list of criteria for high-quality early childhood programs, based on a con- sensus of thousands of early childhood professionals (NAEYC, 2005). Th e criteria that serve as a standard of excellence for any group program for young children fol- lows. After each one is a reference to the chapter(s) in this text in which the topic is more fully developed. NAEYC’s (2005) 10 essentials for high quality pro- grams are:

1. Relationships. Positive relationships help children develop personal responsibility, self-regulation, constructive interactions, and academic mastery. Warm sensitive relationships help children feel se- cure, develop a positive sense of self, respect for others, and the ability to cooperate. (Chapters 3, 5, 7, 8, 10, and 14)

2. Curriculum. Th e curriculum draws on research for concepts, skills, and methodology that fosters chil- dren’s learning and maximizes learning through time and materials as well as provides learning op- portunities for children individually and in groups. (Chapters 4, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14)

3. Teaching. Developmentally, linguistically, and cul- turally appropriate teaching practices enhance children’s learning, as does multiple instructional methods, including teacher-directed, child-

DAPDAP

DAP Each early childhood center has its own culture that refl ects their mission, philosophy, and beliefs. The culture of a program in- fl uences its commitment to quality.

62 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

directed, and structured and unstructured learn- ing opportunities. Teachers refl ect the children’s backgrounds, needs, interests, and capabilities in their instructional approaches. When more than one teacher is in the classroom, a team teaching approach is used. (Chapters 5, 8, and 10)

4. Assessment of Child Progress. Appropriate and sys- tematic assessment measures, which are culturally sensitive, inform needs. Assessments aid in identify- ing children who need additional instruction and/or intervention and further assessment. (Chapters 3, 6, and 10)

5. Health and Safety. A healthy state of well-being en- hances a child’s ability to learn. Adults help protect children from illness and injury and help them make healthy choices for themselves. (Chapters 9 and 15)

6. Teachers. Th e teaching staff is educationally quali- fi ed, knowledgeable, and professionally committed to support children’s learning and development, as well as families’ diverse needs and interests. Th e teachers who have specifi c preparation in child de- velopment and early childhood education are more likely to have warm, positive interactions with chil- dren, promote richer language experiences, and cre- ate a higher quality learning environment. Ongoing professional development ensures that teachers will refl ect current research and best practices. (Chap- ters 2, 5, 9, and 10)

7. Families. Good family relationships are collabora- tions between home and school and refl ect family composition, language, and culture. Th ey are based on mutual trust and respect in recognition of the primacy of the family in the life of the child. (Chap- ters 8 and 15)

8. Community Relationships. Th e program establishes relationships with and uses the resources of the community to realize program goals. By helping to connect families with a variety of resources, the chil- dren’s health and development is enhanced. (Chap- ters 2, 3, 9, and 15)

9. Physical Environment. A safe, healthy, and accessible environment and well-maintained indoor and out- door areas fosters learning, health, and safety for young children. Th e design of the facilities and the activities support a high-quality program. (Chap- ters 2, 9, 10 and 11)

10. Leadership and Management. Th e program eff ec- tively administers policies, procedures, and systems that support a stable staff , strong personnel, fi scal, and program management. Eff ective governance and

structure, program accountability, positive commu- nity relations, and a supportive workplace create a high-quality environment for all. (Chapters 2, 5, and 15)

Quality early care and education contribute to the healthy cognitive, social, and emotional development of all children but particularly those from low-income fam- ilies. Th e cost of child care is disproportionately high for poor families, so that those who might benefi t the most have the most diffi cult time aff ording quality care. Good, aff ordable, accessible child care that will meet the in- creasing needs of American families is one of today’s most crucial issues.

Three Studies on Quality Every day, scores of parents search for aff ordable pro- grams and reliable providers. A study by the National Association of Child Care resource and Referral Agen- cies (NACCRRA, 2008) polled over 1000 parents na- tionwide to fi nd out what parents want in child care. Quality was mentioned more than any other issue. Par- ents want their children safe, able to learn, and in child care that is aff ordable.

Highlights from three other studies underscore the quality issue:

1. Th e Carolina Abecedarian Project (1999), con- ducted by the Frank Porter Graham Child Devel- opment Center in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, is the fi rst study to track participants from infancy to age 21. Th e children were considered at risk for po- tential school failure. Th e study showed the strong infl uence of high quality child care when comparing those who were enrolled full time in a quality early childhood program from infancy to age 5 versus those who did not attend a preschool program, al- though all attended comparable public schools be- ginning with kindergarten.

Important factors in determining quality were in place to ensure success: staff experience and educa- tion, little or no staff turnover, small teacher–student ratios, group size, and parent participation. Signifi - cant benefi ts for the children enrolled in the program included the likelihood of attending a four-year col- lege and delaying parenthood until after high school. Moreover:

■ At age 21, 65 percent of the child care gradu- ates either had a good job or were in college, compared to 40 percent of the non-child-care subjects.

63CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs

■ By age 15, twice as many of the children who did not receive intervention services had been placed in special education programs than those who had been in child care.

■ Only 30 percent of the child care children had to repeat a grade in school compared with 56 per- cent of the others.

2. Th e Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes Study (CQCOS, 1995) found that the average child care is mediocre in quality and that some were of such poor quality that they threatened children’s emo- tional and intellectual development. Infants and toddlers were most likely to be at risk for poor care in these centers; nearly half of their settings failed to meet basic health and safety needs.

A follow-up study, Th e Children of the Cost, Qual- ity, and Outcomes Study Go to School (Whitebook, Sakai, Gerber, & Howes, 2001), tracked the children through second grade. Th e fi ndings noted that:

■ Children who receive good, quality child care had better social and cognitive skills in kindergarten and beyond.

■ Children who were at risk gained the most from positive child care experiences and sustained these gains through second grade.

■ Children who had closer relationships with their child care teachers had better behavior and social skills through second grade.

3. A study by the RAND Corporation (Karoly & Bigelow, 2005) for the fi rst time reported the eco- nomic returns of one state’s (California) investment in quality preschools for all 4-year-old children. Th e study projected that for every dollar invested in a quality universal program, society would get be- tween $2 and $4 back. Th e benefi ts include:

■ Major increase in lifetime earnings ($2.7 billion per class year of children served)

■ Improved K-12 schools (19 percent reduction in grade repetition per class year; 15 percent fewer special education years; 15 percent reduction in high school dropouts)

■ Signifi cant reductions in violent juvenile off enses, arrests, and incarceration

Issues That Affect Quality Th e focus of the child care issues centers on a few core problems that threaten the quality of child care through- out the country:

■ Th e annual turnover rate for child care staff is over 30 percent (Whitebook, Sakai, Gerber, & Howes,

2001). Minimal benefi ts, lack of healthcare, and low wages account for this high rate of turnover.

■ Th irty-two states do not require prior training to teach in child care centers, and 39 states and the District of Columbia do not require training of family child care providers (Children’s Defense Fund, 2005).

■ Hourly earnings of child care workers averaged $10.53 in 2006, much less than the average of $16.76 throughout private industry (Bureau of La- bor Statistics, 2009). Th e mean annual wage is ap- proximately $19,670 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2007).

Bredekamp and Glowacki (1996) succinctly summarize the primary issues in child care today: “Th e economics of child care continue to create a trilemma—quality for children, aff ordability for families, and adequate com- pensation for staff .”

Th e triple threats to child care—quality, cost, and compensation—will be discussed further in Chapter 15.

Evaluating Programs for Quality As educators, we are constantly evaluating, judging, and rating, areas such as:

■ Curriculum. Will this language game help develop the listening skills of 3-year-olds?

■ Materials and equipment. If we order the terrarium, will there be enough money for the math lab?

■ Th e environment. Should the children begin school with free play or a group time? Where can we store the nap cots? Do the cubbies create a hazard out in the hallway?

■ Children’s behavior. Evan and Francie interrupt each other too much. Should they be placed in separate work groups?

■ Teacher eff ectiveness. Yolanda still fi nds it diffi cult to lead a group time. How can she be supportively challenged?

Evaluation Is a Process As a process, evaluation is at once a defi nition, an assess- ment, and a plan. Evaluation involves making decisions, choices, and selections. In its simplest form, it is a pro- cess of appraisal. A good evaluation encourages positive change. It is easy to continue the same program, the same

64 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

teaching techniques, year after year when a school is op- erating smoothly. Sometimes it is not clear what—or how—improvements could be made. A regular evalua- tion process keeps a system alive and growing. Evalua- tions help give meaning and perspective to children, teachers, and programs. An assessment that helps clarify issues and ideas brings renewed dedication and inspiration.

Programs may be evaluated by taking an inventory of a school’s curriculum and educational materials. Pro- gram evaluation involves analyzing children, teachers, parents, and administrations to see how they all work together to meet the goals of the program.

Evaluation Essentials 1. Setting goals. Without evaluation, goals are meaning-

less. Evaluation helps shape a goal into a meaningful plan of action. To be useful, an evaluation must in- clude suggestions for improving the performance or behavior. Th e assessment tool that only describes a situation is an unfi nished evaluation; goals for im- provement must be established.

2. Expectations. In every early childhood setting, more than one set of expectations is at work. Th e director has job expectations of all the teachers. Teachers

have standards of performance for themselves, the children, and parents. Parents have some expecta- tions about what their children will do in school and about the role of the teachers. Children develop expectations regarding themselves, their parents, teachers, and the school.

3. Th e degree to which expectations are met. A good evaluation tool outlines clearly and specifi cally how expectations have been met in a system of mutual accountability. Evaluation is a way to look at where and how improvements can be made, to challenge methods, assumptions, and purposes. Total pro- grams are evaluated to see if they accomplish their objectives. Evaluations provide information by which to rate performance, defi ne areas of diffi - culty, look for possible solutions, and plan for the future.

4. Th e degree of inclusion. A good evaluation instru- ment should be culturally appropriate and recognize the many ways that a program can be multicultural and anti-biased in its operations. In Chapter 9, you will learn about anti-bias and inclusive environ- ments. (See Figure 9.4 for a checklist for creating an inclusive setting.)

Why Evaluate? Th ere are four major reasons for making an annual eval- uation of a program for young children.

To Gain an Overview Evaluating a program gives an overview of how all the various components function together. Th e fundamental questions are: Is this a good place for children? Would you want your child to be here? What is a high quality program for young children?

Looking at children, teachers, and the total environ- ment, a program evaluation reveals the environment as an integrated whole. Th ese assessments add an aware- ness of how one area is related to another and how the parts mesh in a particular setting. Such evaluations, then, are the standards of quality and include:

■ Children’s progress ■ Teacher performance ■ Curriculum development ■ Th e fi nancial structure ■ Family involvement ■ Th e community at large ■ Th e governing organization of the school

DAPDAP

Evaluations are part of everyday life in an early childhood setting. How are these children learning to listen? To re- late to the teacher?

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DAP Program accountability enhances the daily life of the program and helps sustain a high level of quality.

65CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs

In program evaluations, each of these is assessed for how it functions alone and how each works in concert with the others.

To Establish Accountability A program evaluation establishes accountability. Th is refers to a program’s ability to answer to a controlling group or agency, for instance, the school board or the government offi ce or the parents and the community in which the program operates. Th ese groups want to know how their funds are being spent and how their philoso- phy is being expressed through the overall program.

To Make Improvements Program evaluations are an opportunity to take an ob- jective look at how the goals of the school are being met. A good evaluation will support the strengths of the ex- isting program and suggest areas in which changes might improve overall eff ectiveness. An in-depth assessment increases the likelihood that program goals and visions will be realized. Th e evaluation helps determine the di- rection the program may take in the future.

To Acquire Accreditation Evaluations are a necessary step for some schools that wish to be approved for certifi cation or accreditation by various organizations or government agencies. Such groups require that a school meet certain evaluation standards before the necessary permits are issued or membership is granted. Agencies, such as a state depart- ment of social services or department of education, often license family child care homes, while private schools may need to follow certain criteria to be affi liated with a larger organization (such as the American Montessori Society).

Th e National Academy of Early Childhood Pro- grams, a division of NAEYC, has established an accredi- tation system for improving the quality of life for young children and their families. Th e accreditation system ar- ticulates standards for physical, social, emotional, and cognitive development of children in-group care. Th e academy established goals for accreditation around 10 criteria, which are outlined in Figure 2-5.

How to Evaluate a Program Th ere are three important steps to take when evaluating a program that will ensure a successful evaluation pro- cess. Each is a necessary ingredient for a good evaluation, and together they provide a realistic picture of the indi- vidual program.

Defi ne the Objectives A program evaluation begins with a defi nition of the program’s objectives. Knowing why a program is to be evaluated indicates how to tailor the procedure to the needs and characteristics of an individual school. With the objectives defi ned, the choice of evaluation instru- ment becomes clear. If, for example, a program objective is to provide a healthy environment for children, the evaluation tool used must address the issues of health, safety, and nutrition.

Choose an Evaluation Instrument Evaluation instruments vary with the purpose of the pro- gram evaluation. NAEYC’s accreditation guidelines are eff ective (described as 10 essentials for high quality pro- grams on pages 61–62), as are four rating scales devel- oped by the Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Each focuses on a specifi c early childhood setting:

■ Infant/Toddler Environment Rating Scale (ITERS-R) which is designed to assess programs for children from birth to 2� years of age

■ Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (ECERS-R) for preschool through kindergarten programs serving children 2� through 5 years of age

■ Family Child Care Environment Rating Scale (FCCERS-R) for use in home that serve infants through school-age

■ School-Age Care Environment Rating Scale (SACERS) that assesses group care programs for children from 5 to 12 years of age

See Chapter 9 for details of how these elements are used in planning environments. Figure 2-5 is a checklist that includes the program areas to include in an evaluation.

Implement the Findings Th e evaluation process is complete when the results are tabulated and goals are set to meet the recommendations of the evaluation. Program administrators meet with the teaching staff to discuss the challenges highlighted by the evaluation. A process is put into place for addressing the issues, a calendar is established to create a timeline for improvement, the appropriate staff members are as- signed the responsibility for making the changes, and the process begins anew. Evaluations are only as useful as the implementation plan. Th ey can help identify specifi c concerns, determine the areas of growth and potential development, and be a blueprint for the future.

66 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

Checklist for Program Evaluation

____ Can the teaching staff articulate good early education principles and relate them to their teaching?

Parent Relationships ____ How does the classroom include parents?

____ Are parents welcome to observe, discuss policies, make suggestions, help in the class?

____ Are different needs of parents taken into account?

____ Where and how do parents have a voice in the school?

____ Are parent-teacher conferences scheduled?

____ Does the school attempt to use community resources and social service agencies in meeting parents’ needs?

The Organization and Administration ____ Does the school maintain and keep records?

____ Are scholarships or subsidies available?

____ What socioeconomic, cultural, and religious groups does the school serve?

____ What is the funding agency, and what role does it play?

____ Is there a school board, and how is it chosen?

____ Does the school serve children with special needs or handicaps?

____ Is the classroom group homo- or heterogeneous?

____ What hours is the school open?

____ What age range is served?

____ Are there both full- and part-day options?

____ Is after-school care available?

____ Does the school conduct research or train teachers?

____ What is the teacher-child ratio?

The Overall Program ____ Does the school have a written, stated

educational philosophy?

____ Are there developmental goals for the children’s physical, social, intellectual, and emotional growth?

____ Are the children evaluated periodically?

The Physical Environment ____ Are the facilities clean, comfortable, safe?

____ Are room arrangements orderly and attractive?

____ Are materials and equipment in good repair and maintained?

____ Is there a variety of materials, appropriate to age levels?

____ Are activity areas well-defi ned?

____ Are cleanup and room restoration a part of the daily schedule?

____ Are samples of children’s work on display?

____ Is play space adequate, both inside and out?

____ Is personal space (e.g., cubby) provided for each child?

The Staff ____ Are there enough teachers for the number of

children?

____ How is this determined?

____ Are the teachers qualifi ed? What criteria are used?

____ Is the staff evaluated periodically? By whom and how?

____ Does the school provide/encourage in-service training and continuing education?

____ Do the teachers encourage the children to be independent and self-suffi cient?

____ Are the teachers genuinely interested in children?

____ Are teachers aware of children’s individual abilities and limitations?

____ What guidance and disciplinary techniques are used?

____ Do teachers observe, record, and write reports on children’s progress?

____ Are teachers skilled in working with individual children, small groups, and large groups?

____ Does the teaching staff give the children a feeling of stability and belonging?

____ Do teachers provide curriculum that is age- appropriate and challenging?

____ How would you describe the teachers’ relationships with other adults in the setting? Who does this include, and how?

FIGURE 2-5 Checklist for areas of program evaluation.

(continues)

67CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs

Cultural Responsiveness ____ Are multicultural perspectives already

incorporated throughout the school, classroom curriculum, and classroom environment?

____ Do my attitudes (and those of all staff) indicate a willingness to accept and respect cultural diversity? How is this demonstrated?

____ Do classroom materials recognize the value of cultural diversity, gender, and social class equity?

____ Do curricular activities and methods provide children opportunities to work and play together cooperatively? In mixed groups of their choice or at teacher direction?

____ Do schoolwide activities refl ect cultural diversity? How is this noticed?

____ Does the program planning refl ect the reality (views and opinions) of families and the community?

____ Does the curriculum include planning for language diversity? For full inclusion? (Adapted from Baruth and Manning, 1992, and de Melendez and Ostertag, 1997.)

____ Is the program capable of being individualized to fi t the needs of all the children?

____ Does the program include time for a variety of free, spontaneous activities?

____ Is the curriculum varied to include music, art, science, nature, math, language, social studies, motor skills, etc.?

____ Are there ample opportunities to learn through a variety of media and types of equipment and materials?

____ Is there ample outdoor activity?

____ Is there a daily provision for routines: eating, sleeping, toileting, play?

____ Is the major emphasis in activities on concrete experiences?

____ Are the materials and equipment capable of stimulating and sustaining interest?

____ Are fi eld trips offered?

____ Do children have a chance to be alone? In small groups? In large groups?

FIGURE 2-5 (continued)

68 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

This editorial is about an unforgettable experience I had with young children in a period of national crisis. It oc- curred during World War II, in an innovative project that not only was a remarkable solution to a problem for those times, but that also has special relevance and appropriateness, I be- lieve, for the 21st century.

In early 1943, the Kaiser Shipbuilding Corporation was faced with the necessity of employing more women to meet the stepped-up schedule for producing warships in their two ship- yards in Portland, Oregon. Of the 12,000 women already em- ployed, one-third of them were mothers who had no place to leave their preschool children while they worked. Absenteeism among women was running 50 percent higher than among men and was contributing to slow-downs in production that seriously aff ected the war eff ort. Th e reasons most women gave for being late or for missing work were that the babysitter did not show up or a child was ill and could not be left at home until seen by a doctor. Henry Kaiser, reportedly in typical fashion, responded to the dilemma by saying that if mothers were worried about leav- ing their children, he would provide them with nurseries. He resolved to build the fi nest child care centers in the country.

Within a few weeks, architects were drawing plans for two child service centers to be placed at the entrances to the shipyards—one at Swan Island and the other at Oregon Yard. Paid for by the United States Maritime Commission and ab- sorbed as part of the cost of building ships, these centers turned out to be not only very fi ne centers, but also the largest child care centers in the world.

Dr. Lois Meek Stolz, a well-known leader in the fi elds of child development and early childhood education, was chosen by Edgar Kaiser to direct the two child service centers. She planned the entire children’s program and made provisions for staffi ng the centers. She brought James L. Hymes, Jr., former editor of Progressive Education, to the program as manager of the Child Service Centers, and she recruited Dr. Miriam Lowenberg, a well-known nutritionist, to be responsible for the children’s nutritional needs.

The Staff Each center had a supervisor who was responsible for the total operation over all three shifts—day, swing, and graveyard. Th ere were group supervisors, head teachers, assistant teach-

ers, dieticians, and nurses under her direction. In addition, each center had a social worker who served as a liaison be- tween the teachers in the centers and the parents in the ship- yard. All of the staff members were recruited from nursery school training centers throughout the United States. All of the teachers had college degrees, and the supervisors and most of the head teachers had master’s degrees and years of experi- ence with children. Th ey were young, energetic women “chosen for their comfortable qualities as well as for their scientifi c knowledge” ( Jean Muir, from an article she wrote for the Or- egon Journal, Sunday, December 12, 1943).

The Setting Th e teaching staff began arriving in late October as the fi nish- ing touches were being made on the buildings. Th ey found, to their delight, that the centers, although temporary, were beau- tifully and functionally designed. Each center was built around a large, octagonally shaped courtyard with four wading pools where children could play away from the hazards of traffi c. Th e courtyard itself was grass-covered, with a hard-surfaced area designed for wheel toys that extended around the perim- eter. Because of the long rainy season in Portland, covered porches, equipped with jungle gyms, climbing boxes, slides, and large, hollow blocks, connected the interior rooms to the grassy areas. Children could thus enjoy vigorous outdoor play every day of the year, regardless of the weather.

A cog-wheel plan of architecture provided for 15 rectan- gular playrooms (26’ by 49’) extending out from a central cir- cular corridor. Between and opposite every two playrooms were smaller rooms for teachers’ meetings, special play, or story times. Each of the 15 playrooms had windows on two sides to provide light and interesting views of the outside world. Win- dow seats, low enough for children to sit on, were built so that the children could curl up on them and watch the ships, cars, trucks, and cranes in the busy shipyard below where their parents were working. Th is proved to be a special delight as darkness came and the yards were lighted, showing the out- lines of the ships and their refl ections in the water.

Th e interior colors were soft pastel shades of blue, yellow, and apricot, depending on the exposure of the individual room. Adult-height counterspace covered the expansive shelv- ing where children could readily reach the many unit blocks,

EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN THE SHIPYARDS by Edith M. Dowley

Insights from the fi eld

69CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs

toys, games, books, and puzzles that were neatly and meaning- fully stored there. Children’s lockers, arranged like a dressing room unit, provided hooks for coats and jackets, a shelf for caps, mittens, and art work to take home, and a place for safe- keeping of special possessions. Each room had its own toilet room with toilets and wash basins scaled to child size. Wash cloths and towels provided by the center were hung on hooks within the children’s reach and marked with individual sym- bols matching the ones on their lockers.

Th ere was a large room in each center, separated from the playrooms, where children could be cared for when they were ill. Comfortable cribs, like those used in children’s hospitals, were placed in glass-sided cubicles that allowed children quiet places to sleep, eat, or sit up and play while recovering from colds, coughs, earaches, or upset tummies. A registered nurse was on duty at all times in the infi rmary, and teachers planned and provided the play materials and projects for both the bed patients and those who were up and about.

Each center had a fully equipped, large, modern kitchen that was adequate for serving meals and snacks, over a 24-hour day, to some 400 children and their teachers. Large, heated rolling carts were available to deliver the china, silverware, and food to each room, where children were served at small, low tables. Usually, fi ve children and a teacher dined together each day as a “family.”

Th e architects thoughtfully included one additional fea- ture: several large, square bathtubs raised two steps above the fl oor. Th ese tubs allowed teachers, when necessary or desir- able, to bathe a child without bending over. Th ese tubs also provided safe places for children to “swim” and splash and en- gage in relaxing water play.

Opening Days Oregon Center, where I was a group supervisor, opened its doors on November 8, 1943, to children, age 18 months to six years, of parents working on the day and swing shifts. On that day, a total of 67 children came to the center. We were, of course, very disappointed in this turnout. We realized, how- ever, that the majority of people in the area had never even heard of a nursery school and were not able to imagine a children’s center that would stay open twelve months a year, six days a week, and twenty-four hours a day! So we planned “open house” on Sundays and invited the public to tour the centers. We went down into the shipyards to talk to the work- ers about the child services available. Feature articles with many photographs appeared in the local newspapers. Gradu- ally, more children were enrolled. By Christmas of that year, there were over 100 children being cared for in the center. In January, the graveyard shift was started, as was a Saturday and after-school program for older children. By August 27th, when Oregon Shipyard went on a seven-day work week, the Center was operating seven days a week, with an average daily attendance of 370 children.

Everything possible was done to keep workers on the job of building ships. Parents paid only nominal fees for child service: 75 cents a day for one child in a family and 50 cents for each additional child, paid by the week. If a child came seven days a week, parents were only charged for six days.

The Children Mothers or fathers brought the children to their rooms at the Center each day before their shifts began, and picked them up after the shift ended. Day-shift children often spent nine or more hours in the Center as that was the longest shift. Day- shift parents were always in a hurry, it seemed, and were less able to spend time helping their children make the transition from home to school. Separating from their mothers and fa- thers was painful for some children at fi rst.

After working out in the cold and rain for long hours at a stretch, day-shift parents were very tired and in a hurry at the end of the day when they came to pick up their children. Some were cross and impatient as they hurried their preschoolers to avoid missing the bus or car-pool ride. Th ere was no time to talk over their child’s day with the teacher. So, teachers com- municated with parents about their children by writing brief comments next to a child’s name on a chart hung outside the playroom door. Th ese comments had to be worded with great tact, we discovered. Even such comments as “John didn’t fi nish his lunch” or “Betsy didn’t take a nap today” could result in angry scolding or slapping of the child. We tried to emphasize the positive behaviors in our messages in order to make each child appear more lovable and interesting to parents.

For the children on the swing shift, life was quite diff erent. Th ey usually arrived early after a leisurely day at home or out shopping with their parents. Mothers and fathers on their way to work often stayed for a while at the center, reading stories or looking at toys or interesting things the children described to them the night before. Th ere was a more relaxed atmo- sphere in the playrooms during the swing shift than during the day shift. Th is was evident in the conversations between chil- dren, and especially in their dramatic play.

Swing-shift children were served supper as a group, after which they had time to play, listen to stories, enjoy music and play games, paint pictures and, in summertime, play outside until dark. Th ey then undressed and went to bed. Th e children were then awakened and dressed before their tired parents arrived.

Additional Services Th e Center also tried to provide time-saving services to par- ents that might relieve some of the stresses under which they worked. Home Service Foods began in January of 1944. Pre- cooked meals, planned by Dr. Lowenberg, were prepared in the centers’ kitchens. Priced at fi fty cents each, one order was

70 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

ample for a working man or woman, and a single portion would serve two preschool children. Th ese ready-packaged meals were ordered two or more days in advance and con- tained the main course and dessert, the foods that usually re- quired the most preparation time. Directions were included for heating and serving, and suggestions for additional foods to round out the meal were off ered.

In time, other services were added, such as mending chil- dren’s clothes, buying their shoelaces, and haircutting. In Feb- ruary, a program of immunizations was begun. Children whose parents had not been able to arrange for the necessary shots required for nursery school attendance were able to re- ceive their shots at the Center. Teachers, in the absence of parents, brought children in turn to the Center’s physician, holding them on their laps to reassure and comfort them while they got their shots.

Parent-Teacher Interactions Parent-teacher conferences were usually diffi cult to arrange. We found ways to talk briefl y with a mother by walking with her to a waiting bus or car. Teachers invited parents into the playrooms to see the artwork of their children or to view spe- cial block buildings preserved for their admiration.

Parent meetings took place occasionally when dinner was served to the mothers and fathers in one room while their children had dinner in another. Group supervisors went down into the shipyard to talk to a parent when it seemed necessary. On these occasions, I found myself surrounded by fathers and mothers who eagerly asked “What was my child doing when you left?” As parents realized how much teachers knew and cared about their children, they made time for interviews and shared their problems and pleasures with them.

Program Results Many good things happened in the Child Service Centers in the Kaiser Shipyards—for children, for parents, for the indus- try, for all of us. We all had a part in winning the war as “cham-

pion shipbuilders,” as we were told, and for that we were proud. Th e head of the Maritime Commission told the teach- ers that, without their help, it would have been impossible to keep the shipyards in production seven days a week. Parents told us that when they were tired and tempted to sleep late on Sunday morning, their children would awaken them, saying “Get up, get up. If you don’t go to work, we don’t get to go to school.” When the centers were closed in 1945 at the end of the war, records showed that “3,811 children were taken care of—a total of 250,000 child care days—which freed almost 2 million working hours for the women” (Stanford University Campus Report, Interview with Lois Stolz, March 30,1983).

But I think the most remarkable, the best thing that hap- pened was that, in a time of war, when mothers of preschool children worked eight and nine hours a day, six or seven days a week, the lives of almost 4,000 children were made happy, healthy, and in some ways, better than they ever were before. Th is could only happen as a combination of skillful profes- sional planning, strong professional leadership, and some of the best teachers the nursery school profession has ever pre- pared. I believe that all children deserve to benefi t from that combination, especially in their early years.

We must wonder if, in the future, there will be enough professionally prepared specialists in the fi eld to provide lead- ership. Will there be enough teachers who are knowledgeable about the nature and development of infants and young chil- dren and sensitive to their individual needs? Will there be enough enlightened and caring personnel to license and moni- tor (with in-service education) facilities and programs for an entire nation’s children? You—and those who follow in your footsteps—hold the answers to these questions.

Edith M. Dowley was involved in early childhood education for fi fty years. She was a group supervisor in the Kaiser Child Service Centers, and later became the fi rst director of Stanford University’s Bing Nursery School, a position she retained until 1975. She served as a national consultant to Proj- ect Head Start from 1965 to 1968, and from 1971 to 1972 she was a member of the California Task Force on Early Childhood Education. The late Dr. Dowley was most recently Professor Emerita of Psychology and Education at Stanford University.

SUMMARY High-quality early childhood programs refl ect the core elements of developmentally appropriate practices (DAP) by basing the program on what is known about child development and learning, what is known about each individual child, and what is known about the child’s social and cultural context. By following DAP guidelines, early childhood programs maximize the ben- efi ts children gain from attending an early education program. Following the guidelines for Developmentally and Culturally Appropriate Practice (DCAP) ensures equal and fair teaching and learning experiences for all students.

Educational facilities for young children reach a broad population. Th ey serve children from infancy through elementary-school age. An array of programs is available; each varies for philosophical reasons as well as because of the ages of children enrolled. Early childhood teachers have a wide range of programs from which to choose—as do parents.

Th e traditional nursery school and its sister pro- grams of child care centers and family child care form the core of early childhood programs. Th ere are many spon- sors of early childhood programs, including universities, employers, religious institutions, profi t and non-profi t groups, parents, public schools, high schools, hospitals, and governmental agencies. Head Start and Early Head

Start are two successful examples of government spon- sored attempts to provide early education and interven- tion to children caught in poverty’s cycle.

Refl ecting the needs of society, extended day pro- grams provide for group care before and after school hours. Infant/toddler programs are common, and school- age care is a service that meets the demands for good, safe, and challenging programs for children who need care on either side of their school day.

Quality is a primary issue in all early childhood pro- grams. Th e trilemma of fi nding and keeping qualifi ed teachers and supporting them with equitable wages and benefi ts is challenging while attempting to keep a pro- gram fi nancially accessible to those who need it.

A good evaluation process includes a clear purpose, knowing who and what will be evaluated, and what use will be made of the results. Any program designed to meet the needs of children must be evaluated on a regu- lar basis. Teachers, children, and the program must be assessed individually and then evaluated as a whole. Each supports and depends upon the other; an evaluation is a way to look at how these relationships are working. Th e result is a better prepared staff and a program of greater quality.

For more activities and information, visit our website at http://www.EarlyChildEd.delmar.com

KEY TERMS developmentally appropriate practice

(DAP) sociocultural mixed-age grouping looping traditional nursery school child care center

family child care laboratory schools parent cooperative schools employer-sponsored child care faith-based programs educaring

attachment alignment self-care evaluation accountability

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What are the three core considerations of developmentally appropriate practices?

2. What factors determine how a program serves diverse needs?

3. What are the core programs of early childhood education?

4. What are the variations of the core programs and who do they serve?

5. Th e age range of early childhood programs is extended in what ways?

CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs 71

6. What are the three most important factors that determine the quality of an early childhood program?

7. What are the reasons for evaluating early childhood programs?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Choose one program and describe why you would like to teach in it. What are the most attractive elements of

the program? What are some of the challenges you would have working in such a program?

2. Visit a family child care home. Look at the home as if you were a prospective parent. What did you like most? Least? Is the home licensed? If so, for how many children? After talking with the family child care provider, what do you think are the disadvantages of this type of program? What do you think are possible solutions to these problems?

3. What are the licensing regulations for child care in your area? Describe the steps necessary in your town to open a nursery school, child care center, and a family child care home.

4. Visit a Head Start program and a local Kindergarten. Compare their programs in terms of appropriate or inap- propriate curriculum. What are the major concerns of the teaching staff in each type of setting? What are the controversies about each of these programs in your community?

5. Does your own setting have an evaluation plan? Analyze the goals of your setting and note where the implemen- tation meets (or does not meet) the goals.

6. Visit an NAEYC accredited program. Discuss the following with the director or supervisor: How did the staff respond to the process? What were some of the most diffi cult issues to address? What was the role of parents in the process? What have been the benefi ts of accreditation?

HELPFUL WEBSITES Bureau of Labor Statistics http://www.stats.bls.gov U.S. Department of Education http://www.edu.gov Families and Work Institute http://www.familiesandwork.org National Institute on Out-of-School Time http://www.niost.org National Network for Child Care http://www.nncc.org National Association for Family Child Care http://www.nafcc.org Child Care Information Exchange http://www.ccie.com National Center for Education Statistics http://www.nces.ed.gov Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services http://www.clas.uiuc.edu Center for Child Care Workforce http://www.ccw.org International Nanny’s Association http://www.nanny.org Head Start/Early Head Start http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/ohs ChildStats http://www.childstats.gov U.S. Census Bureau http://www.census.gov Children’s Defense Fund http://www.childrensdefense.org

72 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

73CHAPTER 2 Types of Programs

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About Homeschooling http://www.homeschooling.about.com National Association for the Education of Young Children http://www.naeyc.org

REFERENCES

Additional resources including the TeachSource Videos can be found on the premium website for this book. Go to http://www.cengage.com/login to register your access code.

74 SECTION 1 What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?

Head Start (2009). 2009 Head Start fact sheet. Wash- ington, DC: Head Start Bureau, Department of Health and Human Services.

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Karoly, L. A., & Bigelow, J. H. (2005). Th e economics of investing in universal preschool education in California. Santa Monica, CA: RAND (Research and Develop- ment Corporation).

Katz, L. (1995, May). Th e benefi ts of mixed-age group- ing. ERIC Digest. (EDO-PS-95–8)

Katz, L. (2000, August). Academic redshirting and young children. ERIC Digest. (EDO-PS-00-13)

Katz, L. G., Evangelou, D., & Hartman, J. A. (1990). Th e case for mixed-age groupings in early education. Washington, DC: National Association for the Edu- cation of Young Children.

Lawrence, S., & Kreader, J. K. (2006). School-age child care arrangements. Child Care & Early Education Re- search Connections at www.research connections.org.

Lindner, E., Mattis, M. C, & Rogers, J. (1983). When churches mind the children. Ypsilanti, MI: High/ Scope Press.

McCartney, K., Dearing, E., Taylor, B., & Bub, K. (2007). Quality childcare supports the achievement of low- income children: Direct and indirect pathways through caregiving and the home environment. Jour- nal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 28, 411-426.

National Association of Child Care Resources and Re- ferral Agencies (NACCRRA). (2008). Child Care in America. Retrieved from website February, 2009.

National Association for Family Child Care. (2005). NAFCC accreditation and information. Salt Lake City, UT: Author.

National Association for the Education of Young Chil- dren Position Statement. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8. In Copple. C. & Bredekamp, S. (Eds.), Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs. Washington, DC: National Association for the Edu- cation of Young Children.

National Association for the Education of Young Chil- dren. (1998a, January). NAEYC position statement on licensing and public regulation of early childhood programs. Young Children, pp. 43–50.

National Association for the Education of Young Chil- dren. (1998b). Accreditation criteria and procedures of the National Academy of Early Childhood Programs. Washington, DC: Author.

National Association for the Education of Young Chil- dren. (2005). NAEYC early childhood program stan- dards & accreditation criteria. Washington, DC: Na- tional Association for the Education of Young Children.

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S E C T I O N

2 Who Is the

Young Child?

CHAPTER 3 Defi ning the Young Child � 76

CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories � 103

© Cengage Learning

C H A P T E R

Defi ning the Young Child

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

■ What is meant by “the whole child”?

■ How are children alike?

■ What is the value of Word Pictures?

■ How do children diff er?

■ Who are children with special needs, and how are they accommodated in early childhood classrooms?

■ Who is the gifted and talented child?

■ What are some of the cultural, ethnic, and racial consid- erations in working with young children?

NAEYC CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Th ese Core Values and sections from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct are ad- dressed in this chapter. As you read, note how the Core Values, Ideals, or Principles listed here apply to the topics in this chapter. (Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

Ideals: I-1.1 To be familiar with the knowledge base of early childhood care and education. I-1.2 To base program practices upon current knowledge in the fi eld of child devel-

opment and related disciplines and upon particular knowledge of each child. I-1.3 To recognize and respect the uniqueness and potential of each child. I-1.6 To support the right of each child to play and learn in inclusive early child-

hood programs to the fullest extent consistent with the best interests of all involved.

I-1.7 To ensure that children with disabilities have access to appropriate and con- venient support services and to advocate for the resources necessary to provide the most appropriate settings for all children.

Principles: P-1. We shall not participate in practices that discriminate against children by

denying benefi ts, giving special advantages, or excluding them from programs or activities on the basis of their race, ethnicity, religion, sex, national origin, language, ability, or the status, behavior, or beliefs of their parents.

3

© Cengage Learning

77CHAPTER 3 Defi ning the Young Child

The Whole Child Th e concept of “the whole child” is based on the accepted principle that all areas of human growth and develop- ment are integrated. It is only for the purpose of study- ing one area or another in depth that such categories are created. Th e six developmental areas labeled in the Word Pictures in Figure 3-1 help us focus on certain aspects of a child’s normal development. In reality, all areas of growth are “intertwined and mutually supportive” (Allen & Marotz, 2007).

Each Child Is Unique Each child is unique, the sum total of a multitude of parts, and, as such, is diff erent from anyone else. Indi- vidual natures and learning styles aff ect the way teachers will teach any two children of the same age in the same class.

We often defi ne children by their physical character- istics; their diff erences are most obvious by the way they look:

Eric is a tall blond. He is much larger than his just- 3 age would indicate. He has long slender fi ngers and arms to match. His movements are fl uid; he lopes across the room toward the easel.

Lamar’s short stocky build and constant swagger lend the impression that he is a pretty tough charac- ter at age 6. His twinkling eyes and infectious smile off set that image.

Natalie at 4 is a study in perpetual motion. Green eyes fl ashing, arms and legs waving, she ignores the bulk of her diaper as she propels herself

down the slide. Th ere is little indication that the mild case of spina bifi da she has inhibits her motor activities. It certainly has not aff ected her daring.

Nothing heightens an awareness of the individual- ity of each child more than working in the classroom. Teachers quickly learn what makes each child special as we learn what children look like when they move their bodies, change expressions, and assume a pos- ture. A teacher can sense whether Sonja is happy, hurt, or hurried by the way she moves and how she looks. Rodrigo’s face mirrors his distress or his delight. Th e observant teacher learns to read children for evidence of their social, emotional, physical, and intellectual growth. Children quite naturally express these charac- teristics with their whole body, and each child’s re- sponse is unique.

Growth Is Interrelated One area of development aff ects the other. Figure 3-1 helps us to look at this concept of development visually. Th ink of each area of development as a circle. Th ere are six of them: physical-motor, language, intellectual, social- emotional, cultural awareness, and creative.

Th ink how each area might aff ect or interact with the others:

■ Physical development aff ects how children feel about themselves. Children who appreciate their body and its power feel confi dent in what they can do (social-emotional).

■ Intellectual skills interact with language develop- ment and creativity. When children have mastered

CREATIVE

SOCIAL- EMOTIONAL

COGNITIVE

PHYSICAL- MOTOR

LANGUAGE

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L AWARENESS

FIGURE 3-1 How areas of growth are interrelated: each area of growth is affected by and infl uences every other area of development. Children: alike, yet different.

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78 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

their primary language, they can then clarify some of their thought processes.

■ Th e kindergartner who masters using scissors (physi- cal) is ready to try printing. Th e fi ne-motor skills en- hance the cognitive task of learning the alphabet.

■ A child with a hearing loss is likely to have language delay as well; thus the physical development aff ects the language part of growth.

■ Th e child who has trouble making friends (social) is likely to exhibit his unhappiness (emotional) in the school yard (physical) and in the math period (intel- lectual).

Valuing Wholeness Th e concept of the whole child strongly suggests the uniqueness of the person. Although they are often dis- cussed separately, the areas of development (social- emotional, physical, language, cultural awareness, intellec- tual, and creative) cannot be isolated from one another. Th ey each make a valuable contribution to the total child.

How Children Are Alike Th e similarities of the many children in a class are strik- ing. Teachers can see the diff erences, yet there are com- mon characteristics within the age group itself. Six tod- dlers working on an art project exhibit six diff erent personal styles, yet typically, they all become distracted and leave their projects half fi nished.

Observation of children—how they look and how they act—helps a teacher see each child as an individual (see Chapter 6). At the same time, there is enough stan- dard behavior appropriate to certain age levels that al- lows for some generalizations about children’s behavior.

Caldwell (1993) cites three universal characteristics that unite children of the world. Each child is like every other in that: (1) they all have the same needs, the most important of which are food, shelter, and care; (2) they all go through the same developmental stages; and (3) they all have the same developmental goals, although the timing and the cultural infl uences will diff er.

The Value of Word Pictures Each developmental phase has characteristic traits. Th ese traits can be characterized in a series of developmental profi les, or Word Pictures. In the following pages some of the classic normative data collected by Gesell (see Chap-

ter 1) and Ilg (1943) are combined with theories of Piaget, Elkind, Erikson, and Vygotsky (see Chapter 4) to demon- strate what children have in common at various ages. De- spite the wide range of individual diff erences at all ages, common behaviors lend a perspective to help teachers pre- scribe programs, plan activities, and create curricula.

In Behavior and Guidance Guidance and discipline are based on an awareness of the expected behaviors common to a given age range. Many so-called problem behaviors are normal behaviors of the age at which they occur: for example, the diffi culty some toddlers and 2-year-olds have with sharing their toys. Knowing this does not imply a passive approach; teachers and parents do not ignore undesirable behavior because the child is “going through a stage.” Instead, adults seek to guide and direct children in ways that en- hance their ability to learn more eff ective behavior. Four- year-olds test limits and are resistant to controls. Th e wise teacher accepts the testing of power and individual- ity, yet still maintains necessary limits to behavior.

Word Pictures of a child, taken from age-level charts, help teachers know what to expect and when to expect it. By using the charts as a reference, teachers lessen the risk of expecting too much or too little of children at any given age. If, for instance, 4-year-olds typically “tell tall tales,” teachers’ responses to their sto- ries refl ect an awareness of that tendency. Th e fun of making up a story and the use of imagination are ac- knowledged, but there is not a concern that the child is lying. Age-level characteristics give a frame of refer- ence with which to handle daily situations and a basis for planning appropriate guidance measures.

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79CHAPTER 3 Defi ning the Young Child

In Curriculum Word Pictures can be used to tailor curriculum planning to an individual child or a particular class or group on the ba- sis of known developmental standards. A group cooking experience, for instance, allows children to choose their level of comfort and involvement. As an early reader at age 4, Darragh loves to read the recipe to others. Lourdes’s fa- vorite activity is to mix the ingredients together, refi ning her small motor skills. Von, who loves to play with mud and clay, spreads the cookie sheet with oil while Felicity helps the teacher adjust the oven temperature. When plan- ning an activity, the teacher takes into account what she knows about each child’s development and the age group. Cooking is always a fun activity but serves a greater pur- pose when planned with individual children in mind. Th e skills and abilities of the specifi c age group helps to deter- mine the kind of activities at which children can succeed while still taking the next steps in their development. See the next section for guidelines on using the Word Pictures as tools for planning. Chapters 10 through 14 have more practical applications and examples for planning curricula.

In Cultural Awareness Derman-Sparks and Edwards (2010) point out that chil- dren become aware of and form attitudes about racial and cultural diff erences at a very early age. Th eir experiences with their bodies, social environment, and cognitive de- velopment combine to help them form their own identity and attitudes. As they develop cognitively, children be- come aware of diff erences and similarities in people.

Th ese cultural milestones are included in the Word Pictures to indicate how, as children come to a sense of themselves as individuals, their attitudes and behaviors towards others can be infl uenced.

Using Word Pictures Age-level charts describe common behaviors and charac- teristics in the course of normal development. When used appropriately, Word Pictures can be a valuable teaching tool.

Six Developmental Areas Six basic developmental areas are included in the Word Pictures:

DAPDAP

■ Social-Emotional Development. Th is includes a child’s relationship with himself and others, self-concept, self-esteem, and the ability to express feelings.

■ Language Development. Th is includes a child’s utter- ances, pronunciation, vocabulary, and sentence length, as well as the ability to express ideas, needs, and feelings. It includes receptive language (do they understand what they hear?) and verbal levels (what do they say?).

■ Physical-Motor Development. Th is includes gross motor, fi ne motor, and perceptual motor development.

■ Cognitive Development. Th is includes curiosity, the ability to perceive and think, memory, attention span, general knowledge, problem solving, analytical thinking, beginning reading, computing skills, and other cognitive processes.

■ Cultural Identity Development. Th is suggests the interconnections between developmental stages and a growing awareness of one’s attitudes toward others of diff ering cultures. Various cultural mile- stones appear in each age group highlighted by an asterisk, which, when appropriately fostered, can increase a child’s sensitivity to diff erences. Th ese characteristics cut across all of the other develop- mental areas.

■ Creative Development. Th is includes creative activi- ties such as movement, dance, music, and painting, as well as originality, imagination, divergent think- ing, and problem solving.

How Word Pictures Help Teachers Th e Word Pictures are designed to help classroom teach- ers. Th ey focus on the critical issues that teachers ad- dress when planning for a group of children. Th ese are:

■ Behaviors most common to the age group. ■ Th ose that have implications for children in group

settings. ■ Th ose that suggest guidance and disciplinary

measures. ■ Th ose that have implications for planning a devel-

opmentally appropriate curriculum. ■ Th ose that are cultural milestones, which are high-

lighted by an asterisk to suggest the interaction of children’s development and their awareness of atti- tudes toward race and culture.

DAP In order to build attitudes that go beyond mere tolerance, we must help children gain more accurate pictures of persons and cultures different from their own.

80

Social-Emotional 0–1 month: cries to express emo-

tions; bonding begins 4–10 weeks: makes social smiles 2 months: begins social games 3 months: distinguishes familiar

faces*; turns head toward human voice; smiles in response to a smile; kicks, smiles, waves in re- sponse; cries when left alone; recognizes parent

4 months: has a genuine laugh; smiles when spoken to; loves attention

5 months to 1 year: begins to exhibit stranger anxiety*

6 months: distinguishes between voices: smiles; babbles at strang- ers; develops attachment to par- ents, caregivers; begins to play imitation games; plays peek-a- boo; sensitive to parental moods

8 months: laughs out loud 9 months: screams to get own way Play is activity only for present

moment Fears unfamiliar: people, places,

things* Beginning sense of separate self*

Language 0–1 month: turns head in response

to voices; cries to express needs 6–8 weeks: coos; gestures to com-

municate: pushes objects away; squirms; reaches out to people*; pouts; smacks lips; shrieks; points

2 months: makes voluntary vocal sounds

3 months: babbles

6–12 months: plays imitation sound games; responds to variety of sounds*; makes vowel sounds; acquires receptive language*; cries to communicate

12 months: says fi rst words

Physical-Motor By 1 year: grows 10 to 12 inches; tri-

ples birth weight; lengthens by 40 percent; doubles brain size; grows full head of hair; bounces in crib; uses whole-body motions

4 months: sees, grasps objects 5 months: examines fi ngers; sits

when propped 6 months: rolls over; discovers feet;

teething begins 7 months: crawls 8 months: sits up unaided; pulls to

standing position; pincer grasp established

9 months: creeps 10 months: feeds self with spoon 11 months: stands alone; cruises 12 months: takes fi rst steps Late infancy: can move hands in ro-

tation to turn knobs Newborn motor activity is mostly

refl exes

Creative Discovers and explores hands and

feet Expresses and discovers emotion Talks by babbling, cooing, and

gurgling Plays peek-a-boo Responds to facial expressions

Cognitive 0–1 month: responds to mother’s

voice; aware of senses, especially pain, touch*

10 weeks: memory is evident* 4 months: makes smiles of

recognition 7–10 months: solves simple prob-

lems (knocks over box to get toy) 8 months: begins to believe in per-

manence of objects; follows a simple instruction

8–12 months: becoming intentional in behavior

11 months: begins trial-error experimentation

12 months: plays drop/retrieve games, pat-a-cake

Explores with hands and fi ngers Smiles, vocalizes at image in mirror*

WORD PICTURES

INFANT

*Key characteristics of cultural awareness or identity.

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*Key characteristics of cultural awareness or identity.

Social-Emotional Almost totally egocentric Likes to be noticed; loves an

audience Lacks inhibitions Insists on own way, assertive Likes doing things by self Independent, has self-identity* Adapts easily Refers to self by name Laughs loudly at peek-at-boo Cries when left alone Curious* Relates to adults better than children Active, eager Talks mostly to self Usually friendly Strong sense of ownership Mimics adult behavior* Experiences and shows shame*

Language Some two-word phrases Enjoys vocalizing to self Babbles in own jargon Uses “eh-eh” or “uh-uh” with

gestures Names closest relatives* Repeats adults’ words* Points to communicate needs, wants Shakes head “no” to respond* Responds to directions to fetch,

point

Obeys verbal requests Asks “What’s that?” or “Whassat?”* Understands simple phrases Uses fi ve to 50 words

Physical-Motor Awkward coordination; chubby body Tottering stance Creeps when in a hurry Walks with increasing confi dence Walks with feet wide apart, arms out,

head forward Finds it diffi cult to turn corners Goes up and down stairs holding on Backs into chair to sit down Can squat for long periods of time In constant motion Loves to pull/push objects Runs with stiff, fl at gait Uses whole-arm movements Carry and dump becomes a favorite

activity Scribbles Turns pages two or three at a time Zips/unzips large zipper Likes holding objects in both hands

Creative Responds to mood of music Freely examines every object Sings phrases of nursery rhymes

Loves to fi nger-paint and explore texture

Stares; takes it all in “The age of exploration” Makes up nonsense syllables

Cognitive Points to objects in a book Matches similar objects Fits round block in round hole Loves opposites: up/down, yes/no* Imitates simple tasks Interest shifts quickly Short attention span Follows one direction Gives up easily but easily engaged* Conclusions are important: closes

doors, shuts books Thinks with feet; action-oriented Builds tower of three or four small

blocks

TODDLER

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TWO-YEAR-OLD

Social-Emotional Self-centered Unable to share, possessive Clings to familiar; resistant to

change* Ritualistic; insists on routines* Dependent Likes one adult at a time* Quits readily; easily frustrated Goes to extremes Impulsive; shifts activities suddenly Easily distracted Pushes, shoves Finicky, fussy eater; some food jags Refers to self by given name* Treats people as inanimate objects* Dawdles; slow-geared Plays parallel to other children Watches others* Likes people* Excited about own capabilities

Language Uses two- or three-word sentences Telegraphic sentences: ”Throw ball” Has diffi culty in pronunciation “Me,” “Mine” most prominent

pronouns* Spontaneous language; rhythmic,

repetitive Constant talking; interested in sound Sings phrases of song, not on pitch Cannot articulate feelings Frustrated when not understood May stutter Asks “Whassat?” about pictures* Can match words with objects Repeats words and phrases Uses 50 to 300 words

Physical-Motor Uses whole-body action: pushes,

pulls, pokes Climbs into things Leans forward while running Climbs stairs one by one Dependent on adults for dressing Can help dress/undress Has reached one-half potential

height Bladder/bowel control begins Feeds self Thumb-forefi nger opposition

complete Grasps cup with two hands Awkward with small objects Lugs, tumbles, topples; unsteady

Alternates hands; hand preference is developing

Can rotate to fi t objects Expresses emotions bodily* Sensory-oriented Cuts last teeth Has diffi culty relaxing

Creative Imitates other children Combines parallel play and fantasy

play Plays with sounds; repeats syllables

over and over Enjoys simple fi nger plays Can follow simple melodies Learns to scribble Uses art for sensory pleasure

Cognitive Recognizes, explores physical char-

acteristics of objects* Investigates with touch and taste Intrigued by water, washing Likes to fi ll and empty things Has limited attention span Lives in present Understands familiar concepts* Can tell difference between black

and white* Needs own name used Likes simple make-believe Does one thing at a time Remembers orders of routines Recalls where toys are left Classifi es people by gender* Names familiar objects in books

*Key characteristics of cultural awareness or identity.

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THREE-YEAR-OLD

Social-Emotional Highly imitative of adults* Wants to please adults; conforms* Responds to verbal suggestions Easily prompted, redirected Can be bargained with, reasoned

with Begins to share, take turns, wait Avid “me-too”-er* Exuberant, talkative, humorous Has an imaginary companion Has nightmares, animal phobias Plays consciously, cooperatively with

others* Plays spontaneously in groups Demonstrates fears Goes after desires; fi ghts for them Asserts independence often Often stymied, frustrated, jealous Sympathizes* Strong sex-role stereotypes*

Language Talkative with or without a listener Can listen to learn* Likes new words* Increases use of pronouns,

prepositions Uses “s” to indicate plural nouns Uses “ed” to indicate past tense Uses sentences of three or more

words Says “Is that all right?” a lot Talks about nonpresent situations Puts words into action Moves and talks at the same time Substitutes letters in speech: ”w”

for “r” Intrigued by whispering Uses 300 to 1000 words

Physical-Motor Has well-balanced body lines Walks erect; nimble on feet Gallops in wide, high steps Alternates feet in stair climbing Suddenly starts, stops Turns corners rapidly Swings arms when walking Jumps up and down with ease Uses toilet alone Loses baby fat Achieves bladder control Rides a tricycle Puts on, takes off wraps with help Unbuttons buttons Has some fi nger control with small

objects Grasps with thumb and index fi nger Holds cup in one hand Pours easily from small pitcher Washes hands unassisted Can carry liquids Has activity with drive and purpose Can balance on one foot

Creative Dramatizes play Enjoys slap-stick humor Laughs at the ridiculous Experiments with silly language Imaginary companion may appear Tricycle becomes many objects in

dramatic play Acts out own version of favorite

story Enjoys simple poems Learns color concepts

Cognitive Matches people according to physi-

cal characteristics* Estimates “how many” Enjoys making simple choices Alert, excited, curious Asks “why?” constantly* Understands “It’s time to…” Understands “Let’s pretend…” Enjoys guessing games, riddles Has lively imagination* Often over generalizes* Carries out two to four directions in

sequence Often colors pages one color Can’t combine two activities Names and matches simple colors Has number concept of one and two Sees vague cause-and-effect

relationships* Can recognize simple melodies Distinguishes between night and

day Understands size and shape

comparisons

*Key characteristics of cultural awareness or identity.

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FOUR-YEAR-OLD

Social-Emotional Mood changes rapidly Tries out feelings of power Dominates; can be bossy, boastful,

belligerent Assertive, argumentative Shows off; is cocky, noisy Can fi ght own battles Hits, grabs, insists on desires Explosive, destructive Easily over stimulated; excitable Impatient in large groups* Cooperates in groups of two or

three* Develops “special” friends* but

shifts loyalties often May exclude others from play* Resistant; tests limits Exaggerates, tells tall tales Alibis frequently Teases, outwits; has terrifi c humor May have scary dreams Tattles frequently Has food jags, food strikes

Language Has more words than knowledge A great talker, questioner Likes words, plays with them Has high interest in poetry Able to talk to solve confl icts* Responds to verbal directions Enjoys taking turns to sing along Interested in dramatizing songs,

stories Exaggerates, practices words Uses voice control, pitch, rhythm Asks “when?” “why?” “how?”* Joins sentences together Loves being read to

Physical-Motor Longer, leaner body build Vigorous, dynamic, acrobatic Active until exhausted “Works”: builds, drives, pilots Can jump own height and land

upright Hops, skips Throws large ball, kicks accurately Hops and stands on one foot Jumps over objects Walks in a straight line Races up and down stairs Turns somersaults Walks backward toe-heel Accurate, rash body movements Copies shapes such as a cross,

square Can draw a stick fi gure Holds paint brush in adult manner,

pencil in fi sted grasp Can lace shoes Dresses self except back buttons,

ties Has sureness and control in fi nger

activities Alternates feet going down stairs

Creative Is adventurous Shows vivid imagination Displays great interest in violence in

imaginary play Loves anything new Demonstrates more elaborate dra-

matic play Makes up new words, sounds, and

stories Enjoys complexity in book

illustrations Exaggerates and goes to extreme Likes funny poetry

Tells spontaneous story with artwork Can put on elaborate plays with

puppets Finds ways to solve problems Combines words and ideas

Cognitive Does some naming and representa-

tive art Gives art products personal value Can work for a goal* Questions constantly* Interested in how things work Interested in life-death concepts Has an extended attention span Can do two things at once Dramatic play is closer to reality* Judges which of two objects is

larger Has concept of three; can name

more Has accurate sense of time Full of ideas Begins to generalize; often faulty* Likes a variety of materials Calls people names* Has dynamic intellectual drive* Has imaginary playmates Recognizes several printed words

*Key characteristics of cultural awareness or identity.

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FIVE-YEAR-OLD

Takes turn in conversation Has clear ideas and articulates

them* Insists “I already know that” Asks questions to learn answers* Makes up songs Enjoys dictating stories Uses 1500 words Tells a familiar story Defi nes simple words Answers telephone, takes a message Thinks out loud*

Physical-Motor Completely coordinated Has adult-like posture Has tremendous physical drive Likes to use fi ne-motor skills Has accuracy, skill with simple tools Draws a recognizable person* Handedness is evident Dresses self completely Cuts on a line with scissors Begins to color within the lines Catches ball from three feet away Skips using alternate feet Enjoys jumping, running, doing

stunts Rides a two-wheeler Balances on a balance beam Jumps rope, skips Runs lightly on toes Likes to dance; is graceful, rhythmic Sometimes roughhouses, fi ghts

Social-Emotional Poised, self-confi dent, self-contained Sensitive to ridicule* Has to be right; persistent Has sense of self-identity* May get silly, high, wild Enjoys pointless riddles, jokes Enjoys group play, competitive

games* Aware of rules, defi nes them for

others* Chooses own friends; is sociable* Gets involved with group decisions* Insists on fair play* Likes adult companionship* Accepts, respects authority* Asks permission Remains calm in emergencies

Language Uses big words and complete

sentences Can defi ne some words Spells out simple words

Creative Explores variety of art processes Becomes engrossed in details of

painting, blocks Fantasy is more active, less verbal Thinks out loud Has ideas; loves to talk about them Can learn simple dance routine Enjoys making patterns, designs Puts on simple plays Has idea of what to draw—wants to

make something recognizable

Cognitive Curious about everything* Wants to know “how?” and “why?”* Likes to display new knowledge,

skills Somewhat conscious of own

ignorance* Knows tomorrow, yesterday Can count 10 objects, rote counts

to 20 Sorts objects by single characteristic* Knows own name, address, town Makes a plan, follows it, centers on

task Sorts objects by color, shape Concepts of smallest, less than, one-

half May tell time accurately, on the hour Knows what a calendar is used for Seldom sees things from another’s

point of view

*Key characteristics of cultural awareness or identity.

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SIX- AND SEVEN-YEAR-OLDS

Social-Emotional Six-year-old Likes to work, yet often does so in

spurts Does not show persistence Tends to be a know-it-all Free with opinions and advice Brings home evidence of good

schoolwork Observes family rules* Gender-role stereotypes are rigid* Friends easily gained, easily lost* Tests and measures self against

peers* Makes social connections through

play* Friends are of same sex* Believes in rules except for self* Active, outgoing Charming Proud of accomplishments Shows aggression through insults,

name-calling*

Seven-year-old More serious Sensitive to others’ reactions* Eager for home responsibilities Complaining, pensive, impatient Shame is common emotion* Leaves rather than face criticism, rid-

icule, disapproval* Complains of unfair treatment, not

being liked* Shows politeness and consideration

for adults* Enjoys solitary activities First peer pressure: needs to be

“in”* Wants to be one of the gang* Relates physical competence to self-

concept* Self-absorbed; self-conscious

Language Six- and seven-year-olds Enjoy putting language skill to paper Talk with adults rather than to them* Chatter incessantly Dominate conversations Speech irregularities still common Learning to print/write Acquisition of new words tapers off Bilingual capacities nearly complete*

if English is second language Ability to learn new language still

present*

Physical-Motor Six- and seven-year-olds Basic skills need refi nement Like to test limits of own body Value physical competence* Work at self-imposed tasks Need daily legitimate channels for

high energy Learn to ride two-wheeler, skate, ski Use motor skills as a tool for

socializing Boisterous, enjoy stunts and rough-

housing Susceptible to fatigue Visual acuity reaches normal Hungry at short intervals, like sweets Chew pencils, fi ngernails, hair

Creative Six-year-old Tries out artistic exploration seri-

ously for the fi rst time Industrious Greater interest in process, not

product Eager, curious, enthusiastic Loves jokes and guessing games Loves to color, paint Understands cause and effect Likes cooperative projects, activities,

tasks Interested in skill and technique

Seven-year-old Likes to be alone listening to music Wants work to look good The age for starting music lessons Driven by curiosity, desire to dis-

cover and invent Intensely interested in how things

work; takes apart, puts back together

Uses symbols in both writing and drawing

Interested in all sorts of codes Likes to select and sort objects

Cognitive Six- and seven-year-olds Work in spurts, not persistent Letter and word reversal common Learn to read, beginning math skills Can consider others’ points of view* Use logic, systematic thinking* Can plan ahead Enjoy collecting: sorting, classifying Can sequence events and retell

stories Concepts of winning and losing are

diffi cult* Like games with simple rules* May cheat or change rules* Want “real” things: watches and

cameras that work Sift and sort information* Can conceptualize situations* Enjoy exploring culture of classmates*

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EIGHT-YEAR-OLD

Social-Emotional Outgoing, enthusiastic Enormously curious about people

and things* Socially expansive* Judgmental and critical of self and

others* Ambivalent about growing up Often hostile but attracted to oppo-

site sex Growing self-confi dence Learns about self through others:

peers, parents* Is aware of and sensitive to differ-

ences from other children* Begins to evaluate self and others

through clothing, physical attrac- tion, social status*

Likes to meet new people, go new places*

Has emerging sensitivity to person- ality traits of others*

Eager for peer approval and acceptance*

Growing sense of moral responsibility Joins clubs Chooses same-sex playmates Struggles with feelings of inferiority Likes to work cooperatively Responds to studies of other

cultures* Has growing interest in fairness and

justice issues*

Language Talks with adults Attentive and responsive to adult

communication* Teases members of opposite sex Talks about “self* Talkative, exaggerates Likes to explain ideas Imitates language of peers Enjoys storytelling and writing short

stories

Physical-Motor Beginning to engage in team

sports* Often a growth-spurt year Speedy, works fast Restless, energetic, needs physical

release Plays hard, exhausts self Eye-hand coordination matures;

learning cursive handwriting Enjoys competitive sports* Hearty appetite, few food dislikes Repeatedly practices new skills to

perfect them

Creative Has great imagination Enjoys riddles, limericks, knock-

knock jokes Likes to explain ideas Visual acuity and fi ne motor skills

come together Is most productive in groups Shows interest in process and

product

Cognitive Criticizes abilities in all academic

areas Seeks new experiences* Likes to barter, bargain, trade Enjoys creating collections of things Interested in how children from

other countries live* Thinks beyond the here-and-now

boundaries of time and space Enjoys role-playing character parts* Tests out parents to learn more

about them Needs direction, focus Enjoys all types of humor Full of ideas, plans Gaining competence in basic skills Industrious, but overestimates

abilities Interested in process as well as

product of schoolwork Growing interest in logic and the

way things work Takes responsibility seriously*

*Key characteristics of cultural awareness or identity.

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88 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

In Chapter 4, you will come to appreciate the impor- tance of research and signifi cant theories from which these Word Pictures are drawn.

Guidelines for Using Word Pictures It is important to use these age-level charts with discre- tion. Th e following six guidelines will help:

1. Balance your impression of the Word Pictures with your own experiences with children. Example: Tod- dlers are always on the move and prefer standing and squatting to sitting in a chair. Observe a toddler story time to see how many children are sitting on the fl oor, how many are standing, and how many are squatting on their haunches.

2. Make a profi le of the whole child and resist the ten- dency to categorize or stereotype. Example: Chad, like most 7-year-olds, likes music and refl ects his age group’s creative characteristics. He has the physical mo- tor skills and cognitive abilities of an 8-year-old and the social-emotional needs of a 6-year-old. Th is portrait of Chad helps his teachers plan for his individual needs.

3. Get perspective on the range of developmental norms a child exhibits over time. Example: Children have varying levels of development at any point in time. Look at the Word Pictures for the group just above and just below the age level of the child you are observing. A typical child may have the physical devel- opment of a 3-year-old, the language skills of a 4-year- old, and the social coping skills of a 2-year-old. Chil- dren will exhibit some of the behaviors appropriate to all three ages.

4. Remember that these norms of development refer to average or typical behavior. Th ey should not be applied too literally. Example: Allen and Marotz (2007) caution, “…these age specifi cations are only ap- proximate markers derived from averages or norms… midpoints not intended to represent any one child.”

5. Keep in mind that children go through most of the stages described and in the same sequence, but they will do so at their own rates of growth. Example: Individual diff erences occur as development follows its own orderly and predictable path as children acquire the abilities and skills that are necessary to succeed in the next stages.

6. Focus on what the child can do rather than on what he or she cannot do. Use the characteristics to com- pare the child’s own rate of growth. Example: In ob- serving Dwayne, it is important to assess where he is in relation to other 4-year-olds, but it is more important to know where he is six months from now, a year from now, and what he was like a year ago. From this, a clear picture of his rate of growth emerges.

How Children Differ Watching and working with children exposes how very diff erent each child is. Why is this when they have so many features in common? Megan gives the tire swing a big push. Ariel shrieks with delight, but Hans bursts into tears and screams to get off . What accounts for the wide range of behaviors?

Developmental Differences You are aware by now that children grow and develop at diff erent rates. Each child has an inner timetable that is unique, which means that each child is ready to learn ac- cording to his or her maturation process.

Th is readiness factor is to be respected and may or may not coincide with the rest of the children in the class. Th is is what makes teaching exciting and challenging.

While the rate of development may vary, it follows a sequence in all children, even those with special needs. Physical development, for instance, tends to be from the head downward (notice how large a newborn baby’s head is in comparison to the rest of the body) and the center outward (young children gain control over arm move- ments before mastering fi nger control).

Other Factors Genetic Makeup Each child has a unique combination of genes that deter- mine eye and hair color, height, body shape, personality traits, and intelligence. Certain diseases, such as Tay Sachs, cystic fi brosis, and sickle cell anemia, are linked through heredity (Berk, 2009).

Environment Genetics (nature) may account for some of the diff er- ences among children but not all. Th e environment (nurture) has great impact throughout development.

DAPDAP

DAP Think of both the universal and individual characteristics of children, and honor each child’s uniqueness.

89CHAPTER 3 Defi ning the Young Child

From conception, the brain is aff ected by environmental conditions. An individual child’s rate and sequence of development refl ects “an ongoing dialogue between the brain, the body, and the physical and social environment” (Berk, 2009).

Th e attitudes with which children are raised, their culture, their socioeconomic status, the kinds of caregiv- ing they experience, and their community combine in countless ways to aff ect growth. In Chapter 15, this subject is more thoroughly discussed. Nutrition, safety, play space, adult relationships, neighborhood, and fam- ily stability aff ect individual development. Whether a child lives in relative poverty or riches, environmental factors interact with genes to create a single, individual person.

Gender and Race Differences Girls and boys diff er in both the rate and the pattern of growth, especially during adolescence. Ethnic variations in growth are common. African American and Asian American children seem to mature faster than do North American Caucasian children (Berk, 2009). Growth “norms” should be used with caution and with respect to ethnic diff erences.

Learning Styles Children exhibit a number of diff erent approaches to learning that must be accounted for when planning pro- grams. Some are quiet; others move around and talk, while others seem never to listen. While on a fi eld trip to the farm, these children demonstrate three common learning styles:

■ Lorenzo watches, looks around, and visually ab- sorbs the environment. He calls to others, “See the goat!” and “Look at that.” Lorenzo is a visual learner.

■ Olivia chatters away to her friends as they enter the barnyard. “Listen to all the noise the sheep are mak- ing.” “Hear the horses?” While she enjoys listening to what others have to say, Olivia has diffi culty wait- ing for her turn to talk. Olivia is an auditory learner.

■ As she runs ahead of the other children, Anna calls out, “Get over here so we can touch them!” Looking up at the teacher, she begs, “ Take me closer. I want to see what sheep feel like.” Anna is a tactile learner.

Each of the children responds to the experience in a way that refl ects an individual learning style. Lorenzo

will interpret the fi eld trip in pictures, by drawing or painting what he saw. Olivia will repeat stories from her experience over and over again as she integrates her experience at the farm. Anna will play out her farm experience by making clay animals or dancing an “ani- mal dance.” (In Chapters 4 and 10, learning styles are further discussed in terms of Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences.)

Grouping children by rigid age levels seems con- trary to our understanding of individual learning styles, rates of growth, readiness factors, and wide ranges of abilities. It is a convenient, though arbitrary, system of teaching children. Th e implication for teachers, how- ever, is clear:programs are planned to meet the needs and challenges of the whole group. Individual diff er- ences are incorporated into the planning. Activities are selected to allow for a variety of responses from chil- dren at diff erent stages of development and learning styles.

In our diverse world, teachers should be sensitive to the infl uence of sex, race, and individual patterns of development.

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90 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

See Chapter 5 for specifi c suggestions on how teachers plan to accommodate the individuality of children, par- ticularly these sections: Self-awareness, Attitudes and Biases, Ten Essentials to Successful Teaching, and A Student Teacher’s Guidelines for Beginning. Th e curric- ulum chapters, 10 through 15, demonstrate other exam- ples of planning for a wide range of skills. It might be useful, too, to read Chapter 9, particularly the self-help environment and the anti-bias curriculum.

Planning for Developmental Differences When teachers are aware of the range of developmental diff erences and learning styles of the children in the class, they can incorporate those variations into the planning process. Th e following are some strategies for how to plan for these types of variations:

■ Plan individual and group activities according to the age level of the class, considering the behavior pat- terns and learning styles that exist. Make sure the materials and activities are in a variety of formats so that children can choose the ones that support their style of learning.

■ Plan for all age levels with the understanding and appreciation of the variations within a one-year age span.

■ Know the individual children, their strengths, and their challenges by observing their growth (see Chapter 6). Remember that families bring further knowledge of each child and that is added into the mix when assessing children’s progress.

■ Plan around the known similarities, the develop- mental tasks, and age-appropriate behavior common to that group of children, including those with spe- cial needs. Th e needs, interests, abilities, and unique characteristics of all the children in the class must be considered.

■ Set group and activity goals based on the general characteristics of the age group, but change the goals as needed. Small group work may help all chil- dren in reaching the goals.

■ Modify activities to make them more accessible or appropriate for children with special needs. Tables can be made higher or lower for wheelchair access; or a teacher may spend extra time in the dramatic play area to help individual children learn social skills.

Planning for the diff erences in children’s skills and abili- ties takes time, but it is one of the most important chal- lenges teachers face. Th orough knowledge of each child is the foundation for developmentally appropriate plan- ning that meets the needs of all the children in the class.

Children with Special Needs Approximately 15 to 20 percent of all children in the United States will exhibit some form of atypical develop- ment and need special services (Bee & Boyd, 2006). Th ese are children who did not develop according to normal developmental patterns.

Th ey exhibit a wide range of atypical conditions ranging from short-term behavior problems to long- term physical, mental, and emotional problems.

Two types of children come under the category of children with special needs: children who have some sort of exceptionality and children who are gifted. Th ey ex- tend the defi nition of “Who is the child?” and are dis- cussed separately in this section.

Children with Exceptionalities ■ Five-year-old Pete, blind from birth, has been in

nursery school for three years. ■ Chrissy, a 4-year-old with multiple exceptionalities,

has her daily program in a special school supple- mented by attending the child care center three af- ternoons each week.

■ Travis is a child with Down syndrome, and this is his fi rst experience in a school not restricted to atypical children.

Th ese children have some obvious characteristics that qualify them for special-needs status. Other children with less apparent exceptionalities also fall into this cat- egory. Th e term “special needs” includes a great many conditions that may or may not be noticeable. Allen and Cowdery (2009) suggest three conditions under which a child is considered exceptional: A child’s normal growth and development is (1) delayed; (2) distorted, atypical, or abnormal; or (3) severely or negatively aff ected. Th is defi nition includes the physical, mental, emotional, and social areas of development. Figure 3-2 highlights many of the exceptionalities a teacher may encounter.

DAPDAP

DAP Remember that planning for children with special needs cuts across social, economic, and cultural lines and always begins by looking at typical development.

91CHAPTER 3 Defi ning the Young Child

In the course of normal development, any one area of a child’s growth is aff ected by the development of the whole child, and this holds true for children who do not develop according to the norms. Any single exceptional- ity may lead to other multi-handicapping conditions:

■ A child with a profound hearing loss is often de- layed in speech production or language abilities and suff ers social isolation due to the inability to hear and speak with peers.

■ A child with a speech impairment or cleft palate may have the intellectual capacity to put simple puzzles together but may not yet have the language to engage verbally in songs and fi nger play.

■ A child with Down syndrome may have congenital heart defects, intellectual impairments, eye abnor- malities, or poor physical coordination.

■ Children who have cerebral palsy, a central nervous system disorder, often have other exceptionalities, such as intellectual delays, epilepsy, and hearing, vi- sual, and speech problems (Kiernan, et al).

Figure 3-2 lists a number of exceptionalities, from mild to severe, that teachers of young children may encounter.

Learning Disabilities Children with learning disabilities are found in almost every classroom; they have no discernable condition but, nevertheless, are having problems with one or more basic

skills or learning. According to Berk (2009), fi ve to ten percent of school-age children have some kind of learn- ing diffi culty. Th ey may have, among other things, poor memory skills, diffi culty in following directions, hand- eye coordination problems, and trouble discriminating between letters, numbers, and sounds, which keep them from storing, processing, and producing information.

Dyslexia, the most common specifi c learning disabil- ity, occurs when children have diffi culty in learning to read. Th ey may reverse letters (such as d and b) or words (such as was and saw), although many children do this who are not dyslexic. A child with a learning disability may have strength in another area, such as math, and yet have a learning diffi culty with language. A learning dis- ability does not mean that a child is intellectually im- paired or delayed.

Learning diffi culties are usually not a singular dys- function. Children who exhibit problems with reading and writing will often have diffi culties with spatial rela- tionships and body coordination. Observations of these behaviors can give teachers some of the fi rst warning signs of learning disorders.

Th ere is continuing controversy on how to defi ne and identify these children. Although some experts consider minimal brain damage to be the cause of learning dis- abilities, there is no consensus yet on why children have these conditions.

A child with a learning disability usually has a nor- mal or above normal IQ (Allen & Cowdery, 2009) and

Teachers of Young Children May Encounter a Variety of Disabilities

• Speech and language: hearing impairment, stuttering, articulation problems, cleft palate, chronic voice disorders, learning disabilities.

• Physical-motor: visual impairment, blindness, perceptual motor defi cits, orthopedic disabilities such as cerebral palsy, spina bifi da, loss of limbs, muscular dystrophy.

• Intellectual: cognitive delays, brain injury, brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and learning disabilities.

• Social-emotional: self-destructive behavior, severe withdrawal, dangerous aggression toward self and others, noncommunicativeness, moodiness, tantrums, attention-defi cit hyperactivity disorder, severe anxiety, depression, phobias, psychosis, autism.

• Health impairments: severe asthma, epilepsy, hemophilia, congenital heart defects, severe anemia, malnutrition, diabetes, tuberculosis, cystic fi brosis, Down’s syndrome, sickle cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease, AIDS.

• Specifi c learning disabilities: diffi culties with language use and acquisition, spoken and written language affected, perceptual handicaps, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, developmental aphasia.

FIGURE 3-2 These disorders may range from mild to severe, and children will exhibit a wide variety of abilities and needs even if they are diagnosed with the same condition. For further information concerning a specifi c one, the stu- dent will want to consult a special education textbook.

92 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

tends to develop normally, but the task of reading seems to highlight several areas of diffi culty: problems of visual perception, inability to integrate visual and auditory in- formation, impaired memory, problems with language, and diffi culty distinguishing the separate sounds in words. Th is wide range of symptoms, the number of po- tential causes, and the varying degrees to which children exhibit the symptoms make learning exceptionalities dif- fi cult to diagnose.

As noted earlier in this chapter, young children diff er in their individual rate of growth, and many diff erences and delays are still within the normal range of development.

Attention-Defi cit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Do you remember a classmate who could never sit still—one who was constantly on the move, talked ex- cessively, and disrupted classroom activities? Th is be- havior is typical of children with a condition known as attention-defi cit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which, according to Berk (2009), aff ects up to three to fi ve percent of all school-age children, more often boys than girls.

ADHD (previously called hyperactivity) is a condi- tion aff ecting children and adults and appears to be he- reditary. Th e National Resource Center on ADHD (2009) notes three subtypes of ADHD that are common today:

1. ADHD predominately inattentive type (ADHD-1) ■ Makes careless mistakes ■ Does not pay close attention to details ■ Easily distracted; hard to maintain attention ■ Does not appear to listen; seems forgetful ■ Has trouble with follow-through ■ Loses things; has diffi culty with organization ■ Might avoid tasks that take prolonged intellec-

tual eff ort 2. ADHD predominately hyperactive-impulsive

(ADHD-HI) ■ Fidgets, squirms ■ Has trouble staying seated, runs about ■ Talks excessively; diffi culty with being quiet dur-

ing activities ■ Blurts out answers; interrupts; intrudes on others ■ Has diffi culty waiting to take turns 3. ADHD combined type (ADHD-C) ■ Child or adult meets criteria from both catego-

ries listed above.

Children with ADHD are diffi cult to manage both at home and in the classroom. Th ey are prone to restless- ness, anxiety, short attention spans, and impulsiveness. Th eir constellation of behaviors may apply at some level to many children, but teachers must be cautious about labeling the normally active, somewhat disruptive child as having ADHD. Th e child with ADHD exhibits these behaviors in extreme, usually before age 7 (Berk, 2009).

Strock (2006) has noted that certain other disorders can accompany ADHD, such as learning disabilities in 20 to 30 percent of children; oppositional defi ant disor- der (ODD), which occurs mostly in boys; conduct disor- der (CD), which includes stealing, lying, and fi ghting and may occur in 20 to 40 percent of children with ADHD; and bipolar disorder.

Medication is a common treatment for children with ADHD, but because its eff ects are short term and its side eff ects can be serious, it is controversial. Th e most eff ective approach appears to be a combination of medi- cation and individual behavior management strategies (Allen & Cowdery, 2009; Berk, 2009). Th ere is no easy solution for dealing with children who have ADHD; further research into the cause of this disability and de- velopment of safe eff ective treatments are clearly needed.

Guidance techniques that are good for children with ADHD include:

■ Maintain regular and consistent routines and rules: “Remember, Sitara, we always wash hands before eating snacks.”

■ Have realistic expectations: “I know it is hard for you to wait. Why don’t you go over to the other cabinet and see if the pencils you want are in there?”

■ Make eye contact when giving directions using clear and simple explanations: “Look at me, Toby, so I know that you are listening. Good. Now let’s go over the assignment together.”

■ Allow time for transitions by giving a plan for the next step: “In three minutes it will be time to get ready to go home. When the other children begin to leave, I want you to get your coat and come back here to sit with us.”

■ Select jobs in which the child can be successful: “Connie, please pass out the napkins to this table today.”

■ Recognize accomplishments: “Good work, Connie. You gave everyone a red napkin and then sat down with one for yourself.”

Guidance techniques that work well with children who have ADHD are also successful with children who

93CHAPTER 3 Defi ning the Young Child

have a variety of behavioral conditions, proving again that children are more alike than they are diff erent.

Asperger Syndrome Asperger syndrome (AS) is a developmental condition that is part of Autism Spectrum Disorder and is character- ized by a lack of social skills, poor concentration, self- absorption, and limited interests (Allen & Cowdery, 2009). Th e diff erence between autism and AS is the level of men- tal functioning. Most children with AS have normal or above normal intelligence and often learn how to commu- nicate and behave in appropriate ways (Willis, 2009).

Gallagher and Gallagher (2002) explain the four separate categories of AS defi ned by the American Psy- chological Association:

1. Impaired social functioning; inability to make friends or show empathy, avoids eye contact.

2. Restricted and stereotyped behaviors and interests; overly intense interest in one area; repetitive hand movements and compulsive repetition, often long passages memorized from television or the movies.

3. Average or above average language development; normal use of vocabulary, yet may use language in such a complex manner that it makes no sense. Th ey lack the language of social communication with others.

4. Average or above average cognitive development; ranges anywhere from average to highly gifted.

Many children with AS attend schools with normally developing children. Th eir behaviors may seem odd to their peers and disruptive to the class. Allen and Cowdery (2009) suggest the following strategies for working with children with AS:

■ Simple and direct communication. ■ Combine objects and actions: show the child the

book and demonstrate where it goes in the shelf. ■ Provide peer interactions with other children who

are disabled and have similar levels of language and social development.

■ Establish a predictable routine and environment; minimize distractions.

■ Improve communication skills by having the child ask for something rather than point.

■ Encourage frequent communication with the family.

Family Support Parents are usually the fi rst to notice that their child is not developing according to the norms. Th ey may ask the child’s teacher to watch for signs of hearing impair-

ments, lack of necessary motor skills, or language imper- fections. Because early diagnosis and intervention are important, teachers will want to assess the child’s overall skills. As you will learn in Chapter 6, early childhood educators need to be skilled in carefully observing and documenting the growth and development of individual children. Teachers will then plan appropriate follow- through with the family. Th is may include a consultation with a physician for further developmental screening and testing. If both the family and the teachers feel there is a potential problem, the task is to help identify it and se- cure the services needed.

Th e teacher’s role is to observe the child and provide current information, to support the family through their concern, to help them fi nd appropriate resources (such as social service agencies, public health offi ces, private and public schools), to assist with future placement for child care, and to be available for consultation with oth- ers who are working in the best interests of the child. Th e early childhood professional is not an expert in di- agnosing learning exceptionalities but can be eff ective in helping families secure proper referrals and treatment.

Public Recognition Since the mid-1960s, there has been signifi cant public recognition of and the advent of public funding for the education programs for persons with special needs. Prior to that, public and private attitudes seemed to be ones of shame and segregation. Past generations hid adults and children with special needs in their homes or secluded them in institutions. Keeping special populations out of sight gave way to providing separate opportunities for them. Schools, classes, and recreational programs were started exclusively for people with special needs. Public consciousness is now suffi cient to understand that not all people with special needs are necessarily mentally im- paired. Th e current practice of integrating children with varying exceptionalities into ongoing programs in schools—the mainstream of American life—is not only more humane but practical as well. Highlights of the nearly 40 years include:

■ In 1972, Head Start required that a minimum of 10 percent of its enrollment be reserved for children with special needs. Head Start led the way toward large-scale inclusion.

■ In 1975, Public Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, was passed. Th is so- called “Bill of Rights for the Handicapped” guaran- tees free public education to disabled persons from 3 to 21 years of age “in the least restrictive environ-

94 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

ment.” An individualized program (IEP) for each person is mandatory, to be worked out with the child’s family. Th is provides a more family-centered approach in which the strengths and the needs of the family are taken into consideration. Th e success of P.L. 94-142 means that thousands of children with special needs who would have been denied any educational opportunities are now in school with typically developing children.

■ P.L. 99-457, the Education of the Handicapped Amendments Act of 1986, has had an even more profound impact for early childhood educators. Sec- tions of this law provide funding for children who were not included in the previous law: infants, tod- dlers, and 3- to 5-year-olds. Th is law also allows for the inclusion of “developmentally delayed” young- sters and leaves local agencies the opportunity to in- clude “at risk” children in that defi nition. Th e vague defi nitions give local agencies the right to defi ne dis- abling conditions in terms of local needs.

■ In 1990, Congress reauthorized P.L. 94-142 and re- named it the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (P.L. 101-576). Two new categories, au- tism and traumatic brain injury, were included, and children from birth to age 5 years were now eligible to receive services. IDEA was updated in 2004. It now details extensive changes in qualifi cations for special education teachers, extends services for children who are homeless, and extends services to children until they reach kindergarten age. IDEA 2004 also requires educators/guardians to encourage appropriate class- room behavior through positive guidance strategies.

■ Many programs may be aff ected by another piece of legislation, P.L. 101-336, the American with Dis- abilities Act (ADA), which was passed in 1990. Th is civil rights act makes it unlawful to discrimi- nate against people with special needs because of their exceptionality and requires that people with special needs have equal access to public and private services, as well as reasonable accommodations. Th is law has had an impact on hiring practices in early childhood centers and family child care homes and may require adaptations to facilities and work envi- ronments to make them more accessible to individu- als with special needs. Although not specifi cally an education law, ADA is another step toward respect- ing the dignity and worth of all individuals.

Legislation makes strong demands on the family to be intimately involved with their child’s program. Family involvement greatly improves the child’s chances for suc- cess (Allen & Marotz, 2007). Teachers and families

work together on a planned, consistent set of expecta- tions. Th e child’s confi dence is reinforced at home and at school for the same achievements. Families of children with special needs fi nd support from other parents as they share common child-rearing concerns. Teachers learn a great deal about children’s exceptionalities from the families of the children who have special needs. Th is helps them become more eff ective teachers and be aware of the individual needs of the child.

Th e importance of all of this legislation cannot be underestimated by those in and entering the fi eld of early childhood. Th e integration and transition of children with special needs into early childhood programs require knowledgeable teachers. Early childhood educators would be wise to avail themselves of special education courses now to meet this challenge. Many states require such course work before certifi cation; others will surely follow to fulfi ll these mandates.

The Inclusive Classroom Allen and Cowdery (2009) diff erentiate between the terms inclusion and mainstreaming. In the past, children with special needs were integrated into classrooms only after they had met certain standards and expectations. Often they were assigned to separate special education classes. When ready, they were mainstreamed into classrooms with typically developing children. Inclusion means that a child with special needs is a full-time member of a regular classroom, a more natural environment, with children who do, as well as those who do not, have special needs.

More than a word defi nition is at stake, however. Allen and Cowdery (2009) go on to point out that inclu- sion is about belonging, having worth, and having choices;

Watch the TeachSource Video entitled, “Five- Eleven Years: Developmental Disabilities in Middle Childhood.” After you study the video clip, refl ect on the following questions:

1. How did this teaching staff and environment adapt in order to include children with special needs?

2. What examples did you observe that foster chil- dren’s interactions with children with special needs, and how successful do you think they were?

TeachSource Video

❙ ❙

95CHAPTER 3 Defi ning the Young Child

an inclusive classroom is about “accepting and valuing human diversity and providing support so that all chil- dren and families can participate in the program of their choice.” Teachers are a key factor in the successful inte- gration of children with exceptionalities. Th eir attitude is critical; they must be committed to teaching all chil- dren with equal caring and concern, regardless of their intelligence or skill levels. To enhance inclusion, Allen and Cowdery (2009) suggest that teachers:

■ Promote healthy social relationships between chil- dren who have special needs and those who do not so that they participate in a wide variety of activities together.

■ Recognize that every child with special needs has strengths as well as defi cits and build on those strengths through a rich learning environment that fosters appropriate behavior.

■ Receive training and guidance in the critical task of working with children who have special needs and are developmentally challenged and with other pro- fessionals who work within the inclusion process.

■ Work with families to plan and implement the child’s individualized program.

■ See that children with special needs are actively in- volved and accepted in the total program with indi- vidualized activities that meet each child’s needs and abilities.

■ Help children with special needs to take advantage of, to the fullest extent of their capabilities, all the activities the school has to off er by including materi- als and activities that support the growth of the lowest-functioning children and challenges those who are high-functioning.

■ Use play as a medium for learning, but recognize that some children with special needs have to be taught play skills.

Inclusion is an important concept for all children. For typi- cally developing children, it is an opportunity to learn to accept diff erences in people. In the early education center, much of the curriculum is directed toward fostering the child’s self-esteem and self-worth. Teaching is dedicated to helping youngsters see themselves and others as important and valuable. Inclusion presents an opportunity to extend that principle to the full range of human characteristics.

For the child with special needs, the large numbers of typically developing children who serve as age-appropriate behavior models is important. Some children with special needs may not have an opportunity to hear the language of their normal peer group. Th ey may not know how to play with another child or how to communicate in socially acceptable ways. In the inclusive classroom, with sensitive and knowledgeable teachers, children with exceptionali- ties are helped to realize their potential as growing and learning children.

Fortunately, the preschool teacher rarely needs to face the task of inclusiveness alone. Many early child- hood centers have access to a team of professionals who can provide the child, the family, and the teaching staff with eff ective therapeutic activities. Th eir combined knowledge helps teachers understand the specifi c excep- tionality and plan an appropriate curriculum for each child. Together, teachers, clinicians, and parents work out a well-rounded program. Th is is called an interdisci- plinary approach to teaching.

In 1998, NAEYC endorsed a Position on Inclusion written by the Division of Early Childhood of the Coun- cil for Exceptional Children. Th is statement, which you can read on the student website, off ers guidelines for implementation.

Th ere is a signifi cant point about teaching young children with diverse behaviors and the labels or catego-

What would be your biggest challenge when working in a classroom with children who have special needs, as well as

children who do not? Have you ever had friends, relatives, or neighbors who are with special needs? How would that experience inform your attitude about working in an inclusive classroom?

What Do

YOU Think?

All children, regardless of abilities, learn and grow through play.

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ries that defi ne their exceptionality. “It is not how a child is classifi ed,” according to Allen and Cowdry (2009), “but how the child is cared for and taught as an individual, that is the most important issue in addressing behavior and learning problems in young children.”

Children Who Are Gifted and Talented Th e U. S. Department of Education’s most recent defi ni- tion of gifted and talented students is: “children and youth with outstanding talent who perform or show the potential for performing at remarkably high levels of ac- complishment when compared with others of their age, experience, or environment. Th ese children and youth exhibit high performance capacity in intellectual, creative and/or artistic areas, and unusual leadership capacity, or excel in specifi c academic fi elds. Th ey require services of activities not ordinarily provided by the schools. Out- standing talents are present in children and youth from all cultural groups, across all economic strata, and in all areas of human endeavor.” Th e National Association for Gifted Children (2009) defi nes a gifted person as “some- one who shows, or has the potential for showing, an ex- ceptional level of performance in one or more areas of expression.”

Traditionally, children have been identifi ed as gifted if they score between 130 and 150 on standard IQ Tests. Th e defi nitions above, however, indicate a broader basis for identifying children who are gifted and include those who exhibit exceptional talent in other than just intel- lectual superiority. Ford and others (2002) have long promoted the view that the percentage of Blacks and Hispanics are underrepresented in identifi cation as gifted and that this oversight is linked to standardized

tests which are often culturally and linguistically inap- propriate for many students. Ford (1995) also notes that many Black students with high achievement scores were not included in gifted programs because teachers did not refer them for screening and calls for greater multicul- tural competence in those who teach gifted students (Ford et al, 2000). To that end, Th e National Associa- tion for Gifted Children (2009) proposed standards that all teachers who work in gifted programs must have for- mal and specifi c training.

Ford (et al, 2002) further notes that the inclusion of the word “potential” in the defi nition of gifted is a critical factor that will enhance the inclusion of children who are ethnically and culturally in the minority, children with special needs, and children of poverty. It serves as a re- minder that giftedness is a trait that cuts across all socio- economic and cultural groups.

Early childhood teachers should be aware of some traits children who are gifted display so they can recog- nize potentially gifted children in their care. Further, since the majority of children in the early years are too young for IQ or standardized tests, teachers are likely to have unidentifi ed gifted children in their programs. Th ese are listed in Figure 3-3.

Teaching Children Who Are Gifted and Talented Th e teacher’s role with children who are gifted is that of providing challenge and stimulation. Children who are gifted may need scaff olding strategies to support their learning. In some cases, the children who are gifted may be advanced to an older group, moving on to kindergar- ten or fi rst grade, or spend part of the day in special classes where they can interact with like-minded peers (Berk, 2009). A more common approach in early child-

Characteristic Traits of Children Who Are Gifted and Talented

• Language: advanced verbal skills and vocabulary; experiments with words; expresses ideas easily; inventive with songs and stories

• Intellectually: long attention span and ability to concentrate; learns rapidly and has a strong memory; imaginative and original; plans and organizes well; problem-solves; questions; understands abstract concepts; creative thinker; advanced sense of humor

• Socially: independent and content to be alone in purposeful activity; heightened awareness of people and environments, especially changes; social relationships sometimes diffi cult

• Overall: exceptional gift or talent is evident in at least one area of development

FIGURE 3-3 Children who are gifted and talented exhibit a wide range of exceptional behaviors. (Adapted from Allen & Cowderly, 2009; Berk, 2009.)

97CHAPTER 3 Defi ning the Young Child

hood has been in the area of curriculum enrichment. In this way, the child remains with age-level peers to de- velop social skills. Children who are gifted often feel iso- lated from their non-gifted peers and may have social and/or emotional diffi culties. Th ese factors must also be considered in planning programs.

Curriculum areas are developed in more complex ways. Th e child who is gifted needs a learning environ- ment that supports intellectual risk-taking, the use of logic and abstract concepts, and curiosity and enhances their specifi c talents. All the children in the classroom benefi t from this enrichment; each responds according to his or her abilities and a rich curriculum benefi ts the whole class.

Th is brings to mind Gardner’s multiple intelligences (MI) (Gardner, 1993). Th e eight diff erent kinds of knowing that Gardner developed seem appropriate for teaching children who are gifted and talented. (See Mul- tiple Intelligences in Chapters 4 and 10, especially Fig- ures 4-12 and 10-5.) A variety of meaningful activities across the MI spectrum helps children learn according to their strengths and primary intelligence and suggests curriculum that will help develop new skills and knowl- edge. Concepts, knowledge, and information are pre- sented in multiple ways so that each child will succeed in learning through the most meaningful method.

Families of children who are gifted will need support and encouragement as well as guidance in dealing with their child’s exceptionality. Together, teachers and par- ents can explore what will best suit each individual child so that this giftedness may be nurtured and challenged at home and at school.

Dealing with Bias and Stereotypes One of the most important issues for a child with special needs is to be accepted. Young children are known for their forthrightness in commenting on and asking ques- tions about what confuses or frightens them. Children without special needs may be anxious about what an- other child’s exceptionality may mean to them. Although this is a common reaction and age appropriate, we can- not allow an individual to be rejected on the basis of his or her abilities. Derman-Sparks and Edwards (2010) suggests the following strategies:

■ Th e rejection must be handled immediately with sup- port and assurance give to the child who was rejected that this type of behavior will not be permitted.

Example: “No, Rachel. You cannot tell Gina that she can’t play because she is in a wheelchair. Let’s look at ways you can include her in your play.”

■ It is important to help children recognize how they are diff erent and how they are alike.

Example: “Gina is very good at writing stories, just like you, Rachel. Perhaps you could write a story together.”

■ Children need to have their fears about other chil- dren’s abilities and exceptionalities taken seriously and to have adults understand their concerns. Example: “I’m glad you told me that Emma fright- ened you because she is blind. You don’t have to be afraid that you, too, will be blind. Emily was born without sight and when you were born, you were able to see. You could use your eyes to help Emily walk to the playground.”

■ Questions must be answered promptly, truthfully, and simply. Use the children’s own curiosity, and let the child with special needs answer questions, whenever possible.

Example: “Yes, Emily, Janice has some questions about being blind. Would you like to tell her how you are able to read with Braille?”

All children benefi t when adults are willing to con- front bias and deal with children’s prejudice and miscon- ceptions. When we provide opportunities for children to interact with people who look and act diff erently than they do, we actively foster acceptance and respect for the individual. (More gender diversity issues are found in Chapter 15.)

Culture, Race, and Ethnic Considerations Th e answer to “Who is the young child?” takes on new meaning as we look at the ethnic mix of American life. A multicultural explosion has swept across the nation, fi ll- ing early childhood programs with children from many diff erent cultural backgrounds. Th ere are more students in the classroom who are culturally and linguistically dif- ferent from the teaching staff and from each other. Un- less teachers are informed and educated about these dif- ferences, they may misinterpret a child’s abilities, learning, and needs. Too often, language barriers between a teacher and a child lead to the conclusion that the child is a slow learner or has a disability.

Working with families will become more challeng- ing to a teacher’s ingenuity and communication skills. Many families are unfamiliar with school culture in the United States and the expectations schools have about family involvement and participation. Some parents are

98 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

illiterate in their own language. An informed and sup- portive teacher can help children succeed under these circumstances.

A lack of understanding about the culture, history, beliefs, and values of the children is harmful to a child’s self-concept (see Derman-Sparks and Edwards, 2010, and other references in this book). When there are no assessment tools or instructional materials in the lan- guage of the children or depict their native heritage, children are placed at a distinct disadvantage and often eliminated from programs and services that could help them succeed.

Children of Mixed Heritage One group of children and families who have often been neglected in the discussion of race, ethnicity, and culture are those who are biracial or interracial. Th e number of children of mixed heritage is increasing, and their needs are unique. As Wardle (1993) notes, interracial families are a “natural extension of our multicultural society.”

Biracial children have parents who are of diff erent races, for instance, a child of a Native American and a white person. All combinations of races can produce a biracial child, such as a Korean/African American child, or a Chinese American/ Japanese American child. Inter- racial children have parents who represent more than two racial or ethnic backgrounds. Th ese terms also apply

to children who are adopted by parents of a diff erent race.

Kelly (2009), a Black woman married to a White man, writes about her newborn son, refl ecting some of the emotion tied to children of mixed heritage: “I was worried that our son would be so light-skinned as to ap- pear Caucasian, and I wanted him to look Black. … I wanted to claim [him] for “my” side—in league with [me] against small minds, casual racism, and discrimina- tion … at seven months after his birth, [my son] is the exact shade you’d get if you mixed his father and me up in a paint can—a color I call golden.” Th e election of Barack Obama, who is biracial, as President of the United States has evoked needed conversations that bring to light many of the issues facing children and families who are interracial.

A Core Value of the NAEYC’s Code of Ethical Con- duct is respecting the dignity, worth, and uniqueness of each individual. Th roughout the Code, the vulnerability and uniqueness of the child is stressed. Th e time has come to apply these principles to provide a supporting environment that affi rms interracial families.

Self-esteem and self-identity can become issues as biracial and interracial children reach adolescence (Berk, 2009). People who have an interracial heritage often choose to identify with one parent, most often the parent of color (Wardle, 1987). It is important to help interra- cial children gain a positive self-concept and identity at an early age. Classrooms environments and curricula should intentionally refl ect images of interracial children and families to help children recognize and connect with people who share their heritages so that they learn to see and understand themselves. In the “Insights from the Field” at the end of the chapter, Wardle suggests a num- ber of ways to begin this process.

Educators need to encourage open discussions of ra- cial identifi cation and give children some positive experi- ences in talking about their heritage. Consult with fami- lies about how they handle their mixed heritage and how they identify themselves and their children. Focus on their needs as a family in order to help them nurture their child in an interracial context.

Cultural Sensitivity Cultural sensitivity means that each child’s heritage is honored, that it is understood as unique from other cul- tures, and that it is respected. It means that teachers must become familiar with the cultural norms of the children in their classes and build bridges for children and their families into the more dominant culture.

Educators must help all children develop a pride in their cultural heritage.

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Th e culturally sensitive teacher will get to know each of the families as a separate entity and become familiar with their individual expressions of culture and values. Today’s teacher will recognize that one family does not represent the totality of the culture (which would be ste-

reotyping) and will be careful not to overgeneralize from one example. Th e eff ective teacher will be called on to integrate these insights into curriculum planning as well as in their relationships with the children’s families in order to serve the best interests of the young child.

Trell’s fi rst-grade teacher asked him to research the life of one of his grandparents for a Black History Month proj- ect. Trell enthusiastically collected photographs, old letters, and newspaper clippings of his favorite grandfather. He asked his parents for anecdotal information; he also remembered his fa- vorite times with his grandfather. He spent hours preparing.

Before the important day, Trell went over the report with his teacher. He knew she would be as excited as he was about his grandfather, who had been a famous politician in his day. Much to Trell’s disappointment, his teacher rejected his report. Trell, a biracial boy, had chosen to tell about his white/Carib grandfa- ther. Th e teacher wanted only black people presented. Trell was devastated.

Anti-bias, multicultural education has found a permanent place in our early childhood programs. Psychologists have recog- nized that a crucial part of children’s self-esteem is contingent on a positive view of their racial and ethnic heritage and that chil- dren with high self-esteem do better in school. So programs now provide materials, books, dolls, activities, content, and discussion to help support the ethnic and racial identity of their children.

Multicultural approaches place children within fi ve distinc- tive groups: African American, Hispanic/Latino, Native Ameri- can, Asian American, and white. Programs then respond to children on the basis of the group to which they belong. For children like Trell, whose parents represent more than one of these categories, this does not work. And teachers who work with the growing number of multiracial and multiethnic stu- dents fi nd themselves without tools to support these children. Where do they fi t in?

Children of mixed heritage—multiracial and multiethnic— have a racial and cultural heritage that includes both biological parents’ complete backgrounds. Educators must carefully help these children develop a pride and positive self-esteem in their total multiracial heritage, culture, and identity.

Th ere are no multiracial holidays, no heroes, no puzzles of multiracial families, very few books, no posters, and no curricu- lum activities. Here are a few suggestions to help teachers begin to fi ll this void:

■ Use interracial and interethnic families in your program to help with information, photographs, holidays, stories, histo- ries, and curriculum resources.

■ Create your own posters, materials, and books that show interracial families (including foster, adoptive, and blended families).

■ Pressure companies that provide books and curriculum ma- terials to include multiracial and multiethnic materials in their selections.

■ Provide an immediate response to any language or behavior that in any way negates a multiethnic or multiracial child’s identity, heritage, or pride. Th is includes comments implying that the child cannot embrace his full multiracial identity.

■ Research multiracial and multiethnic heroes (e.g., composer Gottschalk, ornithologist Audubon) and present material to your class.

■ Never celebrate activity that requires a child to select only part of his heritage. If you celebrate cultural days, such as Cinco de Mayo and Martin Luther King Day, present them in a way all children can benefi t. Make sure a multiracial child is comfortable identifying both with Cinco de Mayo and Martin Luther King Day, if the child has those com- bined heritages.

■ Contact a local multiracial support group to get ideas, in- formation, and advice.

■ Do not teach about race, ethnicity, and culture in a way that excludes children and people. We should teach about cul- ture and heritage to be inclusive, and as a way to give indi- viduals strength, traditions, and values, not to group and ex- clude people.

Francis Wardle, M.S., Ph.D., is Executive Director of the Center for the Study of Biracial Children. He has written extensively on this topic, including Pro- posal: An Anti-Bias and Ecological Model for Multicultural Education, an article that presents a multicultural model inclusive of children with multira- cial and multiethnic heritages, and Meeting the Needs of Multiethnic & Multiracial Children in Schools, a 2004 Allyn & Bacon publication written with Maria Cruz-Janzen.

Insights from the fi eld

CHILDREN OF MIXED HERITAGE by Francis Wardle, M.S., Ph.D.

100 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

SUMMARY Th e child in early childhood programs ranges from the dependent infant to the outgoing 8-year-old. In those few short years, teachers witness tremendous physical, intellectual, social, and emotional gains. Th e child learns to crawl, walk, run, climb, throw a ball, write with a pen- cil, use scissors, hold a spoon, and manipulate toys. Both large and small muscles are called into play throughout each stage of development.

Language development is equally impressive. Th e babbling infant becomes fl uent, sometimes in more than one language. Intellectual gains coincide as children be- come able to express thoughts, solve problems, and ex- hibit growth in their reasoning powers.

Socially, the child learns to relate to family members, schoolmates, teachers, and other adults. Every range of human emotion is developed during these early years as children learn appropriate ways to express and release their feelings.

Teachers notice that children share many common characteristics while displaying wide individual diff er- ences. Profi le charts—Word Pictures—describing normal development help teachers understand when a particular

behavior is likely to occur. With advance notice, then, teachers can plan activities and curricula that appeal to children at every age level; disciplinary and guidance mea- sures can match the child’s specifi c level of development.

Yet it is obvious that growth and development do not proceed normally for all children. Two groups of chil- dren have special needs within the early childhood class- room. Children with exceptionalities require particular attention to their particular exceptionality and teachers need special skills to teach them. Children who are gifted also require attention; their exceptional abilities must be challenged and stimulated within the regular early child- hood program.

Th e changing demographics that bring more and more culturally and linguistically diverse children into early childhood settings require that teachers become familiar with the specifi c cultural norms represented in America today. Th is includes the special developmental and social needs of children of mixed heritage. Th is will call for new teaching strategies, culturally appropriate curriculum, and special eff orts to work with parents from a multicultural perspective.

KEY TERMS Word Pictures age-level characteristics visual learner auditory learner tactile learner exceptionalities

special needs Down syndrome attention-defi cit/hyperactivity

disorder (ADHD) Asperger’s syndrome inclusion

mainstreaming gifted and talented children biracial multiracial interracial

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are some of the reasons for using the concept of the whole child in early education? How is each child unique?

2. Name four ways children are alike.

3. How can Word Pictures be a valuable tool for planning programs for young children? What are some of the guidelines for using Word Pictures?

4. How do children diff er? What accounts for these diff erences and how does this aff ect curriculum planning?

5. Who are the children with special needs? Why is it important for teachers to know about the variety of special needs? What are some of the diffi culties that must be overcome for successful inclusion of children with special needs?

101CHAPTER 3 Defi ning the Young Child

6. What do educators need to consider when teaching children who are gifted and/or talented?

7. How important is it to know and understand the cultures and heritage of children we teach?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Select two children who are approximately the same age. Compare their physical, cognitive, language, creative,

and social development. How are they alike? How are they diff erent? What conclusions do you draw about their developmental level?

2. Look at the Word Picture for a 3-year-old. Compare it with a 3-year-old you know. What behavior do you observe in the real 3-year-old that falls within the range of the chart? What is diff erent? Are there cultural diff erences?

3. Observe a class of children with special needs in an inclusive classroom. What would you do to foster interac- tions between the children who have exceptionalities and the children who do not? What verbalizations are used about a child’s exceptional condition, and do other children seem to understand how their friends are similar to them as well as diff erent?

4. Survey a classroom for its cultural, racial, and ethnic mix. How do the classroom and the curriculum refl ect the various heritages of each child? What suggestions would you make to enhance cultural sensitivity in this class?

HELPFUL WEBSITES Children and Adults with ADHD http://www.chadd.org National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (NICHCY) http://www.nichcy.org Individuals with Disabilities Education Act http://www.idea.ed.gov Council for Exceptional Children http://www.cec.sped.org Th e Division of Early Childhood for Exceptional Children http://www.dec-sped.org Th e ARC (formerly National Association of Retarded Citizens) http://www.thearc.org Circle of Inclusion http://www.circleofi nclusion.org National Association for Gifted Children http://www.nagc.org Th e Center for the Study of Biracial Children http://csbchome.org

REFERENCES Allen, K. E., & Cowdery, G. (2009). Th e exceptional

child: Inclusion in early childhood education. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning.

Allen, K. E., & Marotz, L. (2007). Developmental pro- fi les: Birth to eight. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning.

Bee, H. , & Boyd, D. (2006). Th e developing child. (9th Ed.). Harper Collins: New York.

Berk, L. E. (2009). Child development. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Caldwell, B. M. (1993). One world of children. In A. Gordon & K. W. Browne (Eds.), Beginnings and beyond: Foundations in early childhood education (3rd Ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Additional resources including the TeachSource Videos can be found on the premium website for this book. Go to http://www.cengage.com/login to register your access code.

102 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

Derman-Sparks, L., & Olsen Edwards, J. (2010). Anti- bias education for young children and ourselves. Wash- ington DC: NAEYC.

Ford, D. Y. (1995). A study of underachievement among gifted, potentially gifted, and general educa- tion students. Storrs: National Research Center of the Gifted and Talented, University of Connecticut.

Ford, D. Y. Howard, T. C., Harris, J. J., & Tyson, C. A. (2000). Creating culturally responsive class- rooms for gifted African American students. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 23, 397-427.

Ford, D.Y., Harris III, J. J., Tyson, C. A., & Frazier Trotman, M. (2002, revised). Th eory into practice: Providing access for culturally diverse gifted students: from defi cit to dynamic thinking. Columbus: Th e Ohio State University, on behalf of its College of Education (2003).

Gallagher, S. A., & Gallagher, J. J. (2002). Understand- ing our gifted. 42 (2), Winter 2002. Boulder, CO: Open Space Communications.

Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of mind: Th e theory of mul- tiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.

Gesell, A., and Ilg, F. L. (1943). Infant and child in the culture of today. New York: Harper Brothers.

Kelly, R. Beyond just black and white. (February 2, 2009). Newsweek, Volume CLIII, 41.

Kiernan, S., et al. (not dated). Mainstreaming preschool- ers: Children with orthopedic handicaps. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.

National Association for Gifted and Talented. What is Giftedness? NACG website, retrieved January 30, 2009.

National Resource Center on ADHD. (2006). Th e dis- order named ADHD. What We Know Series K1. Chadd website.

Strock, M. (2006). Attention defi cit hyperactivity dis- order (NIH publication No. 3572). Available from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/adhd.

United States Department of Education website.Th e Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Student Educa- tion Act of 2001, Section 5464. Retrieved January 30, 2009.

Wardle, F. ( January, 1987). Are you sensitive to interra- cial children’s special identity needs? Young Children, 53-59. Th e National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Warlde, F. (1990). Supporting the healthy development of adopted, multiracial children. Th e Interracial Fam- ily Circle Newsletter, 6 (3), 11-17.

Wardle, F. (March, 1993). Interracial families and bira- cial children. Exchange, 45-48.

C H A P T E R

Developmental and Learning Theories

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

■ What is a learning theory, and what does it do?

■ What are the developmental domains?

■ What are the eight major theories of child development and learning?

■ Which key developmental topics impact early education?

■ How can educators use developmental theory and research?

NAEYC CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Th ese Core Values and sections from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct are ad- dressed in this chapter. As you read, note how the Core Values, Ideals, or Principles listed here apply to the topics in this chapter. (Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

Core Values: We have committed ourselves to: (1) appreciating childhood as a unique and valuable stage of the human life cycle; and (2) basing our work with children on knowledge of child development.

Ideals: I-1.1 To be familiar with the knowledge base of early childhood care and education

and keep current through continuing education and in-service training. I-1.2 To base program practices upon current knowledge in the fi eld of child devel-

opment and related disciplines and upon particular knowledge of the indi- vidual child.

4

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104 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

Introduction While taking a routine report at an elementary school, a police offi cer was interrupted by a girl of about 6 years old. Looking the offi cer up and down, she asked, “Are you a cop?” “Yes,” said the woman, and continued writing the report. “My mother said if I ever needed help I should ask the police. Is that right?” “Yes, again,” replied the offi cer. “Well, then,” she said as she extended her foot forward, “would you please tie my shoe?”

What was this child thinking? Can you see how she took in information from her mother and then applied it to her own life? How do children do that? What is the pro- cess of listening, thinking, and then doing?

While working for an organization that delivers lunches to elderly shut-ins, a mother used to take her preschool son on the afternoon rounds. He was always intrigued by the various appliances there, particularly the canes, walkers, and wheelchairs. One day, she saw him staring at a pair of false teeth soaking in a glass. He turned to her and whispered, “Th e tooth fairy will never believe this!”

Look how this child applied his fantasy world to what he encountered. During the years from birth to middle childhood, how do young children come to understand the world? How do they make sense of what they see, touch, and experience?

Th e father of 6-month-old Michiko puts one end of a toy monkey in his mouth and dangles it in front of her. Michiko gazes intently, getting still and wide-eyed, fi nally reaching up tentatively to touch the doll. Yet, when Keith’s nanny tries the same thing with him, the 9-month-old smiles and laughs as he grabs it and tries to shove it back into her mouth.

How is it that two children can respond so diff erently? Is this simply a few months’ age diff erence? Is it because of their gender or ethnic diff erences? Or has one child played this game before and not the other?

Theories So many remarkable transformations take place in the early years. Development, the orderly set of changes in the life span, occurs as individuals move from con- ception to death. So much changes over time, and those of us curious about children want to know the nature of these changes and the reasons why things

happen. What are the theories? What has research told us?

A developmental theory is a “systematic statement of principles and generalizations that provides a coherent framework for understanding how and why people change as they grow older” (Berger, 2008). A learning theory attempts to explain how learning takes place. By observing children, theorists try to make sense out of what they see, looking for patterns and variations to make a kind of story that explains the reasons or causes of the details. Research allows us to look at many chil- dren or a group of children over time, even one child with intense scrutiny, to seek these explanations.

Early childhood education draws from several fi elds of study. Much of what we know about children today comes from child development and child psychology re- search. Our knowledge base comes directly from psycho- logical studies that ask questions such as:

■ How do children develop? ■ What do they learn and in what order? ■ What do children need to be ready to learn? ■ What aff ects learning? ■ Do all children develop in the same ways? ■ What are the similarities and diff erences in growth

and development?

To begin to answer these questions, we need some way to look for information and then choose and organize the facts so that we can understand what we see. In other words, we need a theory. Psychologists and educators have been doing just that for years, and, in the last hun- dred years, a great deal has been discovered about these issues.

Th eories are especially useful in providing a broad and consistent view of the complexity of human develop- ment. Berger (2008) off ers these points:

■ Th eories produce hypotheses. Th ey allow us to make an educated guess (called a hypothesis) about children’s behavior and development.

■ Th eories generate discoveries. Because these theo- ries are based on experience, teachers can check their validity as they observe children every day.

■ Th eories off er practical guidance. Th e theories you read of form the foundation of developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) that is a guide for teachers at all levels of early education. (See “Insights from the Field” by Rosalind Charlesworth at the end of the chapter.)

Th e basic quest for sound theories about development and knowledge and for systematic statements about be- havior and development has given educators much to consider in forming their own ideas about children.

105CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

Yet, why do we need to know anything about theory or research? Is direct experience with children not enough to plan good programs? Certainly the practical aspects of teaching young children are important. How- ever, only with a genuine understanding of why a prac- tice is conducted can early educators successfully plan and achieve meaningful and eff ective intervention. If the processes involved in development are not random, then we must try to know them. As complex as the sys- tem of children’s growth, thinking, feeling, and behav- ing may be, we cannot consider ourselves responsible professionals until we understand the theory behind the practice.

The Nature of Development A child is a blend of many parts that interrelate in diff er- ent ways and change with growth over time. Such com- plexity and dynamic change is diffi cult to describe, much less predict.

Developmental Domains Th e study of human development requires insight and information from many disciplines because each person develops simultaneously in body, mind, and spirit.

(Berger, 2008); thus, we usually divide development into three domains to make it easier to study. We try to con- sider separately the three aspects that make up the whole of development (Figure 4-1). We can then better under- stand the major processes of development that parallel these developmental areas:

■ Biological processes describe changes in the body.

■ Cognitive processes are those changes in one’s thought, intelligence, and language.

■ Socio-emotional processes refl ect changes in an in- dividual’s relationships with other people, emotions, and personality.

Questions about Development Major issues are raised in the study of development. Th e science of development seeks to understand why and how people change or remain the same over time; as a science, it depends on theories, research methods, and critical analyses to understand the what, how, and why of development. Because of this, all kinds of children—younger and older, rich and poor, of various ethnicities, backgrounds, culture and experience—must be studied. Critical to this study is to observe change

FIGURE 4-1 The various domains of child growth and development are interrelated and interdependent.

106 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

over time. Th e following are three very common devel- opment questions:

1. Is children’s development due more to maturation or ex- perience? Th e changes we see in children over time may be due to internal or external infl uences. Some theories claim children change because of innate, bi- ologic, or genetic patterns built into the human be- ing; others claim that they are shaped by the envi- ronment and experiences (such as parents, materials, TV, school, and so on) of life. Th is argument is often referred to as the nature/nurture controversy, also known as the problem of heredity versus environ- ment. As you will remember from Chapter 1, this is- sue has been discussed for centuries. On the “nature” side, Rousseau argued that the child is born with natural, or innate, goodness. Locke, however, as- serted that it was “nurture” that mattered. He con- tended that children entered the world with a tabula

rasa, or clean slate, on which all experience and learning was then written. Today, most psychologists and educators agree that the patterns of develop- ment and learning are complex and not so simply ex- plained. Modern theories are not set in such black- and-white terms but rather focus on variations that emphasize one or the other (see Figure 4-2).

2. Is growth smooth and continuous or more stage-like? Some theories emphasize a gradual, cumulative kind of growth, more like “from an acorn, a giant oak will grow.” Th is continuity of development is usually the viewpoint of theories that emphasize experience (nurture). Others see children growing in stages that are clearly marked by distinct changes. “Th is view sees each of us as passing through a sequence of stages in which change is qualitative rather than quantitative. As an oak moves from seedling to giant tree, it becomes more oak-like and its development is continuous. As a

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FIGURE 4-2 Development is a combination of the forces of nature and nurture. Each theory offers its own emphasis on heredity/prenatal conditions and environmental/life experiences.

107CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

caterpillar changes into a butterfl y, it does not be- come more caterpillar, but, instead, becomes a dif- ferent kind of organism” (Santrock, 2001). Th is viewpoint emphasizes the innate nature of devel- opment. Figure 4-2 shows the relative orientations of each theory presented in the chapter.

3. What can theory and research do for early childhood educators? Science has opened our eyes to the amaz- ing complexity of the mind and the wondrous path of growth in the body. Th is was not always so. In previous generations, little scientifi c information was available by which parents (and teachers) could assess the validity of theories. Many beliefs were es- poused by adults about children, such as “You’ll spoil the baby if you respond to his demands too quickly,” or “Children who suff er early neglect and deprivation will not realize their normal potential.” Th ese statements can be powerful, particularly as they are passed on to you by your family and cul- ture. However, some ideas are rooted in myth rather than reality. Child development researchers and the- orists have accumulated a rich store of knowledge, based on scientifi c hypothesis that is then tested with evidence. Th ey can help sort fact from fi ction.

Initially, the study of child development was mostly confi ned to the study of trends and descriptions of age changes. As the 20th century progressed, the scope and defi nition of child development changed radically. De- velopmental psychologists studied how psychological processes begin, change, and develop. Child develop- ment focused on language acquisition, various early ef- fects on later intellectual development, and the process of attachment to others. Now, developmentalists are taking a life-span approach to development, taking into considerations the many directions and contexts of de- velopment, understanding the power of culture and the resilience and plasticity of individual growth, and using new tools of technology to unlock the secrets of the brain.

Early childhood teachers should know how children develop and how they learn. Knowing how children de- velop is critical in making the daily decisions about cur- riculum, the classroom setting, and children. To be eff ec- tive with children, teachers need a thoughtful philosophy and approach that is based on what we know about how children develop and what works to help them learn and understand. Th e teacher who is well versed in theory has invaluable tools to work with parents, advise the family of the range of typical behavior, and talk to parents about concerns that are beyond the norms. Th erefore, it is im-

portant to have a background in both developmental psychology and learning theories.

Major Theories and Key Topics No one set of principles encompasses all developmental and learning theories. We have chosen eight theories. Some are grand theories that describe either universal processes or the entire span of development (psychody- namic, behaviorist, cognitive). Others are mini-theories that explain just a part of development (multiple intelli- gences, maturation, humanistic). A few are emergent theo- ries (sociocultural, ecological) that are relatively new. Th ey are commonly known as (1) psychodynamic theory, (2) behaviorist theory, (3) cognitive theory, (4) sociocul- tural theory, (5) ecological theory, (6) multiple intelli- gences theory, (7) maturation theory, and (8) humanistic theory.

In addition, there are several special topics for educa- tors in the study of child development. Th e chapter ends with a discussion of (1) ethnicity and culture, (2) attach- ment, (3) play, (4) gender, (5) moral development, and (6) brain-based research.

While writing this chapter, we were reminded of this children’s incident:

While playing “school” in the dramatic play area, No- emi insisted on wearing pretend glasses, as her favor- ite teacher did. “No!” cried Venecia. “Th ey will make you mad and crabby!” (In fact, her teacher only wore the glasses when she was too tired to wear contact lenses.) “Yes, I will,” replied Noemi. “She wears them cuz they makes her smarty-pants.” (Th is is another viewpoint and a kind of myth about intelligence and eyewear.) “You’re both wrong,” called out Charly. “Ev- erybody knows you have to wear glasses and hoop earrings to be a teacher.” (As a matter of fact, the teacher did look like this.) Everyone looked puzzled, and then the play resumed.

Just like these children, not all the experts agree or even think alike. Because the fi eld of child development is broad, encompassing a wide variety of opinion and fact, there is no one theory that describes everything. More- over, these theories arose at diff erent time periods, in various countries. Each theory describes children and their processes in diff erent ways. It is up to you, the edu- cator, to decide which ones best describe children and their growth. Read carefully, and then compare your ex- periences with the theories and concepts you read here. As a teacher, you have a diversity of thought on which to establish a professional philosophy.

108 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

Psychodynamic Theory Psychodynamic theory is about personality development and emotional problems. Psychodynamic, or psychoana- lytic, theories look at development in terms of internal drives that are often unconscious, or hidden from our awareness. Th ese motives are the underlying forces that infl uence human thinking and behavior and provide the foundation for universal stages of development. In psycho- analytic terms, children’s behavior can be interpreted by knowing the various stages and tasks within those stages.

Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud began his career as a medical doctor and became interested in the irrational side of human behav- ior as he treated “hysterics.” His technique, asking people to recline on a couch and talk about everything, was ridi- culed by the medical establishment as the “talking cure.” Th en, as patients revealed their thoughts, fantasies, and problems, he began to see patterns.

Psychoanalytic Theory According to Freud, people possess three basic drives: the sexual drive, survival instincts, and a drive for destructive- ness. Of the fi rst, childhood sexuality, Freud outlined de- velopment in terms of psychosexual stages, each character- ized by a particular part of the body (see Figure 4-3). In each stage, the sensual satisfaction associated with each body part is linked to major challenges of that age. For in- stance, think about how some of the issues of toddlers, such as biting or thumb sucking, and the preschool con- cerns with “doctor play,” masturbation, or gender identifi ca-

tion in the dress-up corner might be seen in a psychosexual context. Each stage also has its own confl icts between child and parent, and how the child experiences those confl icts will determine basic personality and behavior patterns.

Freud (1920) put forth this theory, and his ideas were expanded on by Anna Freud (his daughter), Carl Jung, Karen Horney, and others. Although Freud’s inter- est was abnormal adult behavior and its causes, his con- clusions have had a major eff ect on our conception of childhood and its place in the life span.

To Freud, the personality was the most important aspect of development, more central to human growth than language, perception, or cognition. Personality was defi ned by three structures:

1. Id—the instinctive part that drives a person to seek satisfaction

2. Ego—the rational structure that forms a person’s sense of self

3. Superego—the moral side that informs the person of right and wrong

He thought that the personality developed in a fi xed pat- tern of stages that emerged as the body matured natu- rally. But even though the sequence of the stages might be fi rm, how children were treated while going through those stages determined whether they developed healthy or abnormal personalities. In particular, the mother– child relationship was important in each stage. Th us, the interaction between the child’s wishes and needs and how these were treated (by the mother or other adults) was a focal point for proper development.

All psychoanalytic explanations of human develop- ment emphasize the critical importance of relation-

Freudian Stages of Childhood Psychosexual Development

Stage Age Description/Major Area Oral Birth to 2 Mouth (sucking, biting) source of pleasure Eating and teething Anal 2–3 Bowel movements source of pleasure Toilet learning Phallic 3–6 Genitals source of pleasure Sex role identifi cation and conscience development Latency 6–12 Sexual forces dormant Energy put into schoolwork and sports Genital 12–18 Genitals source of pleasure Stimulation and satisfaction from relationships

FIGURE 4-3 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of childhood development. Psychoanalytic theory contends that each stage has its own area of pleasure and crisis between the child and parent of society.

109CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

ships with people and the sequence, or stages, of per- sonality development. Th e psychoanalyst Erik Erikson expanded and refi ned Freud’s theory of development. It is Erikson whose ideas have most aff ected early child- hood education.

Erik Erikson Erik Homberg Erikson is perhaps the most infl uential psychoanalyst of the modern era and certainly a key fi g- ure in the study of children and development. His inter- ests in children and education included a teaching back- ground in progressive and Montessori schools in Europe. After clinical training in psychoanalysis, he remained in- terested in the connections between psychotherapy and education. His books, Childhood and Society (1950) about his version of Freud’s theory, and Pulitzer Prize- winning Gandhi’s Truth (1969), helped him become well known in the United States. Erikson became the fi rst child analyst in the Boston area and worked for both University of California at Berkeley and Stanford University.

Psychosocial Theory Erikson’s theory of human development, like those of Freud and Piaget, states that life is a series of stages through which each person passes, with each stage grow- ing from the previous ones. He proposes eight stages of psychosocial development, each representing a critical period for the development of an important strength. Positive growth allows the individual to integrate his or her physical and biologic development with the challenges that the social institutions and culture present. Each stage is characterized by an emotional challenge. Erikson gave us the term identity crisis to describe how people struggle with a pair of contrasting issues at each stage as they try to answer, “Who am I?” (see Figure 4-4).

A second key point of Erikson’s theory is balance. In Erikson’s framework, balancing a child’s wishes and the demands of the environment with a mentally healthy dose of each emotion is essential for personality strength.

In other words, every growing organism passes through certain developmental stages. A stage is a period during which certain changes occur. What one achieves in each stage is based on the developments of the previ- ous stages, and each stage presents the child with certain kinds of problems to be solved. When children succeed, they go on to attack new problems and grow through solving them.

Erikson diff ered from Freud in some fundamental ways. First, he emphasized the drive for identity and meaning in a social context rather than the Freudian no- tion of sexual and aggressive drives. Second, develop- ment occurs throughout the life span, in contrast with the notion that personality is shaped only in childhood. Finally, the developmental struggles that occur during one’s life can be overcome later. You can go back; while it is true that the fi rst four stages play a key role in develop- ing ego identity, problems of childhood can be dealt with in later stages so the adult can achieve vitality.

Everyone has certain biologic, social, and psychologi- cal needs that must be satisfi ed to grow in a healthy man- ner. Medicine has learned much about physical needs— diet, rest, and exercise. Basic intellectual, social, and emotional needs also must be met for an organism to be healthy. Eriksonian theory speaks to these needs. Whether these needs are met or left unfulfi lled aff ects development.

Erikson’s stage theory is expanded here because of its importance to the fi eld of early childhood education. Figure 4-5 names all 8 stages; the text elaborates on the fi rst four in the early childhood period.

Stage 1: Trust versus Mistrust (Birth to 1 Year) Erikson’s fi rst stage is roughly the fi rst year of life and parallels Freud’s oral-sensory stage. Attitudes important to development are the capacity to trust—or mistrust— inner and outer experiences. By providing consistent care, parents help an infant develop a basic sense of trust in self and an ability to trust other people. Th ey give af- fection and emotional security as well as provide for physical needs. Inconsistent or inadequate care creates mistrust. In extreme cases, as shown by Spitz’s classic studies on infant deprivation, lack of care actually led to infant death (Spitz & Wolf, 1946). A less extreme case might form isolation or distrust of others. Given a solid base in early trust, though, the typical infant develops the virtue, or strength, of hope.

FIGURE 4-4 Eriksonian crisis in a young child’s life. Psychosocial theory claims that confl icts are oppor- tunities to balance competing urges. The child who takes initiative (grabbing a toy) can also feel guilt (returning it).

110 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

Babies must learn trust at two levels: “external, a belief that signifi cant adults will be present to meet their needs, and internal, a belief in their own power to aff ect changes and cope with a variety of circumstances” (Mooney, 2000). As adults engage with infants, they encourage at- tachment by holding babies close when feeding them and responding right away to their distress when they cry (see “Developmental Topics” at the end of this chapter).

When working with infants and toddlers, teachers must take special care to provide a predictable environment and consistent caregiving. Babies are totally dependent on adults to meet their needs; they are particularly vulnerable to diffi culties because they have few skills for coping with discomfort and stress. Th erefore, it is critical that they be cared for by warm, positive adults who are sensitive and re- spond aff ectionately to an infant’s needs as soon as they arise. In this way, the very young develop the trust in the world that will support their growth into the next stage.

Stage 2: Autonomy versus Doubt (2 to 3 Years) Th e second stage, corresponding to the second and third years of life, parallels the muscular-anal period in Freud- ian theory. Th e child learns to manage and control im- pulses and to use both motor and mental skills. To help a child develop a healthy balance between autonomy and doubt, parents should consider how to handle their toddlers’ toilet learning and growing curiosity to explore. Restrictive or compulsive parents may give the child a feeling of shame and doubt, causing a sense of insecurity. Successful growth in this stage gives children strength of will. “Th is stage, therefore, becomes decisive for the ratio

of love and hate, cooperation and willfulness, freedom of self-expression and its suppression. From a sense of self- control without loss of self-esteem comes a lasting sense of good will and pride; from a sense of loss of self- control and of foreign over-control comes a lasting pro- pensity for doubt and shame” (Erikson, 1963).

Encouraging a sense of autonomy while teaching limits without shaming is a delicate balance. According to Mooney (2000), adults foster independence in tod- dlers by:

Giving children simple “Milk or juice today?” choices Not giving false choices “Do you want to get in your car seat?” Setting clear, consistent, “People are not for biting.” reasonable limits Accepting children’s “Sometimes you want to swings between play by yourself, and independence and sometimes near me; dependence both are ok.”

Chapter 7 elaborates on how to help guide children us- ing positive discipline.

Budding curiosity means high energy, so the daily schedule should include plenty of time for active move- ment and fl exibility to deal with fl uctuating energy and mood. Toileting is a learned behavior just as dressing, painting, and singing are; a relaxed attitude about this area helps the child gain mastery without shame. Allow- ing for plenty of “two steps forward, one back” acknowl- edges the child’s natural doubts and the balancing that happens in this stage.

Psychosocial Stages of Erikson’s Theory

Stage Description Challenge Strength Stage One Newborns Trust vs. Mistrust Hope

Stage Two Toddlers Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Willpower

Stage Three Childhood Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose

Stage Four School Competence (or industry) vs. Inferiority Competence

Stage Five Adolescence Search for identity vs. Role confusion Fidelity

Stage Six Young adulthood Intimacy (love and friendship) vs. Isolation (loneliness) Love

Stage Seven Grown-ups Generativity (caring for the next generation) vs. Stagnation Care

Stage Eight Old age Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom

FIGURE 4-5 Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. Centering on basic crises at each stage of development, the theory proposes that these confl icts are part of the life process and that successful handling of these issues can give a person the “ego strength” to face life positively.

111CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

Stage 3: Initiative versus Guilt (3 to 5 or 6 Years) Th e third stage of Eriksonian theory corresponds to the preschool and kindergarten years and parallels Freud’s phallic stage of development. Th e developmen- tal task is to develop a sense of purpose. Out of auton- omy comes initiative, and from healthy doubt can come a conscience. For example, a preschooler grabs another’s toy; he may run and hide when the crying begins. Th e teacher gently leads the child to give it back and allows the regret to be expressed through making amends. Another example comes from noticing that the kinder- garten girls have great ideas about putting on a play but are disorganized about planning, so the teacher guides them to choose a title, various roles, and a “to do” list so they can execute in constructive and cooperative ways. An overly restrictive adult may end up with a child who is easily discouraged and inhibited. On the other hand, parents or teachers signaling no restraints give the child no clear idea of what is socially acceptable and what is not. Th e key strength that grows out of this stage is purpose.

Teaching children of this age is both exhilarating and exasperating. Many fi nd this stage easier physically than the previous two but more challenging socially. It is a time when children move in two opposing directions: accomplishment or destruction. To support children’s development of initiative with reasonable expectations, teachers can:

■ Encourage children to be as independent as possible. ■ Focus on gains and attempts rather than on

mistakes. ■ Set expectations aligned with a child’s individual

abilities. ■ Focus curriculum on real things and on doing in-

stead of simply listening.

Section 4 of this book concentrates on environmental and curricular issues.

Remember, the child who takes initiative is ready to meet the world head-on and wants to do it “all by myself.” This may include both putting on a jacket and hitting someone who has said something unkind. An environment that can respond to a child’s interests, both in theme and at the moment, will be interesting and successful. At the same time, teachers must be prepared with a small set of logical limits (or “rules”) and the means to follow through kindly and firmly when those limits are tested. Socializing at this age is the very point of the emotional states of initiative and guilt; children must have enough freedom to develop their own ways to deal with one another and still de-

velop a sense of fairness and conscience. Chapter 7 offers strategies for setting and maintaining limits at this age.

Stage 4: Industry versus Inferiority (6 to 12 Years) Erikson’s fourth stage, beginning with the primary school years and ending with puberty, parallels Freud’s latency period. Th e major theme in this stage is mastery of life, primarily by adapting to laws of society (people, laws and rules, relationships) and objects (tools, machines, the physical world). Th is is the child’s most enthusiastic time for learning. Th e stage is “the end of early childhood’s period of expansive imagination. Th e danger in the ele- mentary school years is the development of a sense of inferiority—of feeling incompetent and unproductive” (Santrock, 2001). It is also a time of great adventure. Children begin to think of being big and to identify with people whose work or whose personality they can under- stand and admire.

■ Find a place in my own school: Be the line leader on the way to the cafeteria, the goalie on the soccer fi eld, scribe at a scout meeting.

■ Applying myself to something new: Try organizing and serving snacks at the after-school center.

■ Handling the “tools of the tribe”: Learn to use colored pencils, to read aloud, to fi ll out forms, to check out balls and bats.

Problems arise if the child feels inadequate and infe- rior to such tasks. A parent or teacher who overem- phasizes children’s mistakes could make them despair of ever learning, for instance, the multiplication tables or cursive handwriting. Th is is particularly sensitive for the child with special needs and for those who are learning a second language. At the same time, adults must encourage children to work toward mastery. Adults should “mildly but fi rmly coerce children into the adventure of fi nding out that one can learn to ac- complish things which one would never have thought possible by oneself ” (Erikson, 1963). Parents must not let their children restrict their own horizons by doing only what they already know. Particularly in social sit- uations, it is essential for children to learn to do things with others, as diffi cult and unfair as this may some- times be.

Applying Psychosocial Theory to Work with Children First, Erikson has a clear message about the importance of play. Second, the theory off ers guidelines for the role of adults in children’s lives.

112 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

Play is a critical part of children’s total development. Most schools for children under age 6 have periods of time allotted for play called “choice time” or “free play.” Erikson supports these ideas explicitly by stating that the senses of autonomy and of initiative are developed mainly through social and fantasy play. He suggests that child’s play is “the infantile form of the human ability to deal with experiences by creating model situations and to master reality by experiment and planning. … To ‘play it out’ in play is the most natural self-healing measure childhood aff ords” (Erikson, 1964). (See the Develop- mental Topic on “Play” later in this chapter.)

Th e adult is primarily an emotional base and a social mediator for the child. Teachers become interpreters of feelings, actions, reasons, and solutions. We help chil- dren understand situations and motives so that they can solve their own problems. Look at each child’s emotional makeup and monitor his or her progress through devel- opmental crises; each crisis is a turning point of increased vulnerability and also enhanced potential. Allow the child, in Erikson’s words:

… to experience over and over again that he is a person who is permitted to make choices. He has to have the right to choose, for example, whether to sit or whether to stand, whether to approach a visitor or to lean against his mother’s knee … whether to use the toilet or to wet his pants. At the same time he must learn some of the boundaries of self- determination. He inevitably fi nds that there are some walls he cannot climb, that there are objects out of reach, that above all, there are innumerable commands enforced by powerful adults. (1969)

In preschool and kindergarten, a teacher allows children to take initiative and does not interfere with the results of those actions. At the same time, teachers and parents provide clear limits so that the children can learn what behaviors are unacceptable to society. For example, the kindergartners at a birthday party are laughing and shouting in the bedroom, when suddenly the birthday girl emerges in tears with several others in tow trying to tell what happened. Th e adult who can help them take turns in the telling and declare how scary it was when someone fell off the bouncing bed and bumped her head helps the children acknowledge real feelings and learn to interact around social challenges.

Th e issues of early childhood, from Erikson’s theory, are really human issues. Th e remnants of these stages stay with us all our lives, and teachers who are aware of their own processes can fully appreciate the struggles of children.

Behaviorist Theory Behaviorism is the most pragmatic and functional of the modern psychological ideologies. Behaviorist theo- ries describe both development and learning. Initiated during the 1920s and continually modifi ed today, be- haviorism is “the most distinctively American contribu- tion to psychology” (Suransky, 1982). Countless devel- opmental psychologists and researchers have defi ned and expanded on this idea, several of whom are men- tioned later in this chapter. To summarize the behav- iorist theory, we have chosen fi ve theorists: Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, Edward Th orndike, B. F. Skinner, and Albert Bandura.

The Behaviorists What is known today as “ behaviorism” begins with the notion that a child is born with a “clean slate,” a tabula rasa in Locke’s words, on which events are written throughout life. Th e conditions of those events cause all important human behavior. Behaviorists often insist that only what can actually be observed will be ac- cepted as fact. Only behavior can be treated, they say, not feelings or internal states. Th is contrasts to the psychodynamic approach, which insists that behavior is just an indirect clue to the “real” self, that of inner feel- ings and thoughts.

In Erikson’s theory, the adult serves as a social mediator for the child.

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Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, was working in a laboratory, studying how animals digest food. He no- ticed that the dogs in his laboratory would anticipate their meals when they heard or saw their attendants making preparations. Instead of starting to salivate just when food was set in front of them, the dogs would salivate to a number of stimuli associated with food. He identifi ed this simple form of learning as respon- dent conditioning. Th e association of involuntary re- fl exes with other environmental conditions became known as classical conditioning, a cornerstone of be- haviorist theory.

John B. Watson was an American theorist who stud- ied Pavlov’s experiments, then translated those ideas of conditioning into human terms. In the fi rst quarter of the 20th century, Watson made sweeping claims about the powers of this classical conditioning. He declared that he could shape a person’s entire life by controlling exactly the events of an infant’s fi rst year. One of his ideas was to discourage emotional ties between parents and children because they interfered with the child’s di- rect learning from the environment (though he later modifi ed this). Nonetheless, he gave scientifi c validity to the idea that teachers should set conditions for learning and reward proper responses.

Edward L. Th orndike also studied the conditions of learning. Known as the “godfather of standardized test- ing,” Th orndike helped develop scales to measure stu- dent achievement and usher in the era of standardized educational testing (see Chapter 6). He set forth the famous stimulus-response technique. A stimulus will recall a response in a person; this forms learned habits. Th erefore, it is wise to pay close attention to the conse- quences of behavior and to the various kinds of reinforcement.

B. F. Skinner took the idea of tabula rasa one step further to create the doctrine of the “empty organism.” Th at is, a person is like a vessel to be fi lled by carefully designed experiences. All behavior is under the control of one or more aspects of the environment. Further- more, Skinner maintained that there is no behavior that cannot be modifi ed. Some people argue that Skin- nerian concepts tend to depersonalize the learning process and treat people as puppets. Others say that behaviorist psychology has made us develop new ways to help people learn and cope eff ectively with the world.

Albert Bandura refi ned behaviorism beyond condi- tioning into a social learning theory. Socialization is the process of learning to conform to social rules. Social- learning theorists watch how children learn these rules

and use them in groups. Th ey study the patterns of rein- forcement and reward in socially appropriate and unac- ceptable behavior and how children learn:

Children acquire most of their social concepts—the rules by which they live—from models whom they observe in the course of daily life, particularly par- ents, caregivers, teachers, and peers. Social learning theory [suggests] the models most likely to be imi- tated are individuals who are nurturant—warm, re- warding, and aff ectionate. Attachment also aff ects the process: Th e most signifi cant or infl uential mod- els are people to whom the child is emotionally tied. (Bandura in Fong & Resnick, 1986)

From this arose a new concept known as modeling. Th is is what used to be known as learning and teaching by example. For instance, children who see their parents smoking will likely smoke themselves, and those who witness kindness to others are likely to imitate it. In fact, Bandura’s studies provided “strong evidence that expo- sure to fi lmed aggression heightens aggressive reactions in children. Subjects who viewed the aggressive human and cartoon models on fi lm exhibited nearly twice as much aggression than did subjects in the control group who were not exposed to the aggressive fi lm content” (Bandura, 1963). Th is work suggests that pictorial mass media—television, video games, and computer activities—serve as important sources of social behavior. Any behavior can be learned by watching it, from lan- guage (listening to others talk) to fi ghting (watching vio- lence on television).

Bandura’s theory has expanded into a cognitive model, theorizing that children think hard about what they see and feel. Social learning is also related to self- understanding and a belief in one’s own abilities, known as self-effi cacy. Th us, personal and cognitive factors in- fl uence behavior, as does the environment, and, in turn, children’s behavior can aff ect the environment around them. Adding the factors of modeling and refl ective thinking to behaviorist theory links it to Piaget’s cogni- tive theory (next in this chapter).

Theory of Behaviorism and Social Learning What is behavior, or learning, theory all about? Learning occurs when an organism interacts with the environment. Th rough experience, behavior is modifi ed or changed. In the behaviorist’s eyes, three types of learning occur: (1) classical conditioning; (2) operant conditioning; and

114 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

(3) observational learning or modeling. Th e fi rst two are based on the idea that learning is mostly the development of habit. What people learn is a series of associations, forming a connection between a stimulus and response that did not exist before. Th e third is based on a social approach. Figure 4-6 summarizes these three types of be- haviorist learning processes.

Classical Conditioning Classical conditioning can be explained by reviewing Pavlov’s original experiments. A dog normally salivates at the sight of food but not when he hears a bell. When the sound of a bell is paired with the sight of food, the dog “learns” to salivate when he hears the bell, whether or not food is nearby. Th us, the dog has been conditioned to salivate (give the response) for both the food (uncondi- tioned stimulus) and the bell (conditioned stimulus). Similarly, when the school bell rings in the afternoon, children begin to gather their papers into backpacks to go home. Th ey have been conditioned to the sound of the bell; ask any teacher who has had to deal with a bro- ken bell system how strong this conditioning is. Classical conditioning can also account for the development of phobias. Watson used a young boy in a laboratory to test this theory. He showed the boy a white rat, then sounded a loud noise. After only seven pairings, the boy would cringe at the sight of the rat without the bell sounding at all. Only a few painful visits to a childhood dentist can teach a lifetime fear of dental health professionals.

Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning is slightly diff erent from classi- cal conditioning in that it focuses on the response rather than the stimulus. In operant conditioning, the process that makes it more likely that a behavior will recur is called reinforcement. A stimulus that increases the likelihood of repeated behavior is called a rein- forcer. Most people are likely to increase what gives

them pleasure (be it food or attention) and decrease what gives them displeasure (such as punishment, pain, or the withdrawal of food or attention). Th e behavior- ist tries to infl uence the organism by controlling these kinds of reinforcement.

A positive reinforcer is something that the learner views as desirable:

“social reinforcers” attention, praise, smiles or hugs “nonsocial reinforcers” tokens, toys, food, stickers

For example, you would like Claire to begin to use a spoon instead of her hands to eat. Before conditioning, you talk to her whenever she eats. During the condition- ing period, you can give attention (a positive reinforcer) each time she picks up a spoon during feeding times and ignore her when she uses her hands. Afterward, she is more likely to use a spoon and less often her hands. Th is is an example of a positive reinforcer, something that in- creases the likelihood of the desired response.

Th e reinforcers can be either positive or negative. A negative reinforcer is removal of an unpleasant stimulus as a result of some particular behavior. Circle time is Jimmy’s favorite activity at school. Yet he has diffi culty controlling his behavior and consistently disrupts the group. Before conditioning, he is told that if he talks to his neighbors and shouts responses at the teacher, he will be asked to leave the circle. During the conditioning pe- riod, Jimmy is praised whenever he pays attention, sings songs, and does not bother those around him (positive reinforcement). When he begins to shout, he is told to leave and return when he can sing without shouting (negative reinforcement). A negative reinforcer is used to stop children from behaving in a particular way by ar- ranging for them to end a mildly aversive situation im- mediately (in this case, the boy has to leave the group) by improving their behavior. Jimmy, by controlling his own behavior, could end his isolation from the group.

Behaviorist Learning Processes

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Modeling Kind of behavior Refl exive Voluntary Voluntary Type of learning Learning through Learning through Learning through association reinforcement observation and imitation Role of learner Passive Active or passive Active

FIGURE 4-6 Behaviorist learning processes. Classical conditioning, operant condition- ing, and modeling are three ways of learning, describing how behavior is learned and the role of the learner in each process.

115CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

Punishment is diff erent from negative reinforce- ment. Punishment is an unpleasant event that makes the behavior less likely to be repeated; that is, if Jimmy were spanked every time he shouted, then his shouting would be the punished behavior and it is likely he would begin to shout less. However, when leaving the group is the reinforcer for shouting, he tries to stop shouting to increase the likelihood of being able to stay, and not be- ing taken away from the group. Negative reinforcement thus increases the likelihood that the desired behavior will be repeated (staying in the group) and removes at- tention from the less desirable behavior (the shouting). Th e “time-out” chair, for instance, could be viewed as ei- ther a punishment or a negative reinforcer. If used as exclusion from the group or a withdrawal of playing privileges, a child would fi nd the time-out as a punish- ment. On the other hand, if a child could leave the time- out more quickly by exhibiting certain behaviors (in- stead of the “bad” behavior), it might be seen as a negative reinforcer.

Reinforcement, both positive and negative, is a pow- erful tool. It is important for adults to realize that it can be misused. It is wise to be careful, particularly in the case of negative reinforcement. An adult may not be gentle with a negative reinforcer when angry with a child’s inappropriate behavior. Educators and parents should be aware of the possibilities and check their own responses.

Modeling Th e third kind of conditioning is called observational learning or modeling. Social behavior is particularly noteworthy to early childhood professionals, as most work with children in groups and thus witness social be- havior constantly. Any behavior that involves more than one person can be considered social. One of the most negative social behaviors is aggression. It is this type that Albert Bandura researched, fi nding that much of it is learned by watching others.

Aggression is a complex issue, involving various defi - nitions and behaviors. To illustrate social learning theory, Bandura defi nes aggression as behavior intended to in- fl ict harm or discomfort to another person or object. Bandura showed a short fi lm of aggressive behavior to young children. Th e original mid-1960s studies are sum- marized below:

Each child in Bandura’s experiment viewed one of three fi lms. In all three fi lms, an adult hit, kicked, and verbally abused an infl ated Bobo doll in ways that young children are unlikely to do spontane-

ously. Th e fi lms diff ered in what happened to the model after the aggressive sequence. In one fi lm, the model was lavishly rewarded with praise and foods that appealed to preschoolers, such as candy and caramel popcorn. In another fi lm, the model was punished in a dramatic way, including severe scold- ing and a spanking. Th e third fi lm simply ended af- ter the model’s aggressive behavior, with no conse- quences following the aggression. After viewing one fi lm, each child in the experiment was allowed to play in a room with a Bobo doll, all the toys used in the aggression fi lm, and a variety of other toys.

Th e results are most impressive, especially to those working with young children. Th e level of aggression ex- pressed by each child was directly related to what the children saw as the consequences in the fi lm. When of- fered prizes, they imitated almost exactly what their model had done. Also, children appeared more likely to attack one another after viewing the attacks on the Bobo doll in fi lm. Further studies have shown that children’s levels of aggression are higher right after viewing the fi lm but less so when shown it again six months later (Berger, 2005). Regardless of the controversy that may surround any study of children’s aggression or the eff ects of watch- ing fi lmed violence on youngsters, the social-learning theory deserves serious consideration. Th e eff ect of tele- vision and media viewing on children is discussed in Chapter 15.

Modeling is a special kind of observational learning in which children watch others and then pattern their be- havior after what they have seen.

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Applying Behaviorist Theory to Work with Children Behaviorist theories make a strong case for how the en- vironment infl uences our behavior:

■ Physical environment: A teacher arranges the room so that positive learning is enhanced.

■ Daily schedule: Routines and sequence of events are planned to encourage habits.

■ Teacher/child interaction: Teachers respond carefully to children to shape their behavior.

Adults are powerful reinforcers and models for chil- dren. A learning situation comprises many cues; it is up to adults to know what those cues are and how to control them. Teachers who use behavior modifi cation techniques know both what children are to do and how they will be reinforced for their behavior. Th e ethics and usefulness of using this kind of control bring up important criticism and concern (see Kohn in “What Do You Th ink?”). Each teacher and program must consider the impact of this theory and how to apply it to classroom and client. Chap- ter 7 has examples of behavior modifi cation techniques and a discussion about their limitations.

What children learn is shaped by the circumstances surrounding the learning. Experiences that are enjoyable are reinforcing. From the peek-a-boo game with an in- fant to a 7-year-old’s fi rst ride on a skateboard, an experi- ence is more likely to be repeated and learned if it is pleasant. Social learning is particularly powerful in the lives of young children. Adults must be mindful of their own behavior; watching children as young as 2 years old play “family” or “school” will convince the most skeptical critic that any behavior is learnable and can become part of children’s behavioral repertoire.

Cognitive Theory Adult: What does it mean to be alive? Child: It means you can move about, play—that you

can do all kinds of things. Adult: Is a mountain alive? Child: Yes, because it has grown by itself. Adult: Is a cloud alive? Child: Yes, because it sends water. Adult: Is wind alive? Child: Yes, because it pushes things.

How do children learn to think, and what do they think about? Cognitive theory describes the structure and de- velopment of human thought processes and how those processes aff ect the way a person understands and per- ceives the world. Piaget’s theory of cognition forms a cornerstone of early childhood educational concepts about children; others have developed this theory fur- ther into a constructivist theory of learning.

Jean Piaget Jean Jacques Piaget was one of the most exciting research theorists in child development. A major force in child psychology, he studied both thought processes and how they change with age. Piaget’s ideas serve as our guide to the cognitive theory because of the thoroughness of his work. He had great infl uence on child psychology, theo- ries of learning, intellectual development, and even phi- losophy. He became the foremost expert on the develop- ment of knowledge from birth to adulthood.

How did Piaget fi nd out about such matters? A short review of his life and ideas reveals a staggering volume of work and a wide scope of interests. Born at the turn of the century, Piaget built on his childhood curiosity in science and philosophy by working with Dr. Simon at the Binet Laboratory (Simon and Binet devised the fi rst intelligence test). While recording children’s abilities to

Alfi e Kohn, a nationally known educator and author, is a strong critic of behaviorism. He cites research showing that

rewards decrease motivation; in fact, the more rewards are used, the more they seem to be needed. Punishment and negative reinforcement produce short-term compliance only, and often disregard feelings, needs, and intentions. “Skinnerian thinking—caring only about behaviors—has narrowed our understanding of children and warped the way we deal with them . . . In a nutshell, it’s the child who engages in the behavior, not the behavior itself, who matters” (Kohn, 2005).

1. Do you think children end up being “punished by rewards”?

2. How do you shape children’s behavior? 3. How much of what we do with children can

be explained by behaviorism?

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117CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

answer questions correctly, he became fascinated with children’s incorrect responses. He noticed that children tended to give similar kinds of wrong answers at certain ages.

Th us, Piaget launched into a lifelong study of intelli- gence. He believed that children think in fundamentally diff erent ways from adults. He also developed a new method for studying thought processes. Rather than us- ing a standardized test, he adapted the psychiatric method of question and response. Called the methode cli- nique, it is a technique in which adults ask questions and then adapt their teaching and further inquiries based on children’s answers. Th is method of observation and as- sessment is discussed in detail in Chapter 6.

Piaget then began studying children’s thought pro- cesses. With his wife, one of his former students, he ob- served his own children. He also began to look closely at how actively children engage in their own development. Prolifi c his entire life, Piaget gave us a complex theory of intelligence and child development. He recorded, in a systematic way, how children learn, when they learn, and what they learn (Elkind & Flavell, 1996).

Theory of Cognitive Development While others thought that the development of thinking was either intrinsic (nature) or extrinsic (nurture), Piaget thought that neither position off ered a full explanation for a child’s amazing and complex behaviors.

His theory relies on both maturational and environ- mental factors. It is called maturational because it sets out a sequence of cognitive (thinking) stages that is gov- erned by heredity. For example, heredity aff ects our learning by (1) how the body is structured biologically and (2) automatic, or instinctive, behavior, such as an in- fant’s sucking at birth. It is an environmental theory be- cause the experiences children have will directly infl u- ence how they develop. Piaget claimed that children build their own knowledge and that “construction is su- perior to instruction” (Santrock, 2001).

Theory Basics Th inking and learning is a process of interaction be- tween a person and the environment. Piaget also believed that all species inherit a basic tendency to organize their lives and adapt to the world around them. Th is is known as a constructivist theory (see later in this chapter); that is, children actively construct knowledge on an ongoing basis. Th ey are developing and constantly revising their own knowledge. As they experience the world, they take

in new information and either absorb it into what they already know (assimilation) or create a new place for it (accommodation), thus returning to a sense of balance (equilibration). In doing so, all organisms “fi gure out” what the world is all about and then work toward surviv- ing in that world. Piaget believed children learn best when they are actually doing the work (or play) them- selves, rather than being told, shown, or explained to, which were the dominant teaching methods of the day. Having studied Montessori methods, Piaget concluded that teachers could prepare a stimulating environment and also interact with the children to enhance their thinking.

Regardless of their age, all people develop schemas, or mental concepts, as a general way of thinking about, or interacting with, ideas and objects in the environment. Very young children learn perceptual schemas as they taste and feel; preschool children use language and pre- tend play to create their understanding; older children develop more abstract ones, such as morality schemas, which help them determine how to act.

Th roughout, we use three basic processes to think: these are known as the adaptive processes of assimilation and accommodation and the balancing process of equili- bration. Figure 4-7 demonstrates how these work.

Piaget theorized that thinking develops in a certain general pattern in all human beings. Th ese stages of thinking are the psychological structures that go along with adapting to the environment. Piaget identifi ed four major stages of cognitive development:

Sensorimotor stage 0 to 2 years Preoperational stage 2 to 6 or 7 years Concrete operational stage 6 to 12 years Formal operational stage 12 years to adulthood

Each person of normal intelligence will go through these stages in this order, although the rate will change depending on the individual and his or her experiences. Each stage of development has critical lessons for the child to learn in order to think and make sense of the world. Figure 4-8 illustrates key experiences at each stage of cognitive development in the early years. Piaget’s work has been a major infl uence in early childhood programs.

Piaget’s theories revolutionized our thinking about children’s thinking and challenged psychologists and ed- ucators to focus less on what children know than the ways they come to know. But was Piaget right? Research- ers have been exploring and debating the ideas of cogni- tive theory for many years, often engaging in what Piaget himself called “the American question”: Can you speed up the rate in which children pass through these intel- lectual stages of development?

118 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

Now, developmental psychologists believe that Piaget’s theory of distinct stages is not correct, but the idea of a sequence in thinking is. Furthermore, current research on the brain supports Piagetian theory. Brain maturation, as refl ected in myelination, a process that speeds transmission of nerve impulses between neurons, seems to follow a sequence that parallels the various thinking stages of development. Brain-based research and its implications for early childhood teachers are dis- cussed at the end of this chapter.

What we do know is that children progress from one stage to the next, changing their thinking depending on their level of maturation and experience with the envi- ronment. Certain physical skills, such as fi ne-motor co- ordination, determine how much a child is capable of doing. Certain environmental factors, such as the kinds of experiences the world and adults provide, infl uence the rate of growth. Yet throughout the process, children take in new knowledge and decide how it fi ts with what they already know. As new information comes in, the child learns and grows.

Piaget’s Three Processes of Cognitive Adaptation

Assimilation: Taking new information and organizing it in such a way that it fi ts with what the person already knows.

Example: Juanita sees an airplane while walking outside with her father. She knows that birds fl y. So, never having seen this fl ying thing before, she calls it a “bird (pájaro).” This is what we call assimilation. She is taking in this new information and making it fi t into what she already knows. Children assimilate what they are taught into their own worlds when they play “school” by taking turns and “house” with their dolls and toys or other people.

Accommodation: Taking new information and changing what is already thought to fi t the new information.

Example: Aaron is at the grocery store with his mother and newborn baby. He calls the woman in the line ahead of them “pregnant” although she is simply overweight. After being corrected, he asks the next person he sees, “Are you pregnant or just fat?” This is what we call accommodation. Having learned that not all people with large bellies are pregnant, he changes his knowledge base to include new information. Children accommodate to the world as they are taught to use a spoon, the toilet, or a computer.

Equilibration: A mental process to achieve a mental balance, whereby a person takes new information and continually attempts to make sense of the experiences and perceptions.

Example: Colby, age seven, gets two glasses from the cupboard for his friend Ajit and himself. After putting apple juice into his short, wide glass he decides he’d rather have milk, so he pours it into Ajit’s tall, thin glass. “Look, now I have more than you!” says his friend. This puzzles Colby, who is distressed (in “disequilibrium”): How could it be more when he just poured it out of his glass? He thinks about the inconsistency (and pours the juice several times back and forth) and begins to get the notion that pouring liquid into different containers does not change the amount (the conservation liquids). “No, it isn’t,” he says, “it’s just a different shape!” Thus, Colby learns to make sense of it in a new way and achieve equilibrium in his thinking. Children do this whenever they get new information that asks them to change the actual schemas, making new ones to fi t new experiences.

FIGURE 4-7 In Piagetian theory, the processes of assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration are basic to how people think (cognition) and learn.

There are two main criticisms of Piaget’s theory: the age and the stage.

1. The Age: He seems to have been wrong about just how

early many cognitive skills develop. For example, virtually all the achievements of the concrete operational period are present in at least rudimentary or fragmentary form in the preschool years. This might simply mean that Piaget just had the ages wrong—that the concrete operations stage really begins at age 3 or 4.

2. The Stage: Research on expertise now shows that specifi c knowledge makes a huge difference. Children and adults who know a lot about some subject or some set of materials (dinosaurs, baseball cards, mathematics, or whatever) not only categorize information in that topic area in more complex and hierarchical ways; they are also better at remembering new information on that topic and better at applying more advanced forms of logic to material in that area.

So, was Piaget right? And about what?

What Do

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119CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

Stages of Early Childhood Cognitive Development

As a baby As a preschooler As a primary child

Sensorimotor Period Preoperational Concrete Operational

Key concept Key concept Key concept

Object permanence Symbolic play and language Reasoning

Defi nition Defi nition Defi nition

—the understanding that —the use of ideas, images, sounds, —Actions can be carried out objects continue to exist even or symbols to stand for objects and mentally. when they are out of sight events � symbolic play —Logical reasoning replaces —essential to understanding —the use of an abstract, rule- intuitive thinking in concrete the physical world governed system of symbols that situations. can be combined to communicate —Classifi cation skills develop. information � language —Essential to ability to think —essential to developing the logically. capacity to think

Explanation Explanation Explanation

—Birth to four months, infants —From 14 to 19 months, —can coordinate several respond to objects but stop representational ability emerges. characteristics rather than a tracking them if they are covered. —By 24 months, most can use single property —Four to eight months, infants substitute objects in pretend play. —reversibility emerges; can see will reach for an object if it is —Nine to twelve months, infants the same problem from several partially covered. begin to use conventional social perspectives —By eight to twelve months, gestures. —can divide things into sets and infants will search for hidden —Around one year, fi rst words reason about their relationships objects randomly, anywhere. emerge. —Conservation skills emerge; an —By 12 to 18 months, toddlers —18 to 24 months, fi rst sentences amount of liquid remains the will search for an object where appear. same, no matter the container. they last saw it. —By 18 to 24 months, toddlers will search for hidden objects in systematic way.

FIGURE 4-8 During each stage of cognitive development, children learn a key concept that enhances their thinking and reasoning.

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120 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

Watch the three TeachSource Videos on “Piaget’s Sensorimotor, Preoperational, and Concrete Opera- tional Stages.” After you study the video clips, re- fl ect upon the following questions:

1. How does children’s thinking change over the early years, and how does this affect what is planned in ECE classrooms for the three age groups?

2. Why should teachers know developmental or learning theories before they create programs for young children?

TeachSource Video

❙ ❙ Constructivist Theory For more than a century, there has been regular debate about how children learn and concerning the best meth- ods of teaching. Traditional methods of teaching, partic- ularly for school-age children, are based on behaviorist views of learning. Articulated by Th orndike and Skinner (see the behaviorist section in this chapter), these meth- ods emphasize learning by association and in a stimulus- response manner. With this transmission model of teaching, the teacher possesses the knowledge and trans- mits it directly to the children.

In contrast, a method called constructivism has emerged. Based on ideas from Dewey and Piaget and supported by socio-cultural theory, this transactional model of teaching actively engages a child in tasks de- signed to create personal meaning. Learning is an active process, based on the belief that knowledge is con- structed by the learner rather than transferred from the teacher to the child.

“Constructivism is a theory of learning which states that individuals learn through adaptation. What they learn or adapt to is directly infl uenced by the people, ma- terials and situations with which they come into contact” (Meade-Roberts & Spitz, 1998). People build on preex- isting knowledge, be it intellectual, social, or moral. One of its basic tenets is that “knowledge is subjective; that is, ev- eryone creates his own meaning of any particular experi- ence, including what he hears or reads” (Heuwinkel, 1996). Another fundamental idea is that children learn by taking new ideas and integrating them into their existing knowledge base. Th is is exactly in line with Piaget’s pro- cesses of assimilation and accommodation.

Th e teacher’s role is to build an environment that is stimulating and conducive to the process of constructing meaning and knowledge. Th e preprimary schools of Reggio Emilia (see Chapters 2, 9, 10, and 14) encourage children to create their own material representations of their understanding by using many types of media (drawing, sculpture, stories, puppets, paper). At kinder- garten and school-age levels, learning literacy and math- ematics is considered a developmental process that the teacher “facilitates by providing modeling, authentic ex- periences, mini-lessons on specifi c topics and frequent opportunities for students to consult with and learn from each other” (Heuwinkel, 1996). Many constructiv- ist classrooms work on creating community through rule-creating; in fact, those teachers would tell us that “the only way to help students become ethical people, as opposed to people who merely do what they are told, is to have them construct moral meaning” (Kohn, 2005).

Constructivist classrooms look diverse because the style and cultures of the teacher and children will prevail. Furthermore, a constructivist class is often noisy. Children will have choices and make decisions on signifi cant parts of their learning. Th ere may be more “arguments” about how children are to play and build, with children leading discussions and many participating in solutions. Th e teacher is a facilitator and does less talking while the learn- ers do more, and provides more guidance and written ob- servations rather than enforcing rules or giving tests.

Although there may still be some direct instruction and demonstrations as there are in classes based on be- haviorist views, a constructivist program has fundamen- tal diff erences about teaching and learning, about how children learn best, who and how they should be taught, and who has the answers. Constructivist classrooms may do a better job promoting children’s social, cognitive, and moral development than do more teacher-centered pro- grams. It is a theory used extensively in emergent curric- ulum programs (see Chapters 10–14).

Applying Cognitive Theory to Work with Children What can teachers learn from the complicated cognitive theory? Piaget’s writings do not apply directly to class- room methods or subject matter per se, and therefore, careful interpretation is required. In fact, he never claimed to be an educator. However, Piaget’s theories provide a framework, or philosophy, about children’s thinking. Piagetian theory has some implications for both environment and interactions.

121CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

Materials Children need many objects to explore so that they can later incorporate these into their symbolic thinking. Such materials need to be balanced among open-ended ones (such as sand and water activities, basic art and construction materials), guided ones (cooking with reci- pes, conducting experiments, classifi cation and seriated materials), and self-correcting ones (puzzles, matching games, such as some of the Montessori materials). It is important to remember that young children need to be involved with concrete objects and to explore and use them in their own ways, which include both sensorimo- tor and beginning symbolic play.

Scheduling Children need lots of time to explore their own reality, es- pecially through the use of play. A Piagetian classroom would have large periods of time for children to “act out” their own ideas. Also, time should be scheduled for imita- tion of adult-given ideas (songs, fi nger plays, and stories).

Teachers Children need teachers who understand and agree with a developmental point of view. Th e teacher who knows the stages and levels of thinking of the children will be

one who can guide that class into new and challenging opportunities to learn and grow.

In working with children under age 5, we must re- member that, because they do not understand mental representations very well, they will have trouble recog- nizing that another person may view or interpret things diff erently than they do. Th is egocentric viewpoint is both natural and normal but must be factored into teachers’ thoughts as they work with children. For in- stance, you may be able to ask a 6- or 7-year-old: “How would you feel if you were in that situation?” For a younger child, the question is incomprehensible. For the same reason, the younger child may have trouble distin- guishing how things seem or appear from how they re- ally are (see Figure 4-9). As Flavell puts it,

For them, if something seems dangerous (the menacing-looking shadow in their unlit bedroom), it is dangerous, and if it seems nondangerous (the friendly acting stranger), it is nondangerous. We of- ten think of young children as naive, credulous, gull- ible, trusting, and the like. Th eir inadequate under- standing that things may not be as they appear might be partly responsible for this impression. (Flavell, Green, & Flavell, 1989)

FIGURE 4-9 Children’s ideas, or mental representations, change with age. The older child recognizes that, although the contents of the box are only one thing out in the world, they can be represented in people’s heads in more than one way—a possibility that escapes the younger child. (Special thanks to John Flavell for the example and the research. Reprinted by permission of John Flavell.)

122 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

To encourage thinking and learning, teachers should refrain from telling children exactly how to solve a prob- lem. Rather, the teacher should ask questions that en- courage children to observe and pay attention to their own ideas. Teachers should:

■ Use or create situations that are personally mean- ingful to children.

■ Provide opportunities for them to make decisions. ■ Provide opportunities for them to exchange view-

points with their peers.

Awareness Perhaps more important is the awareness on the part of all adults that all children have the capability to reason and be thinkers if they are given appropriate materials for their stage of development. Teachers must remember that young children:

1. Th ink diff erently from adults. 2. Need many materials to explore and describe. 3. Th ink in a concrete manner and often cannot think

out things in their heads. 4. Come to conclusions and decisions based on what

they see, rather than on what is sensible and adult- logical.

5. Need challenging questions and the time to make their own decisions and fi nd their own answers.

Th e thoughts and ideas of Piaget are impressive, both in quantity and quality. Th e collective works of this man are extremely complex, often diffi cult to understand. Yet they have given us a valuable blueprint. Clearly, he has provided unique and important insights into the devel- opment of intelligence and children:

It is Piaget’s genius for empathy with children, to- gether with true intellectual genius, that has made him the outstanding child psychologist in the world today and one destined to stand beside Freud with respect to his contributions to psychology, education, and related disciplines. Just as Freud’s discoveries of unconscious motivation, infantile sexuality, and the stages of psychosexual growth changed our ways of thinking about human personality, so Piaget’s discov- eries of children’s implicit philosophies, the construc- tion of reality by the infant, and the stages of mental development have altered our ways of thinking about human intelligence (Elkind, 1977).

DAPDAP

Sociocultural Theory In the last two decades, many American early educators have turned their attention to another theorist. Because of the interest in the programs at Reggio Emilia, Italy, we now look closer at the works of Vygotsky. His socio- cultural theory focuses on the child as a whole and in- corporates ideas of culture and values into child devel- opment, particularly the areas of language and self-identity. In his view, children’s development was more than just a response to personal experience. Rather, children are infl uenced in fundamental ways by their family, community, and socioeconomic status. Vygotsky also emphasized the deep role of culture in learning. Th is theoretical framework and the ecological theory (the next section) have shifted mainstream thinking to encompass more than a child’s individual experiences. Work by Janice Hale (see Chapter 3) has identifi ed and applied sociocultural theory to the devel- opment of the African American child. Ramirez and Castaneda (1974) have identifi ed particular cognitive and language patterns among young children in se- lected Hispanic populations. In both cases, these pat- terns are linked to family and cultural styles of relating and problem solving.

Lev Vygotsky Born in 1896 in Byelorussia, Lev Vygotsky graduated from Moscow University with a degree in literature in 1917. For the next six years, he taught literature and psychology and directed adult theater as well as found- ing a literary journal. In 1924, he began work at the In- stitute of Psychology in Moscow, where he focused on the problems of educational practice, particularly those of handicapped children. Toward that end, he gathered a group of young scientists during the late 1920s and early 1930s to look more closely at psychology and mental abnormality, including medical connections. Unfortunately, his career was cut short by tuberculosis; he died in 1934 at age 38. Yet in that short time, he studied the works of Freud, Piaget, and Montessori. His theory is also rooted in experimental psychology, the American philosopher William James, and contem- poraries Pavlov and Watson (see the behaviorist theory section of this chapter).

DAP Children are active learners, drawing on physical and social experience as well as culturally transmitted knowledge to construct their own understandings of the world around them.

123CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

Sociocultural Theory Vygotsky’s work is called sociocultural because it fo- cuses on how values, beliefs, skills and traditions are transmitted to the next generation. Like Erikson, Vygotsky believed in the connection between culture and development, particularly the interpersonal connec- tion between the child and other important people. Like Maslow (see later in this chapter), he considered the child as a whole, taking a humanistic, more qualitative approach to studying children. Th ough he understood the primary behaviorists of his day, he diff ered from them in that he emphasized family, social interaction, and play as primary infl uences in children’s lives, rather than the stimulus-response and schedules of reinforce- ment that were becoming so popular in his day.

Vygotsky believed that the child is embedded in the family and culture of his community and that much of a child’s development is culturally specifi c. Rather than moving through certain stages or sequences (as Piaget proposed), children’s mastery and interaction diff er from culture to culture. Adults, Vygotsky noted, teach socially valued skills at a very early age; children’s learning is, therefore, quite infl uenced by what their social world values. Th ere are three ways culture is passed on: Th e fi rst is imitative learning (like Bandura); the second by instructed learning (such as following directions as in the elementary school classroom); and the third by col- laborative learning (involving working together, such as in guided help or in play).

Like Piaget, Vygotsky asserted that much of chil- dren’s learning takes place during play. Th is is because language and development build upon each other, and the best way to develop competency is through interac- tion with others in a special way. According to Vygotsky, children learn through guided participation with others, especially in a kind of apprenticeship in which a tutor supports the novice not only by instruction but also by doing.

Social interactions lead to continuous step-by-step changes in children’s thoughts and behavior, so relation- ships between a teacher and a learner both impart skills and provide the context and cultural values of that skill, as well as teaching how to build relationships and use language: Engaging together matters.

When a mentor senses that the learner is ready for a new challenge—or simply wants the learner to come along—he or she draws the novice into a zone of proxi- mal development (ZPD), which is the range of learning that would be beyond what the novice could learn alone but could grasp with help. For example, Sergio can ride

a tricycle alone, and has hopped onto his sister’s two- wheeler. Surely he will fall. But if his uncle runs along- side and helps him get balanced, he can do more. Of course, it will take many attempts, but with assistance, Sergio can increase his ZPD and eventually ride on his own.

Who can help a child’s ZPD? Initially, of course, it is the family. For instance, a young girl is carried even as a toddler to the open market with her mother. Th ere, she watches and is guided toward learning how to touch cloth, smell herbs, taste food, and weigh and compare amounts. Is it any wonder she learns advanced math skills and the language of bargaining early?

Th e reciprocal relationships in the child’s ZPD can also include the teacher. Th ink about your role, for ex- ample, in helping a child in your program learn problem- solving skills in completing a puzzle, putting on mittens, or resolving a confl ict. Finally, other children—older ones who have more expertise or peers who may have superior skills or simply off er help—can help a child’s learning. “Cooperative learning, in which small groups of peers at varying levels of competence work toward a common goal, also fosters more advanced thinking,” writes Berk (2000). “In a Vygotskian classroom, learning is highly interactive and simultaneously considers where children are and what they are capable of becoming.”

Other people create a kind of scaff olding, or helpful structure, to support the child in learning. Although not originally used by Vygotsky, the term helps defi ne the most important components of tutoring. Just as a physi- cal scaff old surrounds a building so that it might be worked on, so does the child get hints, advice, and struc- ture in order to master a skill or an activity. Th is can be seen in children’s developing speech, in guidance, and in ordinary tasks, as learning to ride a bike. Adults can arouse interest in a task, simplify it—scaff old it—so that it is within the child’s ability, and teach enthusiasm by helping the task get accomplished (Rogoff , 1990).

Sociocultural theory dictates that learning is active and constructed, as does cognitive theory. Vygotsky dif- fers from Piaget, however, in the nature and importance of interaction. Piaget insisted that, although children needed to interact with people and objects to learn, the stages of thinking were still bound by maturation. Vygotsky claimed that interaction and direct teaching were critical aspects of a child’s cognitive development and that a child’s level of thinking could be advanced by just such interaction.

Vygotsky believed that language, even in its earliest forms, was socially based. Rather than egocentric or im- mature, children’s speech and language development

124 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

during the years of 3 to 7 is merged and tied to what children are thinking. During these transitional years, the child talks aloud to herself; after a while, this self- talk becomes internalized so that the child can act with- out talking aloud. Vygotsky contended that children speak to themselves for self-guidance and self-direction and that this private speech helps children think about their behavior and plan for action. With age, private (inner) speech (once called “egocentric speech”), which goes from out loud to whispers to lip movement, is criti- cal to a child’s self-regulation.

Applying Sociocultural Theory to Work with Children Sociocultural theory has fi ve implications for the class- room teacher:

1. A child’s family and culture need to be incorporated into a child’s schooling. Teachers must genuinely em- brace (rather than give lip service) to the concept that the child’s fi rst teacher is the family. Each fam- ily may emphasize certain skills—vocabulary devel- opment, cooperation with siblings, self-care, and independence—that serve as the sociocultural con- text for learning. For instance, children of color in American society are socialized to operate in two worlds and thus must achieve a kind of bicognitive development, (along with bicultural and perhaps bilingual skills). Such work led the way for the pop-

ular “learning styles” movement of the 1970s and 1980s. Research done with diff erent cultural groups has reinforced the importance of looking at culture as part of the context in which the child lives and learns (Tatum, 1995; York, 2005).

2. Teacher/child relationships are vital to learning. Th e teacher and learner adjust to one another; teachers use what they know about children to guide their teaching and plan their curriculum. Sociocultural theory supports both emergent curriculum (see Chapter 10) and spontaneous, teachable moments of the anti-bias curriculum (see Chapter 9). Of course, young children need adults to help create curriculum and set an environmental stage for learning. But they also need teachers to mediate so- cial relationships and confl icts, to ask questions and know where a child is headed. Adults help children learn by seeing the challenge, giving assistance when needed, and noticing when the task is mastered and the child is ready for a new challenge.

3. Pay close attention to the psychological and cultural “tools” used to learn. For example, some American children are taught to tie a string around their fi n- gers as a memory device whereas in Russia they tie a knot in their handkerchief. Tunes can aid learning (like the alphabet song); the higher mental func- tions need the help of a person who knows the tools of the society to learn.

4. Play is valuable. It is in play that the child can prac- tice operating the symbols and tools of the culture. Vygotsky (1978) puts it this way:

Action in the imaginative sphere, in an imaginary situation, the creation of voluntary intentions, the formation of real-life plans and volitional motives— all appear in play and make it the highest level of preschool development. Th e child moves forward essentially through play activity. Only in this sense can play be considered a leading activity that deter- mines the child’s development.

For instance, children might build a structure with blocks; the teacher encourages them to draw the building and then map the entire block corner as a village or neighborhood. Th e adult serves an important role as an intellectual mediator, continu- ally shifting to another set of symbols to give chil- dren a diff erent way of looking at the same thing.

5. Individual diff erences are important. In a Vygotskian classroom there will be activity and an awareness of individual diff erences. Plan activities that encourage both assisted and cooperative learning. Observe for

In Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, children learn as other people create a kind of scaffolding to support the children.

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opportunities to increase an individual’s ZPD by planning experiences for extending the upper limit. Classrooms work best with multi-aged grouping, or at least with plenty of opportunity for older “bud- dies” to lead and younger ones to help.

Ecological Theory As with sociocultural theory, the ecological theory is based on the premise that development is greatly infl u- enced by forces outside the child. “No person can be un- derstood in isolation, at just one moment in time. Urie Bronfenbrenner deserves credit for recognizing this fact” (Berger, 2008). He applied a general systems theory to human development in the 1970s, as the ecology move- ment began in America and Europe. Development is “a joint function of person and environment and human ecosystems include both physical factors—climate, space, home, and school—and the social environment—family, culture, and the larger society” (Bronfenbrenner, 2000).

DAPDAP

Urie Bronfenbrenner Born in the former Soviet Union, Bronfenbrenner im- migrated to the United States at age 6, settling in New York. After studying psychology and music at Cornell University, he did graduate work in developmental psy- chology. He served as a clinical psychologist in the United States Army during World War II. When he re- turned to civilian life, he worked on the faculties of the University of Michigan and Cornell University, where he crafted this well-known theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

Ecological Systems Theory Bronfenbrenner’s model describes four systems that in- fl uence human development, nested within each other like a circle of rings. With the child at the center, these four are the settings in which a child spends a signifi cant period of time, the relationships of those settings, the societal structures, and then the larger contexts in which these systems operate. Figure 4-10 illustrates these

DAP Development and learning occur in and are infl uenced by multiple social and cultural contexts.

Child

Pa tte

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ts, H istorical Conditions over Tim

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Macrosystem

So ci

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F ri

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Social and Legal System s

Exosystem

M a ss M

edia Ne

ig hb

or h

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Microsystem

Family School

Peers

Individual

Religious Setting

Chronosystem

FIGURE 4-10 Ecological theory shows the various systems that in- fl uence in a child’s development.

126 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

systems. Th e infl uences between and within these sys- tems is critical to acknowledge: Just as in nature, activity in one part will aff ect all the other parts. For example, a sudden income drop will aff ect the family in many ways: Th e parents may be preoccupied and unavailable to the child, who may then need more attention from the care- givers at school, who in turn may ask for more resources from the community for the family.

Applying Ecological Theory to Work with Children Th e usefulness of this theory is in its combining of many methods—multidisciplinary, multicultural, and multidirectional—to understand the developing child. Th e values of the community (the exosystem) can infl u- ence social conditions (the macrosystem) and, in turn, be infl uenced by the individual family or program (mi- crosystem). For example, think of an area where several families with young children move into the neighbor- hood. Th e community priorities shift to incorporate more family interests; parents get everyone involved in creating a neighborhood playground. In doing so, the city council lobbies the state legislature to adopt more “family-friendly” political policies. Th e many systems in those children’s worlds thus have a profound eff ect, both directly and indirectly, on their development. Imagine a situation in which the parents had very little voice in their community, or the town council was unresponsive to their needs. Th e playground would never have been built, the children would have little visibility in the neighborhood except to be troublesome, and the fami- lies would feel like outsiders in the community. Th us, the dynamic nature of many systems is described well in ecological theory.

Th e ecological theory underscores the need for working partnerships between early childhood pro- grams, the families they serve, and the societal struc- tures children need to grow. Th e mesosytem, for in- stance, involves all the connections between the microsystems. Put the young child in the center (see Figure 4-10), and it includes all the communication processes between the child’s family and teachers. Th erefore, letters home, parent–teacher conferences, chats upon arrival and departure, and phone calls would all contribute to the child’s mesosystem. In this regard, the ecological theory possibly best encompasses most of the questions about the nature of development posed at the beginning of the chapter.

Multiple Intelligences Theory

Howard Gardner Howard Gardner, a professor of human development at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, has been very infl uential in the ongoing debate about the nature of intelligence. Born in Pennsylvania, he earned both bach- elor and doctorate degrees at Harvard University, and was fortunate to have Erikson as a tutor. Infl uenced by the works of Piaget and working with Jerome Bruner, Gardner became part of the Harvard’s Project Zero re- search center for education. His ideas are best read in the books Frames of Mind: Th e Th eory of Multiple Intelli- gences (1983) and Multiple Intelligences: Th e Th eory in Practice (1993). Gardner currently teaches at Harvard in education and Boston University in neurology.

Theory of Multiple Intelligences Th e century-old argument that Gardner presents is whether intelligence is a single, broad ability (as mea- sured by an IQ test) or is a set of specifi c abilities (more than one intelligence). His theory of multiple intelli- gences asserts that there is strong evidence, both from the brain-based research (see discussion in this chapter) and from the study of genius, that there are at least eight basic diff erent intelligences.

Gardner’s view of the mind claims that “human cog- nitive competence is better described in terms of sets of abilities, talents, or mental skills, which we call ‘intelli- gences.’ All normal individuals possess each of these skills to some extent; individuals diff er in the degree of skill and the nature of their combination” (1993). Multi- ple intelligences theory thus pluralizes the traditional concept of intelligence, which becomes the ability to solve a problem or to create a product.

Solving a problem includes the ability to do so in a particular cultural setting or community. Th e skill needed and developed depends very much on the context in which the child lives. For example, we all know now that certain parts of the brain are designated for perception, bodily movement, language, or spatial processing. Every- one who has a functional brain will be able to demon- strate some skill in these areas. But the child who has special “musical intelligence,” for instance, will hear a concert and insist on a violin (as did Yehudi Menuhin). Or the child whose culture depends on running for its

127CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

daily living (as do some people of Kenya) is more likely to have children well developed in that area of intelli- gence. Gardner writes of Anne Sullivan, teacher of blind and deaf Helen Keller, as an example of interpersonal

intelligence, for she could understand what Helen needed in a way no one else could.

Gardner’s descriptions of the various intelligences are described in Figure 4-11.

How Are You Smart?

FIGURE 4-11 Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory describes a new way of looking at intelligence.

Area Defi nition Example

Musical Intelligence The capacity to think in music, to be able to hear patterns, recognize them, and then remember them.

Gardner cites the importance of music in cultures worldwide, as well as its role in Stone Age societies, as evidence of this.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

The capacity to use parts or all of your body to solve a problem or make something.

We can see this in a person’s ability in sport (to play a game), in dance (to express a feeling, music or rhythm), in acting, or in making a product.

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

The capacity to think in a logical, often linear, pattern and to understand principles of a system; most common intelligence tested with standard “IQ” tests.

Problem solving is often remarkably rapid (as in gifted children), and this thinking is often nonverbal (the familiar “Aha!” phenomenon).

Linguistic Intelligence The capacity to use language to express thoughts, ideas, and feelings and the ability to understand other people and their words.

The gift of language is universal; spoken language is constant across cultures, and the development of graphic language is one of the hallmarks of human activity.

Spatial Intelligence The capacity to represent the world internally in spatial terms, as in problem navigation, in the use of maps, and in relying on drawings to build something.

Playing games such as chess and all the visual arts—painting, sculpting, drawing—use spatial intelligence, as do the sciences such as anatomy, architecture, and engineering.

Interpersonal Intelligence The capacity to understand other people and focus on contrasts in moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions.

Master players in school notice how others are playing before entering; some children seem to be born leaders; teachers, therapists, religious or political leaders, and many parents seem to have the capacity to notice distinctions among others.

Intrapersonal Intelligence The capacity to understand yourself, knowing who you are, how you react, and the internal aspects of one’s self.

Often having access to their own feeling life, they draw on a range of emotions as a means of understanding and guiding their own behavior. Children with an innate sense of what they can and cannot do and often know when they need help.

Naturalist Intelligence The capacity to discriminate among living things (plants, animals), as well as a sensitivity to other features of the natural world (clouds, rock confi gurations).

This intelligence is valuable for hunters, gatherers, and farmers and is important to those who are botanists or chefs.

1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 5

a - b - c - d

128 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

Applying Multiple Intelligences Theory to Work with Children Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences has had a big impact on schools, transforming curricula and teaching methods from preschool to high school (Gardner, 2000). Even Sesame Street has taken to applying the theory to developing its programs. Teachers in early childhood use the theory daily as they individualize their environments, curricula, and approaches. Th e child whose facility with puzzles excels that of his classmates is given a chance to try more complex ones. Th e children who thrive in dra- matic play are off ered a time to put on a puppet show for the class. Th e child whose mind works especially musi- cally, logically, or interpersonally is encouraged to de- velop those special gifts.

At the same time, there is no one right way to imple- ment multiple intelligences. Th e theory is both culture and context specifi c so that, in a similar way to a construc- tivist classroom, “multiple intelligence classes” would have teachers developing their own strategies, developing curri- cula and assessment methods based on both their own and their children’s culture and priorities and on the indi- vidual children’s intelligences. (Chapters 12 and 13 will give examples of the multiple intelligences curriculum.)

Maturation Theory

Arnold Gesell As noted in Chapter 1, Arnold Gesell was a physician intrigued with the notion that children’s internal clock seemed to govern their growth and behavior. In the 1940s and 1950s, Gesell established norms for several areas of growth and the behaviors that accompany such development. Th e Gesell Institute, which fosters the work of Dr. Louise Bates Ames (1979) and others, con- tinues to provide guidelines for how children mature from birth to puberty. Th e Word Pictures in Chapter 3 are an excellent example of the information maturational theory and research have provided.

Theory of Maturation Maturation, by defi nition, is the process of physical and mental growth that is determined by heredity. Th e matu- ration sequence occurs in relatively stable and orderly ways. Maturation theory holds that much growth is ge- netically determined from conception. Th is theory diff ers from behaviorism, which asserts that growth is deter-

mined by environmental conditions and experiences, and from cognitive theory, which states that growth and be- havior are a refl ection of both maturation and learning.

Maturation and growth are interrelated and occur together. Maturation describes the quality of growth; that is, while a child grows in inches and pounds, the na- ture (or quality) of that growth changes. Maturation is qualitative, describing the way a baby moves into walk- ing, rather than simply the age at which the baby took the fi rst step. Growth is what happens; maturation is how it happens.

Studies have established that the maturation se- quence is the same for all children, regardless of culture, country of origin, or learning environment. But there are two vital points to remember:

■ Although maturation determines the sequence of development, the precise age is approximate. Th e se- quence of developmental stages may be universal, but the rate at which a child moves through the stages varies tremendously.

■ Growth is uneven. Children grow in spurts. Motor development may be slow in some stages, fast in others. For instance, a baby may gain an ounce a day for two months, then only half a pound in an entire month. Usually there is a growth spurt at puberty, with some children at 13 nearly their adult height, others not yet fi ve feet tall. Th is unpredictability brings, again, much individual variation.

Applying Maturation Theory to Work with Children Maturation theory is most useful in describing children’s growth and typical behavior. In Chapter 3, these norma- tive data are used to develop Word Pictures that describe common characteristics of children at diff erent ages. Such charts will help adults understand behavior better and will keep them from expecting too much or too little.

At the same time, be cautious not to overgeneralize from the normative charts. Th e photo on page 129 illus- trates this variation. Remember that there is great indi- vidual variation and uneven growth. Gesell’s initial data were focused on a narrow portion of the population and were derived from American children only. Further work in the last three decades has adjusted the ranges with succeeding generations of children and an ever larger and more diverse population. Maturation theory has inspired developmental norms that help parents, teachers, and physicians alike determine whether a child’s growth is within the normal range.

129CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

Humanistic Theory

The Humanists As the fi eld of psychology began to develop, various schools of thought arose. By the middle of this century, two “camps” dominated the American psychological cir- cles. Th e fi rst (psychodynamic) included the Freudians and is best known to us through the works of Erik Erikson. Th e second (behaviorism) began with Watson and Th orndike and was later expanded by Skinner and Bandura.

In 1954, Abraham Maslow published a book that ar- ticulated another set of ideas. He called it the “Th ird Force” (or Humanistic Psychology), which focused on what motivated people to be well, successful, and men- tally healthy.

Th is humanist theory has a place in early childhood education because it attempts to explain how people are motivated. Specifi cally, humanistic theory is centered on people’s needs, goals, and successes. Th is was a change from the study of mental illness, as in psychotherapy, or the study of animal behavior, in the case of much behav- iorist research. Instead, Dr. Maslow studied exception- ally mature and successful people. Others, such as Carl Rogers, Fritz Perls, Alan Watts, and Erich Fromm, added to what was known about healthy personalities.

Th e humanists developed a comprehensive theory of human behavior based on mental health. Maslow’s theory of human needs is clearly a “ Western” philoso- phy, although it is often presented as a universal set of ideas. In fact, other cultures would see life diff erently. An African worldview might see the good of the com- munity as the essential goal of being fully human. Cul- tures with more of a “collective” orientation, rather than an emphasis on the individual or self, would see serving the family or group as the ultimate goal of humanity. Humanistic psychology can also be seen as being at odds with cultures and religions that seek ultimate reli- ance on a supreme deity, putting “God” rather than “self ” at the top of the hierarchy. One must always question the underlying values of a theory, and human- ist theory is no exception.

Maslow’s Theory of Human Needs Maslow’s theory of self-actualization is a set of ideas about what people need to become and stay healthy. He asserts that every human being is motivated by a number of basic needs, regardless of age, gender, race, culture, or

geographic location. According to Maslow (1954), a ba- sic need is something:

■ Whose absence breeds illness. ■ Whose presence prevents illness. ■ Whose restoration cures illness. ■ Preferred by the deprived person over other satis-

factions, under certain conditions (such as very complex, free-choice instances).

■ Found to be inactive, at low ebb, or functionally ab- sent in the healthy person.

Th ese needs, not to be denied, form a theory of human motivation. It is a hierarchy, or pyramid, because there is a certain way these needs are interrelated, and because the most critical needs form the foundation from which the other needs can be met. Figure 4-12 illustrates the hierarchy, or pyramid, of Maslow’s theory.

Applying Humanistic Theory to Work with Children Th e basic needs are sometimes called defi ciency needs because they are critical for a person’s survival, and a de- fi ciency can cause a person to die. Until those are met, no other signifi cant growth can take place. How well a teacher knows that a hungry child will ignore a lesson, or simply be unable to concentrate. A tired child often pushes aside learning materials and experiences until rested. Th e child who is deprived of basic physiologic needs may be able to think of those needs only; in fact,

The maturational sequence is the same for all children, although the precise age is approximate, so there is tre- mendous individual variation in children of a particular age.

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“such a man can fairly be said to live by bread alone” (Maslow, 1954). Th e humanists would strongly advocate a school breakfast or lunch program and would support regular rest and nap times in programs with long hours.

Once the physiologic needs are satisfi ed, the need for safety and security will emerge. Maslow points at inse- cure and neurotic people as examples of what happens when these needs are left unfulfi lled. Th ese people act as if a disaster is about to occur, as if a spanking is on the way. Given an unpredictable home or school, a child can- not fi nd any sense of consistency and so is preoccupied with worrying and anxiety. Maslow would advise teach- ers to give freedom within limits, rather than either total neglect or permissiveness.

Th e growth needs can emerge when the basic needs have been met. Higher needs are dependent on those primary ones. Th ey are what we strive for to become more satisfi ed and healthy people.

Th e need for love and belonging is often expressed di- rectly and clearly by the young children in our care. A lack of love and sense of belonging stifl es growth. To learn to give love later in life, one has to learn about love by receiving it as a child. Th is means learning early about the responsibilities of giving as well as receiving love.

Th e need for esteem can be divided into two catego- ries: self-respect and esteem from others. “Self-esteem includes such needs as a desire for confi dence, compe- tence, mastery, adequacy, achievement, independence, and freedom. Respect from others includes such con- cepts as prestige, recognition, acceptance, attention, sta- tus, reputation, and appreciation” (Goble, 1970).

Self-actualization is what gives a person satisfaction in life. From the desire to know and understand the world and people around us comes a renewal of self-knowledge. For the early childhood educator, these needs are expressed in the enthusiasm, curiosity, and natural “drive” to learn and try. In meeting these needs, a person fi nds meaning for life, an eagerness to live, and a willingness to do so. Figure 4-12 describes both basic and growth needs in detail.

Children must have their physical and basic emo- tional needs met before these requirements of higher cognitive learning can be fulfi lled. Moreover, the child who seems stuck in a particular “needs area” will likely stay there until that basic need is satisfi ed. A hungry, in- secure, or hurt child is a poor learner. Teachers must continually advocate better physical and social condi- tions for all children.

Maslow’s theory has important implications for child care. Children’s basic needs are teachers’ fi rst concern: Teachers must ensure that children are properly clothed, fed, and rested as well as safe and secure. Only then are they ready to address curriculum and skill development.

Developmental Topics To complete the chapter on developmental and learning theories, we need to expand our knowledge of child de- velopment to include several important topics. Th e teacher well versed in these developmental topics will be able to make better decisions concerning classrooms and curricula. Moreover, they will be able to connect with

G R O W T H

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truth beauty

aliveness order completion justice

perfection richness self-sufficiency goodness

individuality necessity effortlessness meaningfulness playfulness

self-esteem; respect by others

love and sense of belonging

safety and security

physiologic: air, water, food, shelter, clothes, sex

FIGURE 4-12 Maslow studied healthy personalities and theorized that what people need for growth is a hierarchy of basic and growth needs. (Adapted from Maslow, 1954.)

131CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

families around those points and those people most im- portant to them: the children.

Ethnicity and Cultural Diversity “Human nature is a cultural process. As a biological spe- cies, humans are defi ned in terms of our cultural partici- pation. We are prepared by both our cultural and bio- logical heritage to use language and other cultural tools and to learn from each other” (Rogoff , 2003). Develop- ment can be fully understood only when it is viewed in the larger cultural context. We can readily see the impor- tance of culture in child rearing and family interaction, yet we often overlook its eff ect on education. We must know about children in their own setting, their own context, to understand them well enough to teach them. Th e ecology of a child’s life must be acknowledged and brought into our work. Th ese international examples show the infl uence of cultural orientation:

Th e primary curricular emphasis in England is upon children’s social development until age 3, after which academic competence is emphasized. Swedish educa- tors focus on developmental issues, particularly socio-emotional development. In Asian countries where children’s physical well-being and primary health care have improved to the point where they are no longer issues, the focus is upon academic achievement and excellence. While academic achieve- ment is not stressed in the Czech Republic, young children are taught the value and importance of work and aesthetics, and they participate in cultural programs by the time they are 3.

Let us turn to the United States. “[I]nterpersonal epi- sodes [are] absolutely saturated with cultural assump- tions about the right way to think, feel, and behave. Th ere are some real cultural diff erences about how to be a good parent and how to be a good child,” states Stan- ford University’s Hazel Markus (2005). For example:

■ A mom leaned over a stroller, handed a silent 3-year-old a juice drink and announced, “It’s hot. You must be thirsty.”

■ A 7-year-old ran up to his mother and grandmother and tried to get the younger woman’s attention. She said, “I don’t care how excited you are—don’t inter- rupt your grandmother when she’s speaking.”

■ A dad, sounding exasperated, told his 18-month- son, “Okay, now, you have a choice: either you wear this hat or we put on sunscreen. Which do you want?” Th e child replied, “I want juice.”

Th ese conversations refl ect values—middle-class Euro- American, Latino, or East Asian. Ethnicity and cultural identity clearly play an important role in child develop- ment. Culturally competent teachers understand diff er- ent patterns of ideas and practices.

Th ree important issues for teachers arise from this topic. First is the fact that “large numbers of children are members of one cultural group while being taught or cared for by members of other cultural groups. Although this need not create problems, research shows that special prob- lems can arise in many cross-cultural teaching settings” (Hilliard & Vaughn-Scott, 1982). In fact, Lightfoot (1978) has documented four problems that tend to develop:

1. Th ere are problems when the language that is spo- ken by the child is not understood by caregivers from another culture.

2. Th ere are problems when caregivers have low expec- tations for children based largely on the children’s membership in a low-status cultural group, rather than on the actual abilities of the children.

3. Th ere are problems when caregivers are unprepared to deal with children whose general behavioral style is diff erent from that of the caregivers.

4. Th ere are problems when standard testing and as- sessment techniques are applied to certain cultural groups with insuffi cient recognition of, or respect for, the cultural patterns of the group.

Second, most early theories were based on observa- tions of male or white subjects. Th is risks a skewed view of development. We encourage you to read studies of development that include other ethnic populations, such as Rogoff (2003), Garcia Coll (2005), Gura (1994), and York (2005). Ethnic minority children have been ignored in past research or viewed as variations from the norm. Often the group studied is given an ethnic label (such as Latino) that assumes the group is homogeneous and glosses over critical diff erences among the people in the group. Also, when ethnic groups are studied, often the focus is on children’s problems. Th e range of existing dif- ferences makes more research—and also more teacher interest in individual family cultures—essential. With- out such knowledge, teachers may misunderstand chil- dren with cultural patterns that are diff erent from the mainstream and children and their families, in turn, may misunderstand the larger society (Bowman, 2007) or a school’s practices and a teacher’s behaviors.

Th ird, theories have their limits. As Nakahata (Hironaka Cowee, 2001) states:

In the critical early childhood years, children begin to develop a sense of self as families hand down be-

132 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

liefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Much of what is handed down is unspoken and is acquired through social interactions. In this way, adults pass on their culture and shape children’s understandings of themselves, their world, and their place in it. As children are forming their identity and self-worth, they often struggle with confl icting messages from home, media, school, and peers about who they are and what they are worth.

Th eories can foster a global outlook about children in general, but these theories must be viewed in light of both cultural diversity and a respect for individuality. For example, language acquisition is universal. “All children, unless there is something really wrong in their environ- ments or in their biology, learn how to speak. What lan- guage they speak, how much they use language to com- municate, how large is their vocabulary in said languages is more context specifi c” (Garcia Coll, 2003).

Knowing what child development information to use across cultures and what varies among cultures helps teachers apply theories (see Figure 4-13). Chapter 3 helps you identify these universals. While reading all these theories, try to look beyond any one model, and defi ne a set of principles that are fundamental to good practice and that can incorporate varied cultural patterns and values.

Attachment Attachment is a term used particularly in the works of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth and a concept used in Burton White’s descriptive work and Magda Gerber’s Resources for Infant Educarers (RIE) programs for in- fants and toddlers. Attachment is the emotional connec- tion, an “aff ectional tie that one person or animal forms between himself and another specifi c one—a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time” (Ainsworth, 1979). Th e child or adult who is attached to another uses that person as a “safe base” from which to venture out into the world, a source of comfort when distressed or stressed, and a support for encouragement. Attachment behaviors are anything that allows a person to get and stay attached, such as smiling, eye contact, talking, touching, even clinging and crying.

“It is an essential part of the ground plan of the hu- man species—as well as that of many other species—for an infant to become attached to a mother fi gure. Th is fi gure need not be the natural mother but can be anyone who plays the role of the principal caregiver” (Ainsworth, 1979). Freud believed infants became attached to those

who fed them. Erikson asserted that the fi rst year of life was critical for attachment, in the stage of trust versus mistrust.

Research does show that human and animal babies do indeed send signals to their mothers very early. Infants begin the social smile at 6 weeks and positive reactions to familiar people by 3 months. Th e human infant’s early signals include crying and gazing, both of which are pow- erful to adults, and a kind of rhythmic sucking that ap- pears to keep the mother engaged. Soon after appears the synchrony, a coordinated interaction between an infant and caring adult that connects the two. Becoming more frequent and elaborate as time goes on, it helps the infant express feelings and the sensitive adult to respond.

All children are alike . . . • have the same needs and rights • go through the same developmental stages • have the same developmental goals

Some children are alike . . . • similar cultural and social expectations will

create commonalities • rate of vocabulary increase is similar within

groups with priority of language expression • children show similar helping behaviors from

families who value harmony

Each child is unique . . . • genetic makeup • temperament • sensory sensitivity • interests • motivation

Children: All, Some, One

FIGURE 4-13 Make child development theories useful without overgeneralizing (patterned after Caldwell, 1983).

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Developmentally, children develop an initial bond and then proceed to develop real mutuality—that is, to learn and practice almost a “dance” between themselves and their favored loved one. Ainsworth found that, al- though virtually all infants develop attachments, includ- ing to multiple caregivers, they diff er in how secure they are in those attachments. Furthermore, attachment can be measured in the infant and toddler, as seen in chil- dren’s response to a stranger both in and out of the par- ent’s presence (see Figure 4-14).

Not everyone believes that attachment is so impor- tant to later competence and identity. Kagan (1987) be- lieves infants are resilient and that children can grow positively within wide variations of parenting. Research- ers have found cultural variations in attachment. Ger- man babies are more likely than American babies to be categorized as avoidant, but this might be because the

culture encourages early independence. Japanese babies are more likely to be seen as avoidant, but this could also be a factor of the method used to record it, which calls for children to be left in a room without the mother, a situation that rarely occurs for most Japanese infants.

Some developmentalists claim the theory ignores the context and diversity of how children are socialized, and by whom. “I believe that European Americans are ob- sessed with attachment because we hold our babies less than almost any other cultural group in the world,” writes a colleague (Saxton, 2001). “Attachment does not seem to be an issue, much less a concept, in cultures in which children are carried, held, or sleep with their par- ents for the better part of the fi rst three years.” Attach- ment to a primary caregiver is another example of the dual nature of development: “Unless something is really wrong in their environment or their biology, all children

Patterns of Attachment

FIGURE 4-14 Patterns of attachment. (From Ainsworth’s “Strange Situation” in 12- to 18-month olds.) (From Understanding Children, by Judith Schickendanz, © 1993 by Mayfi eld Publishing Company. Reprinted with permission of McGraw-Hill Companies.)

Exploratory Behavior Before Separation

Behavior During Separation Reunion Behavior

Behavior with Stranger

Secure Separates to explore toys; shares play with mother; friendly toward stranger when mother is present, touches “home base” periodically.

May cry; play is subdued for a while; usually recovers and is able to play.

If distressed during separation, contact ends distress; if not distressed, greets mother warmly; initiates interaction.

Somewhat friendly; may play with stranger after initial distress reaction.

Anxious/ambivalent (resistant)

Has diffi culty separating to explore toys even when mother is present; wary of novel situations and people; stays close to mother and away from stranger.

Very distressed; hysterical crying does not quickly diminish.

Seeks comfort and rejects it, continues to cry or fuss; may be passive—no greeting made.

Wary of stranger; rejects stranger’s offers to play.

Anxious/avoidant Readily separates to explore toys; does not share play with parent; shows little preference for parent versus stranger.

Does not show distress; continues to play; interacts with the stranger.

Ignores mother— turns or moves away; avoidance is more extreme at the second reunion.

No avoidance of stranger.

SOURCE: Compiled from Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Wittig, B. A. (1969). Attachment and Exploratory Behavior of One- Year-Olds in a Strange Situation. In B. M. Foss (Ed.), Determinants of Infant Behavior (Vol. 4). London: Methuen.

134 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

get attached to a primary caregiver. In most cases it is the mother, but cultures diff er in if it is the father, or there are multiple caregivers, grandparents, etc., who are part of the daily life of the child” (Garcia Coll, 2005).

Researchers have found that a majority of American infants tested in the stranger situation demonstrated se- cure attachment. Still, when attachment fails, children are placed at tremendous risk. Failure of attachment can come from:

■ parents who did not have secure attachments as children

■ neglectful conditions, such as depression, abject poverty

■ abusive parents that discourage bonding ■ premature infants with underdeveloped systems ■ blind infants who cannot engage in gazing

Intervention can help unattached persons learn the skills to connect, teaching specifi c interactive techniques with ongoing supports such as crisis hotlines and per- sonal counseling.

Parents and researchers have asked careful questions about full-day child care, particularly for infants, won- dering if such care undermines children’s attachment to their parents. Th e debate has spurred research into both parent–child attachment and child care programs. Whether concerns about infant child care prove valid or not, as of this date, we can conclude that children are not at any higher risk in high-quality child care. Th is high- lights the need for such programs, as will be addressed further in Chapters 9 and 15.

Play Play! What a wonderful word! It calls up images from the past, those childhood years when playing was the fo- cus of our waking hours. “Will you play with me?” is one of the most expressive, expectant questions known. It carries with it hope and anticipation about a world of fun and make-believe, a world of adventure and explora- tion, a world of the young child.

City streets, parks and fi elds, tenements, huts, empty rooms, and backyards are all settings for play. Play is a way of life for children; it is their natural response. It is what children do and it is serious business to them. Any activity children choose to engage in is play; it is never ending.

Play is the essence of creativity in children through- out the world. Play is universal and knows no national or cultural boundaries. Educators and psychologists have called play a refl ection of the child’s growth, the essence

of the child’s life, a window into the child’s world (Frost, Wortham, & Reifel, 2007). It is a self-satisfying activity through which children gain control and come to under- stand life. Play teaches children about themselves; they learn how tall—or short—they are, what words to use to get a turn on the swing, and where to put their hands when climbing a ladder. Th rough play, children learn about the world: what the color purple is, how to make matzo balls, and how to be a friend. Play helps children defi ne who they are.

Types of Play Play takes many forms. Children play when they sing, dig in the mud, build a block tower, or dress up. Play can be purely physical (running, climbing, ball throwing) or highly intellectual (solving an intricate puzzle, remem- bering the words to a song). Play is creative when cray- ons and paint are used. Its emotional form is expressed when children pretend to be mommies, daddies, or ba- bies. Skipping rope with a friend, playing tag, and shar- ing a book are examples of the social side of play.

Th ere is a general sequence to the development of social play. Babies and toddlers have a clearly defi ned so- cial self. Infant play begins with patterns established at birth: babies gaze, smile, and make sociable sounds in response to the quality and frequency of attention from a parent or caregiver. Socialization of infants occurs through interaction. By the end of their fi rst year, infants smile at and touch one another and vocalize in a sociable eff ort. Toddlers play well on their own (solitary play) or with adults. Th ey begin solitary pretend play around 1 year of age. Th ey still watch others (onlooker). During the toddler years, as children become more aware of one another, they begin to play side by side, without interact- ing (parallel play). Th ey are aware of and pleased about but not directly involved with the other person. It is dur- ing this year that toddlers begin some form of coordi- nated play, doing something with another child. Th e preschool years bring many changes for children in rela- tion to social development. Th e number and quality of relationships increase as does the ability to play with other children. At fi rst, this is accomplished just by a child’s presence in a group: playing at the water table with four other children or joining a circle for fi nger plays (associative play). When children join forces with one another in an active way, when they verbalize, plan, and carry out play, group play is established, and can be characterized as “Let’s do it together,” whether building a house for the farm animals or engaging in rough-and- tumble wrestling. Cooperative play is the most common type of peer interaction during the preschool years and

135CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

into the school-age period. Figure 4-15 shows Parten’s classic 1932 study of children’s play patterns, also de- scribed in Chapter 6.

Keep in mind that children’s play always portrays their own social values and family ethnic practices (Hyun, 1998). Developmentally and culturally appropriate prac- tice would remind us that our understanding and knowl- edge about play have been based on Euro-American cul- tural patterns. Wise early childhood practitioners will incorporate this perspective into their work with children.

Most play is unstructured and happens naturally when the curriculum is designed for play. Spontaneous

play is the unplanned, self-selected activity in which chil- dren freely participate. Children’s natural inclinations are toward play materials and experiences that are develop- mentally appropriate. Th erefore, when they are allowed to make choices in a free play situation, children will choose activities that express their individual interests, needs, and readiness levels.

Dramatic play—or imaginative or pretend play—is a common form of spontaneous play. Th ree- and four- year-olds are at the peak of their interest in this type of activity. In dramatic play, children assume the roles of diff erent characters, both animate and inanimate. Chil- dren identify themselves with another person or thing,

Play Categories

FIGURE 4-15 Parten’s play categories, developed by observing free play patterns in nursery school settings.

Unoccupied Play Solitary Play Onlooker Play

• May stand in one spot • Plays alone • May watch while others play • Looks around the area • Plays independently of others • May talk but does not enter play • Performs random movements that • Shows active interest in the play

have no apparent goal

Parallel Play Associative Play Cooperative Play

• Plays alongside others • Play involves social interaction • Socially interacts in a group with • Plays separately from others but little or no organization a sense of group identity

but with toys or actions that are • Interested in each other without • Joins an organized activity, a similar to the others an agreed-upon plan prototype for games

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136 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

playing out situations that interest or frighten them. Dramatic play reveals children’s attitudes and concepts toward people and things in their environment. Much of the play is wishful thinking, pretending great strength and deeds. Th is is the way children cope with their smallness or lack of strength and is considered impor- tant in psychodynamic theory.

Two types of dramatic play are noteworthy:

1. Superhero play is appealing to children because it so readily addresses their sense of helplessness and inferiority. Pretending to be Wonder Woman makes it easier to understand and accept the limitations of the real world. It helps children learn about power and friendship, allows them a way to test their phys- ical limits and explore feelings, and answer the “big questions about the world, such as ‘what is right and wrong, what is good and bad, what is fair and un- fair, what is life and death, what is a boy and a girl, and what is real and fantasy’” (Hoff man, 2004).

At the same time, this kind of play makes many adults uncomfortable, since the children’s play is of- ten loud, disruptive, fi lled with confl ict and prob- lems, and solved with violence. Children sometimes end up in stereotypical, repetitive play that seems to ignore other learning. Chapters 14 and 15 address how to set the stage and support superhero play in ways that foster positive growth.

2. Sociodramatic play happens when at least two children cooperate in dramatic play. Dramatic play provides the means for children to work out their diffi culties by themselves. By doing so, they become free to pursue other tasks and more formal learning. Both types of play involve two basic elements: imi- tation and make-believe:

Pretending to be a fi refi ghter, Sherry grabs a piece of rope and runs toward the playhouse, saying “shhshhshshshshsh” while pretending to squirt wa- ter on the fi re. She shouts to her playmates, “Over here! Come over here! Th e fi re is on this side.”

Sherry’s make-believe scenario and her ability to follow the rules of behavior common to fi refi ghters (grabbing hoses, calling for help) are the two critical factors from Vygotsky’s point of view: Th at fi refi ghting scene sup- ports his theory that cognitive skills develop through so- cial interactions. Sherry exemplifi es a child moving from concrete to abstract thought because she did not require realistic objects (a hose and water) but imagined them with a rope and her ability to create the sound of water.

Th is ability to separate thoughts from actions and ob- jects will stand Sherry in good stead when she studies math concepts. Rules that children follow in make- believe play teach them to make choices, to think and plan about what they will do, and to show willingness toward self-restraint, as children learn to follow the so- cial rules of pretend play. Th is is important preparation for real-life situations.

Values of Play For the fi rst half of the 20th century, interest in children’s play focused on emotional causes and eff ects (Bowman, 1990). Th e main theme was the emotional releases that play provided children. Psychodynamic theory recom- mended play as a suitable outlet for expressing negative feelings, hostility, and aggression. Clay can be pounded, balls can be kicked and thrown, and dolls can be spanked. Young children give free expression to a wide range of emotions, playing them out and releasing tension.

But play is more than an avenue for emotional re- lease. Play is universal to childhood experiences because it is intrinsically motivated; that is, it is naturally satisfy- ing to children. In addition,

■ Play is relatively free of rules except for those chil- dren will impose on themselves.

Learning through play takes many forms and happens naturally in unplanned, self-selected activities.

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137CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

■ Play is controlled and dominated by the children. ■ Play is carried out as if the activity were real life. ■ Play focuses on the activity—the doing—rather

than on the end result or product. ■ Play requires the interaction and involvement of the

children. (Rubin, Fein, & Vandenberg 1983)

Play promotes learning for the whole child, providing benefi ts for all developmental domains (American Acad- emy of Pediatrics, 2006; Elkind, 2007).

Play as the Cornerstone of Learning Outside of child development circles, there has been lit- tle appreciation in the United States culture for the value and importance of play for young children. In times of rising expectations and academic standards, educators and families feel pressured to focus on activities related to school readiness. Yet a growing body of research shows that every school success indicator is enhanced by play (Isenberg & Quisenberry, 2002; Singer, 2006).

Jones (2000) states the case aptly: “But if children are just playing, how will they learn? Each child learns by asking his or her own next questions and trying out the answers. Often both the questions and the answers take the form of actions rather than words. Children learn by doing.” In summing up, Jones adds, “In play, children are autonomous; they’re independent. Th ey make decisions, solve the problems, deal with the consequences.” Early childhood specialists must become adept at speaking out on the value of play and its relationship to what children learn. “Play is viewed by some as the opposite of work; play does not mean learning. Play is often trivialized by sayings like ‘Th at is mere child’s play’ or ‘He is only play- ing’ as if to say play is unimportant” (Klein, Wirth, & Linas, 2003).

To reclaim play as a special activity crucial to chil- dren’s development, we should look at play as the foun- dation from which children venture forth to investigate, to test out. Curriculum takes on expression through play; teachers plan curriculum that uses play as the me- dium for learning. As they mature, children integrate and assimilate their play experiences. What started out as play—the sheer fun of it—is transformed into learning experiences. Curiosity about magnets at age 5 nourishes a scientifi c attitude for the later years, as well as a foun- dation for studying gravity, planetary movements, and the like. Feeling free to sing out at group time at age 3 can prepare a child to be an active participant in the kinder- garten classroom at age 6.

Teachers want children to learn about themselves, to learn about the world around them, and to learn how to

solve problems. A childhood fi lled with play opportuni- ties should culminate in these three types of learning:

1. Learning about themselves includes developing a pos- itive self-image and a sense of competence. Children should know and feel good about themselves as learners. Th ey should develop a sense of indepen- dence, a measure of self-discipline, and knowledge based on full use of their sensory skills.

2. To learn about others and the world around them means developing an awareness of other people. Teachers want children to perfect their communica- tion and social skills so that they will be more sensi- tive participants in the world in which they live. Th is means that children learn and appreciate the values of their parents, the community, and society at large. When children become aware of the de- mands of living in today’s society, that awareness can help them become more responsible citizens. Th e emphasis on social interaction and group rela- tionships in the early childhood setting underscores this goal.

3. To learn to solve problems, children need to be ac- complished in observation and investigation. When exploring a puzzle, for example, children need to know how to manipulate it, take it apart, and put it back together, to see how other people solve puzzles, and to know how to get help when the pieces just do not seem to fi t together. Th ey should know how to predict and experiment. What will happen, won- ders a kindergartner, when a glass is placed over a glowing candle? How will that change if the glass is

Play is the cornerstone for learning.

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138 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

large or small? What is the eff ect if the glass is left over the candle for a long time or for a second? Young children also need to learn how to negotiate, discuss, compromise, and stand their ground, par- ticularly when they encounter and solve problems socially. “I want the red cart and someone already has it,” thinks the preschooler. “Now what? How can I get it? What if the other person says no? Will the plan that works with my best friend work with someone else? When do I ask for help? Will crying make a diff erence?” To be eff ective problem solvers, children must know and experience themselves and others.

Play in the early years is a key to school success and solid development.

Gender Are girls and boys diff erent in terms of development and learning? What are these diff erences, and how do they occur? What diff erences are caused by “nature” and which ones by “nurture?” Should we treat our girls and boys the same or diff erently? Th e realities and the myths surrounding sex diff erences and their eff ect on behavior from infancy to adulthood is the subject of interest, con- troversy, and research.

Defi nitions Sex diff erences are the biological diff erences between males and females; gender diff erences are culturally im- posed distinctions in the roles and behaviors. While boys and girls are about the same size and shape in child- hood, gender diff erences and adult distinctions are more signifi cant.

Th ere are two aspects of gender development that are particularly important in the early years: gender identity (the sense of being female or male, which most children acquire by age 3), and gender role (the set of expectations that defi ne how a male or female should behave, think, and feel). Gender is important to some developmental and learning theories.

Theories and Research Freud asserted that behavior was directly related to re- productive processes. His stages of psychosexual devel- opment refl ect the belief that gender and sexual behavior are instinctual. Erikson also claimed that anatomy was destiny: Males were more intrusive because of genital structure, and females were more inclusive. He later modifi ed his view, saying that women were overcoming

their biological heritage. Th ese identifi cation theories come from the view that the preschool child will fi nd the opposite-sex parent attractive but will steer away from this by identifying with the same-sex parent.

Bandura and Piaget emphasize that children learn through observation and imitation, and that through re- inforcement, children learn gender-appropriate behavior. Proponents of this view point to how parents encourage girls and boys to engage in certain activities and types of play. Certainly the media communicates sexist messages; this theory would claim that such stereotyping infl u- ences the development of gender roles.

Th e works of Eleanor Maccoby (1998) and others have provided both hard data and an open forum for discussions about how people grow and the complex in- teraction between heredity and environment that makes child development so fascinating. Th ese fi ndings help teachers understand gender identity and its implications for education:

■ By age 2, children name themselves as girl or boy and can identify adult strangers as daddies or mommies.

■ By age 4, children will label toys (dolls, trucks) and some roles (soldier, nurse) appropriate for one gen- der and not the other.

■ Children develop gender stability (the understand- ing of staying the same sex throughout life) by age 4 and gender constancy (a person keeps the same gen- der regardless of appearance) by about 5 or 6.

■ Sex-typed behavior begins to appear at age 2 or 3, when children tend to choose same-sex playmates and sex-typed toy preferences, and children become more selective and exclusive as they mature.

■ By elementary school, the playground is like a “gen- der school,” with children showing a clear preference for same-sex peers.

Developmental Differences What are the real diff erences between girls and boys? Physically, males grow to be 10 percent taller than fe- males, and girls are less likely to develop physical or mental disorders than are boys. Boys are also more active than girls and physically more aggressive overall. How- ever, there are fewer diff erences in verbal aggression, al- though males do show less self-regulation than females (Eisenberg, Martin, & Fabes, 1996). Th ere are no signifi - cant diff erences between girls and boys in intelligence or reasoning behavior. Some cognitive functioning and per- sonality diff erences do exist, but overall the diff erences are small and there is no overall pattern.

139CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

Teachers and parents, as well as researchers, have ob- served that boys and girls seem to show distinct diff er- ences in their play choices, play behavior, and toy selec- tion from an early age. Although biology certainly plays a part, it would seem that parents and society exert pow- erful infl uences. Th e toys parents and teachers choose (dolls for girls, trucks for boys), the predominance of fe- males in early childhood settings, television shows and advertising, and toy store displays combine to communi- cate a very strong reinforcement of traditional sex-role expectations.

Gender Stereotyping To break through the restrictiveness of gender stereotyp- ing, teachers need to pay careful attention to the mes- sages they give children. One challenge we face is the fe- male culture of early childhood programs. Women dominate the early childhood education workforce, so children are often only exposed to women’s interaction styles (Wardle, 2004). If boys struggle in our programs, we must be alert to the activities and schedules we estab- lish, behaviors we may reward or punish, the “goodness of fi t” for both boys and girls in our programs. In the en- vironments we prepare for them, the materials they use, and the examples we model, children create their own ideas and learn behavior that works for them in the world.

Moral Development People used to assume that young children needed to be taught exactly what was “right” and “wrong” and that was enough. In the last 30 years, research has shown that moral development is a more complex process with both a cognitive and an emotional side to it. Several theorists and researchers have proposed how to think about chil- dren’s moral development. Th e theories of Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg, Nancy Eisenberg, and Carol Gilligan are discussed here.

Piaget (1965) investigated children’s moral reasoning by presenting children with pairs of stories and asking them which child was “naughtier.” From this, he discov- ered that children under age 6 base their judgment on the amount of damage done, not the child’s intentions. By middle childhood, children are beginning to take in- tent into account so that one can begin to see a shift in moral reasoning toward the end of the early childhood period from objective judgments based on physical re- sults and concrete amounts to more subjective consider- ations (such as the purpose of the perpetrator or psycho- logical factors). Th e connections to children’s cognitive

stage of development is interesting, and adults might consider that a child’s protests over wrongdoing (“I didn’t mean to do it!”) may very well signal a new level of reasoning, with the realization that one’s intentions do matter.

Lawrence Kohlberg (1981) is best known as a theo- rist in social development, addressing educational prac- tice and gender constancy as well. Building on Piagetian dimensions, Kohlberg’s theory of moral development in- volves both social growth and intellectual reasoning. People move from stage to stage as a result of their own reasoning power, and they see for themselves the contra- dictions in their own beliefs. As with Erikson and Piaget, Kohlberg’s stages are hierarchical—a person moves for- ward one by one, and no stage can be skipped. On the basis of children’s responses to moral dilemmas similar to those of Piaget, Kohlberg identifi ed three levels of moral development, as illustrated in Figure 4-16. For early childhood educators, research shows that precon- ventional reasoning (stages 1 and 2) is dominant into el- ementary school.

Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for placing too much emphasis on moral thought and not enough of moral behavior. Further, many point out that his view is culturally biased and the stories asked are not applicable to all children. Western moral doctrine emphasizes indi- vidual rights; other cultures focus on a greater respect for traditional codes and practices. (See Figure 4-17 for an example of such diff erences.)

Most of the stories, or dilemmas, that Piaget and Kohlberg used were about stealing, lying, disobeying rules, and the like. Researcher and theorist Nancy Eisenberg (1983) has explored the kinds of reasoning children use to justify good (prosocial) behavior. She asks children what they would do in situations with a moral dilemma. One of her stories involves a child on the way to a friend’s birthday party. Th e child encounters someone who has fallen and is hurt. What should the child do: help the hurt child and miss cake and ice cream, or leave the child and go on to the party?

Such questions brought to light several levels of pro- social reasoning. In the early childhood years, children seem to be engaged in level one (hedonistic reasoning), in which the individual’s own needs are put fi rst. In the case mentioned earlier, the child would leave the hurt person and go to the party (“I won’t help because I have to go to the party”). As children move through middle child- hood, they tend to move to level two, in which the needs of another begin to be considered and to increase in im- portance. Answers to the story would begin to shift to- ward including others (“I’d help because they’d help me

140 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

next time”). Eisenberg’s stages roughly parallel Kohlberg’s and help broaden these concepts without contradicting the fundamental arguments.

Carol Gilligan (1982) challenges Kohlberg’s strong emphasis on justice and fairness and his omission of car- ing for others. In her book In a Diff erent Voice (1982), Gilligan points out that mostly males were studied for such work and that, because girls and boys are socialized diff erently, their moral judgments will be quite diff erent. For instance, boys may be raised with the idea that jus- tice and fairness are the key moral bases, whereas girls may be taught that caring and responsibility to others are central. Buzzelli (1992) has also worked extensively on young children’s moral understanding and has ap- plied recent research to children’s development of peer relationships. Although this claim of diff erent moral ideas based on gender diff erences has yet to be fully re- searched, it is an important thought to keep in mind, particularly when teaching and raising young children.

Moral development is often deleted from the curric- ulum in American schools. Further, one aspect of moral development that has been studied very little is that of children’s spirituality and faith. Because of the separation of church and state in American public schools, many

educators shy away from discussions of anything that might be considered “religious.” In doing so, educational programs also fi nd themselves staying out of anything that helps children understand who they are and the greater questions of life and its meaning. Yet even John Dewey called moral education the “hidden curriculum,” conveyed through the atmosphere of every program. El- ementary schools occasionally have some kind of teach- ing for “character education,” or a values clarifi cation class. In addition, most caregivers will tell you what chil- dren notice about life and death issues and about caring for others is part of everyday experiences.

Brain-Based Research Some of the most exciting research discoveries in the last two decades have been in the area of brain-based re- search. Neuroscience research has developed sophisti- cated technologies, such as ultrasound, magnetic reso- nance imaging (MRI), position emission tomography (PET), and eff ective, noninvasive ways to study brain chemistry (such as the steroid hormone cortisol). Brain scans and other technologies have made it possible to in- vestigate the intricate circuitry of the brain.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

I. Preconventional Morality

Stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation Might makes right; obey authority and avoid punishment.

Stage 2: Individualism and relativist orientation Look out for number one; be nice to others so they will be nice to you.

II. Conventional Morality

Stage 3: Mutual interpersonal expectations “Good girl, nice boy”; approval more important than any reward.

Stage 4: Social system and conscience “Law and order”; contributing to society’s good is important.

III. Postconventional Morality

Stage 5: Social contract Rules are to benefi t all, by mutual agreement; may be changed same way; the greatest good for the

greatest number.

Stage 6: Universal ethical principles Values established by individual refl ection, may contradict other laws.

FIGURE 4-16 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development. Cross-cultural data and exten- sive American research indicate a persuasive universality and a strong sequence of stage development in children’s moral development.

141CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

No aspect of biological growth is more critical than the rapid growth of the brain. “A newborn’s skull is dis- proportionately large, because it must be big enough to hold the brain, which at birth is 25 percent of its adult weight. Th e neonate’s body, by comparison, is typically only fi ve percent of adult weight. By age 2, the brain is almost 75 percent of adult brain weight; the child’s body is only about 20 percent as big as it will be” (Berger, 2008). During childhood, the brain develops faster than any other part of the body so that by age 7 it is almost fully grown.

We once believed that brains were entirely formed by genes and prenatal infl uences. Today, neuroscientists be- lieve in plasticity, the concept that growth changes throughout life for a variety of reasons. Still, early child- hood is a critical time for brain development. Th e timing and quality of early experiences combine to shape brain architecture (Shonkoff , et al, 2008).

What We Have Learned At least three important conclusions can be made at this time:

1. Th e brain seems to operate on a “use it or lose it” prin- ciple. At birth, one has about 100 billion brain cells and 50 trillion connections among them. With use, these cells grow branches (dendrites) that reach out to make connections with other cells. With impov- erishments, you may lose the dendrites. By age 2, most pruning of dendrites has already occurred. Es- tablished patterns of behavior are increasingly diffi - cult to change as individuals get older; it is more ef- fective and effi cient to get things right the fi rst time than to try and fi x them later.

2. As children move from toddlers to preschool, brain functions are developed. Myelination speeds trans- mission of nerve impulses between neurons and en- ables children to think and react faster. Fast and complex communication can now occur.

Th e system of acquiring cultural knowledge is more open in the early stages of life than later. Th is has implications for both emotional attachment and language development:

■ “Patterns (not quantity but quality) of interactive experience for the young child’s life are important in shaping both pruning and possible synaptic growth during the early years of life” (Siegel, 1999). We should work to provide a quality at- tachment to at least one important and consis- tent adult in the early years.

■ “Th e best time to learn a second language is be- fore 7 years of age. We know that babies lose their ability to discriminate some phonetic distinctions as a function of the language they are exposed to by 12 months of age (Garcia Coll, 2003). Th ere- fore, culture, language, communication, and social interactions are ingrained very early on.

3. By age 7, the brain has grown to its adult size, and the basic areas of sensory and motor cortexes are function- ing. Now is the time to add experiences that encour- age the dendrites to reach out to neurons. Th e brain’s two hemispheres are connecting, and the brain can now become more effi cient in its func- tions. As Galinsky (1997) tells us, “Th e connections that have been reinforced by repeated experience tend to remain while those that are not are dis- carded. Th us, a child’s early experiences—both posi- tive and negative—help shape the brain, aff ecting to some degree how he thinks, feels, and relates to oth-

Moral Reasoning: Cultural Implications

Disagreement: Brahman children think it is right; American children think it is wrong:

—Hitting an errant child with a cane —Eating with one’s hands —Father opening a son’s letter

Disagreement: Brahman children think it is wrong; American children think it is right:

—Addressing one’s father by his fi rst name —Eating beef — Cutting one’s hair and eating chicken after

father’s death

Agreement: Brahman and American children think it is wrong:

—Ignoring a beggar —Destroying another’s picture —Kicking a harmless animal —Stealing fl owers

Agreement: Brahman and American children think it is right:

—Men holding hands.

FIGURE 4-17 Children’s moral reasoning has a cultural aspect, as shown by comparing children in the United States and India. (From Child Development, 9th ed., by J. W. Santrock, © 2001 McGraw-Hill Companies. Re- printed with permission of McGraw-Hill Companies.)

142 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

ers throughout his life.” Figure 4-18 summarizes these research fi ndings with connections to theories and advice for educators.

Early Stress Every environment has opportunities for interaction with a variety of objects, people, and circumstances that can stimulate brain growth. Conversely, any environment can be impoverished. Th is is less about toys than it is about interactions and the atmosphere. Repeated expo- sure to extreme stress kills some neurons and prevents others from developing properly (Sanchez, Ladd, & Plotsky, 2001). When the brain perceives a threat or stress, the body reacts. Stress can trigger a fl ood of hor- mones, particularly cortisol, that may create an overre- action. Or, as in some abused children, a blunted stress response may occur (Gunnar & Vasquez, 2001). Since brain circuits are formed especially in infancy and tod- dlerhood, early mistreatment can cause damage. In later childhood, the chronic threat of emotional embarrass- ment, social disrespect, or simply hurried, restrictive time settings can all trigger stress responses.

Applications to the Classroom Applying brain research to the early childhood class- room is a challenge. Early in life, neural connections form rapidly in the brain and tail off during adolescence—but why? Does anything we do make much of a diff erence, when this pattern has presumably taken place over eons of time? “Neuroscientists know very little about how learning, particularly school learning, aff ects the brain at the synaptic level,” claims (Bruer, 1998). “We should be skeptical of any claims that suggest they do.” Th irty years of research has shown that critical periods are quite com- plex; the brain can reorganize itself throughout our life- times, so we do not yet understand what brain-based re- search might mean for education. For now, this framework for action gives us some general advice:

■ First, do no harm. Let us do everything to help par- ents and caregivers form strong, secure attach- ments. At the same time, we need to provide parent education and information about what does help their children’s brain and well-being to grow. “An infant’s attachment with the primary caregiver dur-

Brain-Based Research Findings

FIGURE 4-18 Decades of brain-based research is summarized here from the 1996 Con- ference of Brain Development in Young Children, sponsored by the Families and Work Institute (Shore, 1997).

Key Finding: Theories That Support It: Implications for Educators:

1. “Human development hinges on the interplay between nature and nurture.”

This fi nding shows how both nature and nurture work together and points to the dynamic interplay between the environment and learning that is a hallmark of cognitive/constructivist thought and sociocultural theory.

The brain is affected by all kinds of environmental and interactive conditions. The impact is both specifi c and dramatic, infl uencing both the general direction and the actual circuitry of the brain.

2. “Early care has a decisive and long-lasting impact on how people develop, their ability to learn, and their capacity to regulate their own emotions.”

This fi nding confi rms the work on attachment (see this chapter) and underscores the importance of warm and responsive care.

The daily interaction with nurturing adults helps children develop the network of brain cells so they can learn to regulate and calm themselves, which actually helps the brain turn off a stress-sensitive response quickly and effi ciently.

3. “The human brain has a remarkable capacity to change, but timing is crucial.”

Montessori’s sensitive periods and Steiner’s belief in a seven-year cycle of growth (see Chapter 1) both stress the notion of timing.

Experiments have proven that there are certain “windows of opportunity” for the proper development of vision and language, and studies show certain effective times in the learning of music. There are limits to the brain’s ability to create itself, and researchers have found that these limitations have some time periods to them that we ought not to ignore.

143CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

ing these early years is crucial for healthy develop- ment, and poor attachment, along with abuse or neglect, can alter the brain’s structural path, predis- posing a child to lack empathy or to being aggres- sive” (Schore in Waters, 2004). We must educate ourselves so the quality of child care and early edu- cation is ensured.

■ Second, prevention is best, but when a child needs help, intervene quickly and intensively. Th e brain is a work in progress, and children can recover from serious stress. “For humans, even in an early developing sys- tem like vision, these periods can last until early childhood. For language, the critical period for learning to speak without an accent ends in early childhood, but the critical period for learning lan- guage’s grammar does not end until around age 16” (Bruer, 1998). But the list of preventable conditions is clear, and it is everyone’s job to work toward elim- inating the unnecessary traumas.

■ Th ird, promote the healthy development and learning of every child. “Risk is not destiny,” reminds Shore (1997), “Th e medical, psychological, and educational literatures contain a suffi cient number of examples of people who develop or recover signifi cant capaci- ties after critical periods have passed to sustain hope for every individual.”

Using Developmental and Learning Theories As a teacher, you must think about what you believe about children, development, and learning. Th is chapter gives much food for thought in this regard, and students are often overwhelmed. Two critical questions arise: (1) Why do contradictions exist among the theories? and (2) How can I decide which is the “right” one?

To answer the fi rst question, remember that each theory addresses a particular aspect of development. For instance, psychodynamic theory focuses on the develop- ment of personality, behaviorist on the conditions of learning, cognitive on how children think and learn, maturation on how development progresses, and hu- manist on the conditions for overall health. Each has its avid proponents with a body of research that supports it. Because every theory has its own focus and advocates, each viewpoint is rather subjective and somewhat nar- row. In other words, no one theory tells us everything . . . and that is the answer to the second question.

Th oughtful teachers develop their own viewpoints. Begin to decide what you believe about children, learning,

and education. Try to avoid the pitfall of taking sides. In- stead, integrate theory into your teaching practices by comparing the major developmental and learning theo- ries with your own daily experiences with young children. Figure 4-19 reviews the highlights of each theory.

Most early childhood educators are eclectic in their theoretical biases. Th at is, they have developed their own philosophies of education based on a little of each theory. Each teacher has an obligation to develop a clear set of ideas of how children grow and learn. We are fortunate to have choices.

Basic Tenets Most educators agree on some basic tenets based, in part, on theories of development and learning:

1. Basic needs. Children’s basic physiologic needs and their needs for physical and psychological safety

One of the conclusions of research and theory is that children’s interactions with signifi cant people in their lives play a major role in development.

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144 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

must be met satisfactorily before they can experi- ence and respond to “growth motives.” [Humanist, Brain-based research]

2. Factors in development. Children develop unevenly and not in a linear fashion as they grow toward psy- chosocial maturity and psychological well-being. A wide variety of factors in children’s lives, as well as the manner in which they interpret their own expe-

riences, will have a bearing on the pattern and rate of progress toward greater social and emotional ma- turity. [Psychosocial, Behaviorist, Maturation, Ethnicity/Culture]

3. Crises in Childhood. Developmental crises that oc- cur in the normal process of growing up may off er maximum opportunities for psychological growth, but these crises are also full of possibilities for re-

Summary of Major Theories

FIGURE 4-19 The major theories of and research on development and learning de- scribe children and their growth in different ways.

Theory Major Theorists Important Facts

Psychosocial Erik Erikson Maturational emphasis Stage theory of social and emotional development Crises at each level Teacher: Emotional base, social mediator

Behaviorist John Watson Edward Thorndike B. F. Skinner Albert Bandura

Environmental emphasis Stimulus–response Conditioning (classical and operant) Reinforcement (positive and negative) Modeling Teacher: Arranger of environment and reinforcer of behavior

Cognitive Jean Piaget Maturational and environmental emphasis Assimilation and accommodation Stage theory of cognitive development Teacher: Provider of materials and time and supporter of children’s

unique ways of thinking

Sociocultural Lev Vygotsky Zone of proximal development Private speech Collaborative/assisted learning

Multiple intelligences Howard Gardner Many kinds of intelligence Problem-solving and product-creating

Maturation Arnold Gesell Emphasis on heredity Normative data Teacher: Guider of behavior based on what is typical and normal

Humanist Abraham Maslow Environmental emphasis Mental health model Hierarchy of human needs Teacher: Provider of basic and growth needs

Others Mary Ainsworth John Bowlby Nancy Eisenberg Carol Gilligan Lawrence Kohlberg Eleanor Maccoby

Attachment and categories research Attachment theory Expands moral development to prosocial Questions categories of moral development Moral, cognitive, and sex-role development Sex differences research

Brain-based research Bruce Perry Daniel Siegel Albert Schore

New insights into early development “Use it or lose it” principle Warm and responsive care matters

145CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

gression or even negative adaptation. [Psychoso- cial, Cognitive, Ecological, Play, Moral Development]

4. Striving for Mastery. Children strive for mastery over their own private inner worlds as well as for mastery of the world outside of them. [Psychosocial, Cognitive, Multiple Intelligences, Play]

5. Relationships and Interactions. Th e child’s interac- tions with signifi cant persons in his life play a major part in his development. [Psychosocial, Behaviorist, Sociocultural, Humanist, Attachment, Gender Identity, Brain-Based]

Look at the following “What Do You Th ink?” box and consider your own theoretical base.

Decision making in teaching can be diffi cult. Can theory help us?

It is 10 a.m. at the infant- toddler center. Fifteen-

month-olds Kenya and Peter are crying and fussy this morning. Neither has eaten since breakfast. They have been indoors all morning.

Theory: Maturation theory. Children’s physical developmental needs affect their emotional states.

Plan: Schedule regular times for active movement. Be sure to offer food and watch for signs of hunger.

Mario and Therese, both in wheelchairs, joined the fi rst grade last month, but their parents report that neither wants to come to school. Their academic work is at grade level but they participate very little. They seem familiar with their teacher.

Theory: Sociocultural theory. Children need to feel part of the class culture in order to learn well.

Theory: Psychosocial theory. The children can identify with the teacher and become successful but may feel incompetent with unfriendly or indifferent classmates.

Theory: Cognitive theory. They can understand other points of view as long as it is in real situations.

What Do

YOU Think?

Plan: Put each child in a small group to design and build wheel toys for pets. Building upon the newcomers’ expertise in a cooperative activity gives all the children the scaffolding needed to be successful and helps the new children become accepted into the class.

Preschoolers Jared and Panya have been arguing about who has brought the “best” toy to child care. Others have heard the ruckus and have stopped to watch the two start a fi ght.

Theory: Cognitive theory. Their egocentric thinking prevents them from seeing any view other than their own. Also, they are unable to hold two ideas at the same time, so they cannot see that both toys are “good.”

Theory: Behaviorist theory. The children can learn from watching others and applying other’s example to their own behavior.

Plan: The teacher engages the children in a confl ict resolution method that gets all children to express their own ideas, both about the problem and for some solutions, so they can practice hearing another’s ideas while still holding their own. The teacher models praising each child’s positive characteristics in the other’s presence, showing other ways to behave appropriately and how the children and their toys can play together.

146 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

Developmental Research Conclusions Research, and the information it yields, must serve the needs of the practitioner to be useful. Teachers can com- bine researchers’ systematic data with personal observa- tions and experiences, including the signifi cance of rela- tionships, language and thinking, biologic factors, and special needs (see also Chapters 6 and 12–14). To keep in mind the real child underneath all these theories, teachers apply developmental research to their own classroom settings. Figure 4-20 consolidates what devel- opmental research has found and how it can be put into practical use with young children.

Th ere is so much information now about children and their development. It is easy to feel overwhelmed, and easier still to believe what we read. Santrock (2001) advises us:

■ Be cautious about what is reported in the popular media.

■ Do not assume that group research applies to an in- dividual.

■ Do not generalize about a small or clinical sample. ■ Do not take a single study as the defi ning word. ■ Do not accept causal conclusions from correlational

studies. ■ Always consider the source of the information and

evaluate its credibility.

Conditions for Learning Caring for children means providing for total growth, creating optimal conditions for learning in the best pos- sible environment. Developmental theory helps defi ne conditions that enhance learning and from which posi- tive learning environments are created. Research on all theories extends the knowledge of children and learning. Coupled with practical application, both theory and re- search have helped all to recognize that:

1. Learning must be real. We teach about the children’s bodies, their families, their neighborhoods, and

their school. We start with who children are and ex- pand this to include the world, in their terms. We give them the words, the ideas, the ways to question and fi gure things out for themselves.

2. Learning must be rewarding. Practice makes better, but only if it is all right to practice, to stumble and try again. We include the time to do all this by pro- viding an atmosphere of acceptance and of immedi- ate feedback as to what was accomplished (even what boundary was just overstepped). Also, practice can make a good experience even better, as it re- minds children in their terms of what they can do.

3. Learning must build on children’s lives. We help con- nect the family to the child and the teacher. We re- alize that children learn about culture from family and knowledgeable members of the community, such as teachers, librarians, grocers, and the like. We know important family events and help the family support happenings at school. For children, learning goes on wherever they may be, awake and asleep. Parents can learn to value learning and help it hap- pen for their child.

4. Learning needs a good stage. Healthy bodies make for alert minds, so good education means caring for children’s health. Th is includes physical, emotional, and mental health. Psychological safety and well- being are theoretical terms for the insight, availabil- ity, and awareness teachers bring to their class- rooms. On the lookout for each child’s successes, we prevent distractions in the way furniture is ar- ranged, how noisy it is, and how many strangers are around. Mental health is both emotional and intel- lectual. We try to have a variety of materials and ex- periences, and a fl exible schedule when someone is pursuing an idea, building a project, or fi nishing a disagreement.

As long as we care for children, we will have our hands full. With the theoretical underpinnings presented here, we have the tools with which to make our own way into the world of children and of early childhood education.

DAPDAP

DAP Recognize that what makes something challenging and achievable will vary, depending on the individual learner’s development in all areas: the store of experiences, knowledge, and skills; and the context within which the learning opportunity takes place.

Research Implications for Teachers

Developmental Research Tells Us Teachers Can

1. Growth occurs in a sequence. Think about the steps children will take when planning projects. Know the sequence of growth in their children’s age group.

2. Children in any age group will behave similarly in certain ways.

Plan for activities in relation to age range of children. Know the characteristics of their children’s age group.

3. Children grow through certain stages. Know the stages of growth in their class. Let family know of any behavior that is inconsistent with general stages of development.

4. Growth occurs in four interrelated areas. Understand that work in one area can help in another.

5. Intellectual growth: Children learn through their senses. Children learn by doing and need

concrete experiences. Cognitive growth happens in four areas: Perception (visual, auditory, etc.)

Language Memory

Reasoning

Have activities in looking, smelling, tasting, hearing, and touching. Realize that talking is abstract; have children touch.

Provide materials and activities in matching, fi nding same/different, putting a picture with a sound, taste, or with a symbol.

Provide opportunities to fi nd and label things, talk with grown-ups, friends, tell what it “looks like,” smells like, etc.

Know that memory is helped by seeing, holding objects, and people. Recognize that reasoning ability is just beginning, so children judge

on what they see rather than what you may want them to realize. Be sure adult explanations aid in understanding reasons. Practice

fi nding “answers” to open-ended questions such as “How can you tell when you are tired?”

6. Social growth: The world is only from the child’s viewpoint.

Seeing is believing.

Group play is developing.

Independence increases as competence grows.

People are born not knowing when it is safe to go on. Adult attention is very important. Young children are not born with an inter- nal mechanism that says “slow down.”

Expect that children will think of only their own ideas at fi rst. Be aware that the rights of others are minimal to them. Remember that if they cannot see the situation, they may not be

able to talk about it. Provide free-play sessions, with places to play socially. Understand that group play in structured situations is diffi cult

because of “self” orientation. Know that children test to see how far they can go. Realize that children will vary from independent to dependent (both

among the group and within one child). Understand that children will need to learn by trial and error.

Know the children individually. Move into a situation before children lose control.

7. Emotional growth: Self-image is developing. Be alert for each child’s self-image that may be developing.

Give praise to enhance good feelings about oneself. Know that giving children responsibilities helps self-image. Talk to children at eye level. Children learn by example. Model appropriate behavior by doing yourself what you want the

children to do.

8. Physical growth: Muscle development is not complete. Muscles cannot stay still for long. Large muscles are better developed than small ones. Hand preference is being established.

A skill must be done several times before it is internalized. Bowel and bladder control is not completely internalized.

Do not expect perfection, in either small- or large-muscle activity. Plan short times for children to sit. Give lots of chances to move about; be gentle with expectations for

hand work. Watch to see how children decide their handedness. Let children trade hands in their play. Have materials available to be used often. Plan projects to use the same skill over and over. Be understanding of “accidents.” If possible, have toilet facilities available always, and keep them

attractive.

FIGURE 4-20 Developmental research tests theories of growth and learning to fi nd out about children and childhood.

148

Developmental theory serves as a guide for developmen-tally appropriate practice (DAP). Age appropriateness and individual appropriateness were the original basic dimen- sions for DAP (Bredekamp, 1987). Age appropriateness is based on “what is known about child development and learn- ing” and individual appropriateness on “what is known about the strengths, interests, and needs of each individual child.” Developmental theories can provide clues as to where individu- als or groups of children may be developmentally. Cultural ap- propriateness is a third critical dimension that was included in the 1997 revision edited by Bredekamp and Copple. Cultural appropriateness is based on “knowledge of the social and cul- tural contexts in which children live.” Th e major developmental theories were based on observations of children in each theo- rist’s particular culture. Th erefore, modifi cations must be con- sidered relative to the multitude of cultures to which DAP might be applied in our ever more diverse society.

Th eories of child development can serve as guides for as- sessing the developmental levels of any children. Th ey can help us know what children’s competencies are and where we should begin instruction. Th eories of development can serve as guides for planning instruction for individuals and for groups. Th e constructivist theories of Piaget and Vygotsky are especially helpful in guiding us to developmentally appropriate instructional practice. Concepts such as that of children con- structing knowledge through their exploration of the world while adults determine their zone of proximal development and scaff old their learning experiences within the zone are in- valuable guides. Piaget’s periods of cognitive development provide clues to interpreting children’s thinking as they move from sensorimotor to preoperational to concrete operational thought during early childhood. Th e period from ages fi ve to seven, known as the fi ve to seven shift, is very critical in assess- ing and planning for kindergartners and fi rst graders (Golbeck, 2006). Erikson’s stages help us understand the so- cial/emotional development and behavior of young children beginning with basic trust, then the need for autonomy and independence and the need to be productive. Th ese theorists all support the importance of play as the major vehicle for learning during early childhood. Other theorists also infl uence DAP. Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs, Rogers’ views on development of the self-concept, and Bandura’s theories of

social learning have all been applied to teaching practice. Inter- pretations of these theoretical guidelines may diff er across cultures but provide a foundation for early childhood planning and practice.

Th eory provides direction for program structure. Struc- ture is necessary for any program in several areas: classroom space, guidance techniques, instructional methods, materials, curriculum, and assessment. Structure based on the develop- ment of young children includes some of the following factors that can be related to developmental theory:

■ Classroom space is clearly divided into a variety of learning areas. Th e space includes table areas, a soft carpeted area, fl oor areas used as instructional space, and centers with open shelves where children can select materials (Piaget and Erikson).

■ Guidance techniques should be clear, consistent, positive and inductive; time blocks are broad and fl exible but fol- low a consistent routine; children have choices of activities that fi t their competencies, interests, and learning styles; children are involved in rule making (Rogers, Bandura, Erikson, Piaget, and Vygotsky).

■ Instructional methods include whole class, small group, and individual activities as appropriate; children are en- couraged to construct their own knowledge; focus is on creative thinking and problem solving, peer interaction is encouraged, and play is the major vehicle for learning (Piaget and Vygotsky).

■ Materials are organized in space, are concrete and open- ended and promote creativity, and fi rst-hand experiences are provided (Piaget).

■ Curriculum is guided by standards and scope and se- quence but adapted for individual children’s development, content is integrated, and there is equal emphasis on cog- nitive, aff ective, and psychomotor areas of development (Piaget, Vygotsky, and Erikson).

■ Assessment is done in an organized manner, mainly through observations and individual interviews as children work with appropriate materials. Observations are done on a daily basis to obtain information used for planning. Information for planning is obtained regarding children’s current competencies and interests. Planning can then fo-

Developmental Theory: The Foundation of Developmentally Appropriate Practice by Rosalind Charlesworth

Insights from the fi eld

SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

149CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

cus on age, individually, and culturally appropriate teach- ing strategies (Piaget and Vygotsky).

Culture, the third dimension of DAP, has been at the cen- ter of many arguments against developmental theory as the foundation of DAP. Historically, in the United States and other Western cultures, an individualistic approach to educa- tion and development has been valued. “Individualism stresses independence and individual achievement, focusing on the needs of the individual, self-expression, and personal choice” (Zepeda, Rothstein-Fisch, Gonzales-Mena, & Trumbull, 2006).

Most other cultures (about 70 percent) value a more col- lectivist approach (Zepeda et al., 2006). Zepeda and others (2006) defi ne collectivism as follows:

… most of the world tends to focus on the interdepen- dence of groups and individuals. … Collectivism em- phasizes social responsibility and the priority of group needs over individual needs. It stresses respect for au- thority and obligation to group norms.

Th ey provide several examples of how these two views might result in diff erent beliefs. For example, in the area of play and learning the individualistic view would see “Learning is child centered and involves play, exploration, and individual choice,” while the collectivist view would be that “Learning is adult directed and depends more on observation than play, exploration, and child choice.” Th e individualistic view appears to fi t with Piaget and Erikson, the collectivist view with some of Vygotsky’s and Bandura’s ideas. Perhaps diff erences be- tween collectivism and individualism can be bridged in order to provide a developmentally appropriate program for young

children, one that considers culture and fully involves families in a partnership that respects cultural beliefs and child-rearing methods.

Just as DAP is a guide to practice, developmental and learning theories are guides to DAP, not rules. Planning for children is very complicated because children and families are complex and diverse. Many variables must be considered; one size doesn’t fi t all.

References Bredekamp, S. (Ed.). (1987). Developmentally appropriate

practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age eight (expanded edition). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Bredekamp, S., & Copple, C. (Eds.). (1997). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs (revised edition). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Charlesworth, R. (2008). Understanding child development (7th Ed). Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning.

Golbeck, S. L. (2006). Developing key cognitive skills. In D. F. Gullo, Ed., Kindergarten today, pp. 37–46. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Zepeda, M., Rothstein-Fisch, C., Gonzales-Mena, J., & Trumbull, E. (2006). Bridging cultures in early care and ed- ucation: A training module. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Rosalind Charlesworth is professor and department chair in the Department of Child and Family Studies at Weber State University in Ogden, Utah.

150 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

SUMMARY Developmental and learning theories form the corner- stone of our knowledge about children. What we know about how children grow, learn, and adapt to the world around them is critical in our quest for understanding.

Our fi eld is greater for the contributions of several schools of study. Freud reminds us of the importance of early experiences. Erikson’s theory of psychosocial devel- opment gives us insight into children’s feelings and how their emotional and social lives aff ect their learning. Th e behaviorists, a distinctively American group of psycholo- gists, demonstrate how much we can learn of human af- fairs by applying the methods of science. Piaget, a “giant in the nursery school” (Elkind, 1977), opens our eyes to a stage theory of growth and shows us how active children are in their own learning. Vygotsky reminds us of how values, beliefs, skills, and traditions are transmitted to the next generation within a “zone of proximal development” based on relationships with other people. Th e ecological

theory is very useful in highlighting the complex infl u- ences on children’s development. Gardner suggests multi- ple kinds of intelligence, rather than seeing the mind as a static “black box” or empty vessel. Gesell off ers us develop- mental norms. Maslow, a humanistic psychologist, estab- lishes a hierarchy of needs, reminding us that the basic physical and psychological needs must be met before higher learning can take place. Th e developmental topics of ethnicity and culture reverberate through the study of attachment, play, gender identity, and moral development. Th e brain-based research opens doors to new vistas of pos- sibility and better teaching and learning.

In learning about these theories, we are more able to formulate our own philosophy of education. By consis- tently applying the insights from research and theory, we show our willingness to make a commitment to children. What we know about growth and development helps us fi ght for our most important resource—our children.

KEY TERMS theory hypothesis nature/nurture controversy psychodynamic theory unconscious psychosocial autonomy stimulus-response reinforcement socialization modeling self-effi cacy observational learning classical conditioning operant conditioning reinforcers

punishment assimilation accommodation equilibration schema myelination transmission model constructivism transactional model egocentric sociocultural zone of proximal development

(ZPD) scaff olding private (inner) speech bicognitive development

multiple intelligences maturation theory self-actualization basic needs (defi ciency needs) growth needs attachment superhero play sociodramatic play sex diff erences gender diff erences gender identity gender role prosocial dendrites cortisol

151CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Match the theorist with the appropriate description:

B. F. Skinner Ecological theory

Abraham Maslow Multiple intelligences

Jean Piaget Sex diff erences

Albert Bandura Attachment

Mary Ainsworth Social learning

Eleanor Maccoby Zone of proximal development

Erik Erikson Psychosocial development

Arnold Gesell Behaviorism

Lev Vygotsky Developmental norms

Howard Gardner Cognitive theory

Uric Bronfenbrenner Self-actualization

2. Describe Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and their implications for early childhood education.

3. Name at least three psychologists who have contributed to the knowledge of development. Describe your reac- tion to each.

4. How is play benefi cial to the child’s development?

5. Defi ne the common stages of play, and state at what chronological age each is likely to appear.

6. Given the eight theories of learning and development, which one would most likely advocate large blocks of free play? An early academic program? Open-ended questioning by teachers? Regular early mealtime?

7. Who said it? Match the theorist to the relevant quotation.

Lev Vygotsky “Th e fi rst organ to make its appearance as an erogenous zone and to make libidinal demands upon the mind is, from the time of birth onwards, the mouth.”

Erik Erikson “Th ere are problems when caregivers have low expectations for children based largely upon the children’s membership in a low-status cultural group, rather than on the actual abilities of the children.”

Jean Piaget “From a sense of self-control without loss of self-esteem comes a lasting sense of good will and pride; from a sense of loss of self-control and of over-control comes a lasting propensity for doubt and shame.”

Sigmund Freud “Children acquire most of their concepts—the rules by which they live—from models who they observe in the course of daily life.”

Sara Lawrence “Th e young child’s thinking manifests considerable activity that is frequently original and Lightfoot unpredictable. It is remarkable not only by virtue of the way it diff ers from adult thinking but

also by virtue of what it teaches us.”

Albert Bandura “No matter how we approach the controversial problem of the relationship between thought and speech, we shall have to deal extensively with inner speech.”

152 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. You are a teacher in a large urban child care center. Your children arrive by 7:00 a.m. and usually stay until after

5:00 p.m. each day. What would you do fi rst thing in the morning? Use Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to justify your answer.

2. What do you think of the infl uence of television on children’s behavior? Consider the typical cartoons that the children you know are watching. From a social learning perspective, what are they learning? What else would you have them watch?

3. You are a teacher in a middle-class suburban preschool. What do you know about your group’s needs and devel- opmental stages? What assumptions, if any, can you make about development and social class? What does their cultural background tell you about what to teach? How will you fi nd out about what each child is ready to learn?

4. Observe children in a child care center as they say goodbye to their parents. What can your observations tell you about their attachment levels? What can teachers do to support attachment and also help children separate?

5. Observe teachers as children play. What is the diff erence in play when (1) a teacher interacts with children in their play and (2) a teacher intervenes? What happens to the play immediately after teacher contact is made? How long does the play last? What is your conclusion?

6. Write a defense of play as a hallmark of early childhood philosophy and curriculum. How would you adapt the paper for parents? For a student of early childhood education? For teachers?

HELPFUL WEBSITES Alliance for Childhood http://www.allianceforchildhood.org American Educational Research Association http://www.area.net AskEric http://ericir.syr.edu ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center) http://www.eric.ed.gov Early Childhood Research Quarterly http://www.naeyc.org/publications/ecrq Gesell Institute http://www.gesellinstitute.org National Association for the Education of Young Children http://www.naeyc.org Society for Research in Child Development http://www.srcd.org/

REFERENCES General Texts Berger, K. S. (2008). Th e developing person (8th Ed).

New York: Worth. Berk, L. (2007). Infants, children, and adolescents

(6th Ed). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Fong, B., & Resnick, M. (1986). Th e child: Development

through adolescence. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfi eld.

Santrock, J. W. (2007). Child development (11th Ed). Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.

Psychodynamic Th eory Erikson, E. H. (1963). Childhood and society (2nd Ed).

New York: Norton.

Additional resources including the TeachSource Videos can be found on the premium website for this book. Go to http://www.cengage.com/login to register your access code.

153CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

Erikson, E. H. (1964). Toys and reasons. In M. R. Haworth (Ed.), Child psychotherapy: Practice and the- ory. New York: Basic Books.

Erikson, E. H. (1969). A healthy personality for every child. In P. H. Mussen, J. J. Conger, & J. Kagan (Eds.), Child development and personality (3rd Ed). New York: Harper & Row.

Erikson, E.H. (1969). Gandhi’s truth. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.

Freud, S., & Hall, G. Stanley. (1920). A general intro- duction to psychoanalysis. New York: Boni & Liveright

Mooney, C. G. (2000). Th eories of childhood. Beltsville, MD: Redleaf Press.

Spitz, R. A., & Wolf, K. M. (1946). Analytic depres- sion: An inquiry into the genesis of psychiatric con- ditions in early childhood, II. In A. Freud, et al. (Eds.), Th e psychoanalytic study of the child (Vol. II). New York: International Universities Press.

Behaviorist Th eory Bandura, A. (1963). Imitation of fi lm-mediated ag-

gressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. New York: Prentice Hall.

Kohn, A. (1999) Punished by rewards. New York: Basic Books.

Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York, NY: MacMillan Co.

Suransky, V. P. (1982, Autumn). A tyranny of ex-

perts. Wilson Quarterly, 53–60.

Cognitive Th eory DeVries, R., & Kohlberg, L. (1990). Constructivist

early education: An overview and comparison with other programs. Washington, DC: National Associ- ation for Education of Young Children.

Elkind, D. (1977). Giant in the nursery school—

Jean Piaget. In E. M. Hetherington & R. D. Parke

(Eds.), Contemporary readings in psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Elkind, D., & Flavell, J. (Eds.). (1996). Essays in honor of Jean Piaget. New York: Oxford University Press.

Flavell, J. H, Green, F. L., & Flavell, E. R. (1989).

Young children’s ability to differentiate appearance-

reality. Child Development, 60, 201–213. Heuwinkel, M. K. (1996, Fall). New ways of learn-

ing � new ways of teaching. Childhood Education, 313–342.

Kohn, A. (2005). Unconditional parenting. New York: Atria Books.

Meade-Roberts, J., & Spitz, G. (1998). Under con- struction. Unpublished documents.

Sociocultural Th eory Berk, L. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. In

A. Gordon & K. W. Browne (2000), Beginnings and beyond (5th Ed). Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.

Hale, J. (1986). Black children: Th eir roots, culture and learning styles. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Ramirez, M., & Castaneda, A. (1974). Cultural de- mocracy, biocognitive development and education. New York: Academic Press.

Rogoff, B. (1990). Appreciation in thinking: Cognitive development in a social context. New York: Oxford University Press.

Tatum, B. D. (1995, February). Stages of racial/

ethnic identity development in the United States. Paper presented at the National Association for

Multicultural Education, Washington, DC.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: Th e develop- ment of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

York, S. (2005). Roots and wings: Affi rming culture in early childhood programs. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Ecological Th eory Berger, K.S. Th e developing person (8th Ed). New

York: Worth.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (2000). Ecological system the-

ory. In A. Kazdin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological

Association and Oxford Press.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979) Th e ecology of human devel- opment: Experiments by nature and design. Cam- bridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Multiple Intelligences Th eory Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind. New York: Basic

Books.

Gardner, H. (1991). Th e unschooled mind. New York: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (2000). Intelligence reframed: Multiple in- telligences for the 21st century. New York: Basic Books.

154 SECTION 2 Who Is the Young Child?

Maturation Th eory Ames, L. B., & Ilg, F. (1979). Th e Gesell Institute’s

child from one to six; Th e Gesell Institute’s child from fi ve to ten; Th e infant in today’s culture. New York: Harper & Row.

Gesell, A. (1940). Th e fi rst fi ve years of life. New York: Harper & Row.

Humanist Th eory Goble, F. G. (1970). Th e third force: Th e psychology of

Abraham Maslow. New York: Grossman. Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and personality.

New York: Harper & Row.

Developmental Topics Ethnicity and Cultural Diversity Bowman, B. (2007). The effects of culture on think-

ing. Exchange Magazine, May/June, 2007. Caldwell, B. (1983). Child development and cultural

diversity. Geneva, Switzerland: OMEP World Assembly.

Garcia Coll, C, et al. (2005). In Cooper, et al. (Eds.).

Developmental attitudes and pathways through middle childhood: Rethinking diversity and contexts as re- sources. NY: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Gura, P. (1994). Childhood: A multiple reality. Early Childhood Development and Care, 98.

Hilliard, A., & Vaughn-Scott, M. (1982). The quest

for the ‘minority’ child. In S. Moore & C. Cooper

(Eds.), Th e young child: Review of research (Vol. 3). Washington, DC: National Association for Educa-

tion of Young Children.

Hironaka Cowee, M. (2001). Identity tied to culture. CAEYC: Connections.

Lightfoot, S. L. (1978). Worlds apart. New York: Basic Books.

Markus, H., in Vaughan, L. J. Culture as sculptor:

Markus explores ‘Models of Self.’ Stanford Uni-

versity, Th e Bing Times, November, 2005. Rodd, J. (1996). Children, culture and education.

Childhood Education, International Focus Issue. Rogoff, B. (2003). Th e cultural nature of human devel-

opment. New York: Oxford University Press.

Attachment Ainsworth, M. (1979, October). Infant-mother at-

tachment. American Psychologist, 131–142. Bowlby, J. (1969,1973). Attachment and loss (Vols. I

and II). New York: Basic Books. Kagan, J. (1987). Perspectives on infancy. In J. D.

Godowsky (Ed.), Handbook on infant development (2nd Ed). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Saxton, R. (2001). Personal communication. White, Burton L. (1995) Th e new fi rst three years, re-

vised. NY: Fireside Publications.

Play American Academy of Pediatrics: Ginsberg, K.R.,

Committee on Communications, and Committee

on Psychosocial Aspects of Child & Family

Health (2006). Clinical report: The importance of

play in promoting healthy child development.

http://www.aap.org/pressroom/playFINAL.pdf.

Bowman, B. (1990). Play in teacher education: The

United States perspective. In E. Klugman &

S. Smilansky (Eds.), Children’s play and learning. New York: Teachers College Press.

Elkind, D. (2007). Th e power of play. Cambridge, MA: DaCapo Press.

Frost, J. L. (1996). Play and playscapes. Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Learning.

Frost, J. L., Wortham, S.C., & Reifel, S. (2007). Play and child development (3rd Ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Hoffman, E. (2004). Magic capes, amazing powers: Transforming play in the classroom. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Isenberg, J., & Quisenberry, N. (2002). Play: Essen-

tial for all children. A position paper of the Asso-

ciation for Childhood Education International.

http://www.acei.org/playpaper.htm.

Jones, E. (2000). What is the point of play? In

A. Gordon & K. W. Browne, Beginning and beyond: Foundations in early childhood education. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.

Klein, T. P., Wirth, D., & Linas, K. (2003). Play:

Children’s context for development. Young Chil- dren, (58)3.

Rubin, K. H., Fein, G. G., & Vandenberg, B. (1983).

Play. In E. M. Heatherington (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 4, Socialization, personality and social development). New York: Wiley.

Singer, D.G., Golinkoff, R., & Hirsh-Pasekm, K.

(Eds.) (2006) Play�Learning. NY: Oxford Univer- sity Press.

Gender Eisenberg, N., Martin, C. L., & Fabes, R. A. (1996).

Gender development and gender effects. In D. C.

Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educa- tional psychology. New York: Macmillan.

Maccoby, E. E. (1998). Th e two sexes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

155CHAPTER 4 Developmental and Learning Theories

Wardle, F. (2004). The challenge of boys in our

early childhood programs. Early Childhood News (January-February, 2004).

Moral Development Buzzelli, C. A. (1992, September). Young children’s

moral understanding: Learning about right and

wrong. Young Children, 47–53. Eisenberg, N., Lenon, R., & Roth, K. (1983). Proso-

cial development in middle childhood: A longitu-

dinal study. Developmental Psychology, 23, 712–718. Gilligan, C. (1982). In a diff erent voice. Cambridge,

MA: Harvard University Press.

Kohlberg, L. (1981). Th e philosophy of moral develop- ment. New York: Harper & Row.

Piaget, J. (1965) Th e moral judgment of the child. NY: Free Press.

Brain-Based Research Bruer, J.T (1998). Brain science, brain fi ction. Edu-

cational Leadership, (56)3. Galinsky, E. (1997, Winter). New research on the

brain development of young children. CAEYC Connections.

Garcia Coll, C. (2003). Cultural perspectives on par-

enting. http://www.extension.institute.edu

[12/04/03].

Gunnar, M. R., & Vasquez, D. M. (2001). Low cortisol and a fl attening of expected daytime rhythm: Poten- tial indices of risk in human development. Develop- ment and Psychopathology, 13, 515–538.

Sanchez, M., Ladd, C.O., & Plotsky, P. M. (2001).

Early adverse experience as a developmental risk

factor for later psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 413–450.

Schore, A., in Waters, R. (2004) The baby brain

connection. San Francisco Chronicle Magazine, 16-27.

Siegel, D. J. (1999). Relationships and the develop-

ing mind. Exchange Magazine, 11/99, 48-50. Shonkoff, J.P., et al (2008). The timing and quality

of early experiences combine to shape brain ar-

chitecture: working paper 5. Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Center on the Developing

Child.

Shore, R. (1997). Rethinking the brain: New insights into early development. New York: Families and Work Institute.

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S E C T I O N

3

CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment � 158

CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children � 191

CHAPTER 7 Guiding Children’s Behavior � 235

CHAPTER 8 Families and Teachers: Partners in Education � 261

CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments � 281

Who Are the Teachers?

© Cengage Learning

C H A P T E R

5

Teaching: A Professional Commitment

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

■ Who are the early childhood teachers and how does their teaching diff er from other teachers?

■ What are the eight essential attributes for successful teaching?

■ What is a professional code of ethics, and why should we have one?

■ What are some of the roles and responsibilities of early childhood teaching?

■ What does it mean to be a member of a teaching team?

■ Why are evaluations important?

■ How can a beginning teacher ensure a positive start?

NAEYC CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Th ese Core Values and sections from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct are ad- dressed in this chapter. As you read, note how the Core Values, Ideals, or Principles listed here apply to the topics in this chapter. (Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

A. Responsibility to coworkers Ideals: I-3A.1 To establish and maintain relationships of respect, trust, and cooperation

with coworkers. I-3A.2 To share resources and information with coworkers. I-3A.3 To support coworkers in meeting their professional needs and in their pro-

fessional development. I-3A.4 To accord coworkers due recognition of professional achievements.

© Cengage Learning

159CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment

B. Responsibilities to employers Ideals: I-3B.1 To assist the program in providing the highest qual-

ity of service. I-3B.2 To do nothing that diminishes the reputation of the

program in which we work, unless it is violating laws and regulations designed to protect children or the provisions of this Code.

C. Responsibilities to employees Ideals: I-3C.1 To promote policies and working conditions that

foster mutual respect, competence, well-being, and positive self-esteem in staff members.

I-3C.2 To create a climate of trust and candor that will en- able staff to speak and act in the best interests of children, families, and the fi eld of early childhood care and education.

I-3C.3 To strive to secure equitable compensation (salary and benefi ts) for those who work with or on behalf of children.

Who Are the Teachers of the Young Child? Margarita had always wanted to be an early childhood teacher. Right after high school she went to a community college and earned her A.A. degree. Shortly after her fi rst child was born, she became a licensed family child care pro- vider, and she now cares for infants and toddlers in her own home. It is important to Margarita that she feels she is mak- ing a contribution to the family’s well-being, as well as enjoy- ing a satisfying career. She plans to pursue her B.A. degree in the evenings when her children are older.

Paul recently spent several years teaching in a school for children with severe developmental delays. He has been a lead teacher for 4-year-olds at the child care center for two years, gaining experience with children whose developmental pat- terns are typical. Paul wants to remain a teacher but is con- cerned about the salary levels. He has given himself one more year before he will make a decision to stay or leave the fi eld.

Kendra’s four children were in parent-cooperative nurs- ery schools, where she enjoyed the companionship of many other parents of young children. After a few years of teach- ing elementary school, she is now director of a parent co-op and teaches children from ages 2 to 5. She particularly en- joys leading weekly parent discussion groups.

Elva was the most sought-after parent aide in the school after she began helping out when her two boys were ages 4 and 5. Th is success stimulated her to get an A.A. degree in early childhood education, then a bachelor’s degree in child

development. She is now a certifi ed fi rst grade teacher in a bilingual program and is working on her Master’s degree.

All of these people had diff erent motivations, yet they all were drawn to the early childhood classroom. Th ey may teach in diff erent settings and have diff erent educational backgrounds and skills, yet they do share common every- day experiences of the teacher of young children. Th ey plan, observe, listen, help, learn, play, console, discipline, confer, comfort, and teach the children and adults who make up their particular world of early childhood.

Teacher Diversity According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (2008), the teachers of young children represent the population in the following percentages:

Teaching Level White Black Asian

Hispanic/ Latino

Child Care Worker

78.9 16.0 2.7 16.8

Preschool and Kindergarten

80.0 14.3 3.0 10.4

Elementary and Middle School

86.6 10.3 1.6 6.9

Th ese statistics tell us that today’s diverse demographics are not equitably represented in the teaching population. A 2001 study in three California communities from 1994 to 2000 (Whitebrook, et al) noted that while 50 percent of the classrooms in the study had Chinese- speaking children, only 7 percent had a staff member who spoke Cantonese or Mandarin. Forty-four percent of the classrooms had Spanish-speaking children, yet only half were staff ed by Spanish-speaking teachers or caregivers. It is no wonder that parents in these pro- grams reported diffi culty in communicating with the staff because of language barriers. Th is raises the ques- tion of how the early childhood fi eld is upholding the Code of Ethical Conduct as it relates to children and their families, hiring practices, and employment opportunities.

Comparison with Teaching in Other Educational Settings Th e nature of teaching in the early years is unlike that of other age groups. At fi rst glance, the diff erences in teach- ing preschool and older children may outweigh any simi-

160 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

larities. Th ere are some common elements, however, that link the two:

■ Early childhood teachers teach what other teachers teach. Th e curriculum in the early years is rich in math, science, social studies, history, language, art, and geography, as it is in any other grade.

■ Early childhood teachers and their elementary and high school counterparts share many of the frustra- tions of the teaching profession—long hours, low pay, and a people-intensive workplace.

■ Th ey also share the joy of teaching—the opportu- nity to infl uence children’s lives and the satisfaction of meeting the daily challenges that teaching chil- dren provides.

Figure 5-1 highlights the similarities and diff erences be- tween early childhood teachers and others.

The Beginnings of Professionalism NAEYC has developed standards for the fi eld of early childhood education to ensure that teachers receive the best possible professional preparation available. “ Teachers are the key,” says Hyson (2003), who goes on to say that it is the high quality early childhood professional, not the curriculum, assessments, and strategies, that has the greatest eff ect on children’s learning and development.

Early Childhood Teachers: Differences and Similarities

FIGURE 5-1 The nature of teaching in the early years is unlike that of other age groups.

Through teacher–child interactions and concrete use of materials

Guides children toward discovery

Primary learning medium is play

Many choices throughout the day both inside and outside

Abundant fl oor space, many activity centers, variety of materials for play

Large blocks of time for unlimited exploration of materials and for play

Majority of teaching

Few times a day

Teachers involved as intensively as they are in the classroom

Frequent, if not daily, contact

Often works with aide, assistant teachers, and parents

Toys, games, natural materials, blocks

Observational and anecdotal assessments, portfolios

Emphasis on growth of whole child

May have two- to two-and-a-half-year age span or greater

Available throughout the day as an ongoing part of curriculum

Strong child development foundation

How teaching and learning occur

Play opportunities

Opportunity for child to make choices

Classroom environment

Daily schedule

Small group interactions

Large group interactions

Outdoor activity

Parent relationships

Working with other adults

Educational materials

Evaluating students

Age range of students

Art, music, and physical education

Teacher training

Through lectures and demonstrations that are often teacher dominated

Teaches subject matter

Usually just at recess

Few options—all students do same activity most of the day

Rows of desks and tables

45-minute to 1-hour periods on subject matter

Much less frequent

Majority of teaching

Others usually supervise play yard— little direct teacher interaction

May see them once a year as child grows older

Usually teaches alone or with part- time aide

Textbooks and worksheets

Grades, tests, and report cards

Standardized academic assessment

Usually same age

Restricted to a special class, time, or teacher

Emphasis on subject matter

Elements of Teaching Elementary and and Learning Early Childhood Settings High School Settings

161CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment

A set of standards for professional preparation pro- vides the vision for how teacher training programs and professional development will help teachers pursue the education, specialized training, and ongoing professional development they need. Th ese standards echo the profes- sional values found in the Code of Ethical Conduct and include the diversity of age ranges and programs in the early childhood fi eld. Th e standards identify common expectations for professional knowledge and skills and emphasize a multidiscipline approach to educating teach- ers. Th e importance of outcomes, which indicate what early childhood professionals should know and do, are stressed throughout the standards, as are the continual assessment of these outcomes. Figure 5-2 outlines the fi ve aspects of NAEYC’s professional standards.

Eight essential attributes of a professional teacher are:

1. knowledge and skills 2. abiding by a code of ethics 3. continuing education and professional development 4. professional affi liations 5. knowledge of career options 6. cultural competency 7. advocacy 8. becoming a whole teacher

Knowledge and Skills Th ere is a body of knowledge and educational founda- tion that is assumed of anyone entering the early child- hood profession, as noted in Figure 5-2: the NAEYC’s Standards. Some basic teaching skills are also necessary. Th ese include methods and techniques appropriate for teaching the very young child.

Th e NAEYC Standards for Early Childhood Profes- sional Preparation outline key elements that begin with having a common background with others in the fi eld. Th is includes studying child development and human behavior, family relations, parent education and develop- ment, and curriculum planning, as noted in key elements in Standard 1.

Some practical teaching experience under the guid- ance of a master teacher is expected, as is familiarity with observation and recording techniques. Th e key elements in Standard 3 provide the framework for professional development as teachers acquire further skills on the job. Key elements in Standard 5 encourage lifelong learning that will advance teaching practices.

Becoming a professional teacher involves progressing along a continuum of development. Th e state you live in may or may not have regulations for early childhood teachers; some states off er a specialized certifi cation for

those in the early childhood fi eld. Professional expecta- tions mandated by the states provide some degree of professionalization of early childhood teachers.

Figure 5-3 is an example of the California statewide certifi cation program. Th is career matrix has a number of levels, each with alternative qualifi cations for meeting the requirements. Within each level, there are a variety of

FIGURE 5-2 What today’s teachers should know and do. (NAEYC, 2003. Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

NAEYC’s Standards

What Today’s Teachers Should Know and Do

1. Promote child development and learning. Well- prepared early childhood professionals should: • understand what young children are like • understand what infl uences their development • use this understanding to create great

environments where all children can thrive

2. Build family and community relationships. Well- prepared early childhood professionals should: • understand and value children’s families and

communities • create respectful, reciprocal relationships • involve all families in their children’s

development and learning

3. Observe, document, and assess. Well-prepared early childhood professionals should: • understand the purposes of assessment • use effective assessment strategies • use assessment responsibly, to positively

infl uence children’s development and learning

4. Teach and learn. Well-prepared early childhood professionals should: • build close relationships with children and

families • use developmentally effective teaching and

learning strategies • have sound knowledge of academic

disciplines or content areas • combine all of these to give children

experiences that promote development and learning

5. Become a professional. Well-prepared early childhood professionals should: • identify themselves with the early childhood

profession • be guided by ethical and other professional

standards • be continuous, collaborative learners • think refl ectively and critically • advocate for children, families, and the

profession

162 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

teaching roles. Each state defi nes its own certifi cation standards. Information is available through the state’s department of education.

Look back to the teachers you met at the beginning of the chapter. Margarita is making plans to move from being a licensed home caregiver to pursuing a bachelor’s

degree. Match her plans with Figure 5-3 to see what other options she will have. Elva’s story demonstrates how education and experiences work together.

Experience and education work together to refi ne the skills and knowledge of the early childhood professional as shown in Figure 5-3. In addition, Figure 5-4 has some

A Career Lattice: Child Development Permit Matrix

Level Education Requirement Experience Requirement Assistant 6 units of ECE or CD None

Associate teacher 12 units ECE/CD, including core courses 50 days of 3� hours/day within 2 years

Teacher 24 units ECE/CD, including core courses � 175 days of 3� hours/day within 4 years 16 general education (GE) units

Master teacher 24 units ECE/CD, including 16 GE units � 350 days of 3� hours/day within 4 years 6 specialization units � 2 units adult supervision

Site supervisor A.A. (or 60 units) with 24 ECE/CD units, including 350 days of 4� hours/day including at core � 6 units administration � 2 units adult least 100 days of supervising adults supervision

Program director B.A. with 24 ECE/CD units, including core � Site supervisor status and one program 6 units administration � 2 units adult supervision year of site supervisor experience

FIGURE 5-3 A combination of education and experience work together to form a ca- reer ladder for early childhood professionals in California who want a child develop- ment permit.

General Role Defi nitions for the Early Childhood Teacher

Title Apprentice/ Teacher Aide

Assistant or Associate Teacher

Teacher

Lead Teacher

Description Is responsible to teacher for implementing program

Is part of the teaching team under the direction of teacher; may implement curriculum, supervise children, and communicate with parents.

Is coleader who plans and implements curriculum, works with parents, and evaluates children’s progress

Creates a model classroom, applies good early childhood education practices, supervises other team members, develops new curriculum, provides leadership to team

Minimum Qualifi cations Entry level, no previous formal training but enrolled in early childhood education classes

Child Development Associate (CDA) credential

Associate’s degree in early childhood education or related fi eld

Bachelor’s degree in early childhood education or related fi eld; supervised teaching experience; additional coursework work in family life, assessment, supervision, etc.

FIGURE 5-4 There are many ways to reach the top of a career ladder. Each role has its own job description that will vary with the type of early childhood education setting. The qualifi cations will also be based on individual programs and their needs. (Adapted from Blueprint for Action: Achieving Center-Based Change through Staff Development, by P. J. Bloom, © 2005 New Horizons.)

163CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment

useful descriptions of the various roles teachers have in early childhood programs. Th is chart also shows how the progression from teacher aide to master teacher is matched to increasing responsibilities and education.

Abides by a Code of Ethical Conduct As teachers mature, they turn their attention to issues and concerns outside themselves. Many of these issues are related to ethical confl icts and moral principles. Th e NAEYC Standard 5 points out that professionals are guided by ethical and other standards of behavior. Teach- ers are, after all, human beings, and that entails genuine confl ict about behavior. Doing what is right becomes dif- fi cult at times; knowing what is right may be elusive. Even identifying what is right—an ethical confl ict—may not be obvious. NAEYC’s Code of Ethical Conduct (see Appendix A and the beginning of each chapter) is an important resource for all teachers and caregivers.

Every day, situations arise with parents, children, other teachers, and administrators that require teachers to make some hard choices. Some cases are clearly ethical dilemmas: suspected child abuse by a parent or teacher, talking about children and their families outside of school, or the fi ring of a staff member without due cause. Others, some of which are common occurrences, may not seem as obvious. Some everyday examples are:

When parents: ■ ask you to advance their child into the next class

against your advice. ■ want you to use discipline practices common to

their family and culture but at odds with your own sense of what children need.

■ attempt to gossip with you about another child, staff member, or family.

When another teacher: ■ suggests a private staff meeting outside of school

with a select group of teachers. ■ refuses to take a turn cleaning out the animal cages. ■ regularly misses staff meetings. ■ disagrees with the school’s educational philosophy

and continues to teach in ways that diff er from the approved methods in that setting.

■ goes to the school administrator with a complaint about a staff team member.

When the administrator: ■ insists on adding one more child to an already over-

enrolled class.

■ makes personnel decisions based on friendship, not performance.

■ backs a parent who complains about a teacher with- out hearing the teacher’s side of the story.

Teachers may fi nd it helpful to discuss their ethical concerns with colleagues. Some centers provide in- service programs for the staff in which these issues are raised. Other schools have a code of ethics for their em- ployees to follow.

Just what are ethics? Essentially, they are the moral guidelines by which we govern our own behavior and that of society. “Ethics—in the form of knowledge and skill in making responsible professional decisions—is one of the most fundamental qualities of a competent early childhood educator” (Smith, in Feeney & Freeman, 1999).

We can strictly defi ne ethics as the system or code of morals of a particular philosopher, religion, group, or profes- sion. Th is defi nition suggests that a personal code of eth- ics can be supported by a professional code of ethics. A code of ethics is a set of statements that helps us deal with the temptations inherent in our occupations. It helps us act in terms of what is right rather than what is expedient (Katz & Ward, 1991).

Why might the early childhood profession need such a code? A primary reason is that the choices teachers make should be based not simply on personal values and preferences but “on values, judgments, and ethical com- mitments shared by the professional society or associa- tion of which they are a member” (Katz & Ward, 1991).

A code of ethics provides collective wisdom and ad- vice from a broad base in the profession. It states the principles by which each individual can measure and govern professional behavior. It says that a group or as- sociation has recognized the moral dimensions of its work. It provides teachers with a known, defi ned core of professional values—those basic commitments that any early childhood educator should consider inviolate. Th is protects teachers and administrators from having to make hard ethical decisions on the spur of the moment, possibly on the basis of personal bias. An established professional code supports the teacher’s choice by saying, “It isn’t that I won’t act this way: No early childhood ed- ucator should act this way” (Kipnis, 1987).

NAEYC adopted a Code of Ethical Conduct and Statement of Commitment in 1989. It has since been revised, most recently in 1997. Th e four sections of the Code are: (1) Ethical responsibilities to children; (2) Ethical responsibilities to families; (3) Ethical re-

164 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

sponsibilities to colleagues; and (4) Ethical responsibili- ties to community and society. Th e Code of Ethical Conduct and Statement of Commitment may be found in Appendix A at the back of this text. Figure 5-5 shows a basic list of core values that has emerged from this work, values “that are deeply rooted in the history of our fi eld” (NAEYC, 1997).

Continuing Education and Professional Development Creative and stimulating classrooms are the product of teachers who continue to learn more about how to teach. After the initial stage of teaching, many teachers begin to seek new challenges and new ways to improve the quality of their teaching. Usually this search leads to some form of continuing education, such as participation in work- shops, courses, or seminars. Standard 5 reinforces the concept of teachers as life-long learners.

Katz (1999) describes four distinct stages of teacher development, ranging from Survival to Maturity. Th e be- ginning teacher often feels inadequate and ill-prepared during the fi rst year of teaching (Survival) but soon begins to focus on individual children and specifi c behavior prob- lems (Consolidation). By the third or fourth year (Re- newal) the teacher is ready to explore new ideas and re- sources and, within another year or two, has come to terms with teaching and searches for insights and perspec- tives (Maturity). At each stage, teachers need diff ering de- grees of on-site support (mentoring), with increased expo- sure to professional conferences and organizations.

If time to pursue continuing education is not built into a teacher’s schedule, there may be other options:

■ In-service training programs may be brought into the school setting. Resource people can be invited to lead the staff in discussions about children’s behav- ior, family relationships, assessment charts, science curricula, and creating multicultural classrooms.

■ Members of the teaching staff can develop a pro- gram of their own, off ering their expertise to fellow faculty at an in-service meeting.

■ A computer specialist, art resource teacher, or mul- ticultural expert can be invited to visit the class- rooms, instructing children and providing staff with some useful ideas and plans.

■ A family therapist can be invited to speak at a staff meeting about strategies for supporting families in crisis.

■ A library for teachers, stocked with professional books, journals (such as Young Children), newspa- pers (such as Education Week), and e-letters such as Exchange Every Day, can provide a teacher with the means to keep up with current trends and practices and to improve teaching skills in the classroom.

■ Parents who are professionals in a variety of fi elds can be utilized whenever possible to enrich the knowledge and skills of the staff .

Look back at the career matrix (Figure 5-3) and see how many opportunities there are for advancement with the

Core Values of NAEYC’s Code of Ethical Conduct

• Appreciating childhood as a unique and valuable stage of the human life cycle.

• Basing our work with children on knowledge of child development.

• Appreciating and supporting the close ties between the child and family.

• Recognizing that children are best understood in the context of family, culture, and society.

• Respecting the dignity, worth, and uniqueness of each individual (child, family member, and colleague).

• Helping children and adults achieve their full potential in the context of relationships that are based on trust, respect, and positive regard.

FIGURE 5-5 These core values form the basis of agreement in the profession about standards of ethical behavior. See Appendix A for a full version.

The Code of Ethical Conduct is shared with all members of the center or school staff.

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right education and experience. As you achieve each level, there are challenges to be met. A course in group dynamics, cultural sensitivity, or adult assessment port- folios will enhance your chances to move into more sat- isfying work and enlarge your contributions to those you work with and to the profession as a whole.

Professional Affi liations Early childhood professionals may choose to join one of the professional organizations related to the early child- hood fi eld. In doing so, they meet the criteria for Stan- dard 5 to identify themselves with the early childhood profession and become continually aware of the research

and best practices within the fi eld. One of the largest, the National Association for the Education of Young Chil- dren (NAEYC), has local and state affi liate groups through which one can become a member. NAEYC of- fers a range of services to its members, including confer- ences and publications such as the journal Young Chil- dren. Th e Association for Childhood Education International (ACEI) has a similar function, whereas the Society for Research in Child Development (SRCD) fo- cuses on child psychology, research, and development.

Th ere are a number of organizations concerned with young children, teachers, and issues related to the early childhood profession. Abundant resources are available from these groups, and their websites are at the end of this chapter and on the textbook website.

Knowledge of Career Options Th e need for quality programs for young children has never been greater, and the demand for early childhood specialists will continue, fostered by national attention to the issues of children and families. If you are considering a career in early childhood education (ECE), the options are many and varied. Several of the Standards point to specifi c early childhood careers. For instance, Standard 1 suggests a teaching and /or consulting job, or Standard 2 may lead toward a calling as a family–child therapist or community organizer. Figure 5-6 lists some of the possi- bilities that exist in this profession.

Cultural Competency Th roughout this text, you will be exposed to cultural awareness and sensitivity in many contexts: in Chapter 1—diversity, immigrant children, class diff erences; in Chapter 3—cultural sensitivity and family cultural infl u- ences; in Chapter 7—culturally appropriate guidance; in Chapter 8—the changing American family; in Chapter 10—culturally appropriate curriculum, inclusive curricu- lum, multicultural curriculum, and culturally responsive teachers; and in Chapter 15—multicultural education, bilingual education, the challenges for immigrants, class diff erences, equal play and gender issues, and sexuality.

Th e culturally competent early childhood profes- sional must be aware of the issues addressed in those chapters. Th e population trends within the United States have changed dramatically over the last few decades and the ability to adapt to a diversifi ed group of families will be the challenge for the teachers of the 21st century.

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Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Teaching as a Profession: An Early Childhood Teacher’s Responsibilities and Development.” After you study the video clip, view the artifacts, and read the teacher interviews and text, refl ect upon the following questions:

1. One of the primary values in the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct is that children are best un- derstood in the context of their family, culture, and society. Where and how does teacher Sa- mantha Brade weave this into the interview?

2. In the case, Samantha defi nes many roles and responsibilities that challenge her as a profes- sional. Comment on her ability to be self- refl ective as she talks about teaching.

TeachSource Video

❙ ❙

DAP One of the values in NAEYC’s Code of Ethical Conduct is the recognition that children are best understood in the context of family, culture, and society.

Look at the situations described on page 163. How do you see the Code of Ethical Conduct supporting resolutions to

those dilemmas? How does the Code of Ethics relate to your own sense of moral and ethical teaching behaviors?

What Do

YOU Think?

166 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Today’s teachers should be able to build strong family and community relationships (Standards 2, 4, 5) across all types of cultural diversity.

Th is requires a pluralistic mindset and an ability to communicate across cultures and individual circum- stances. We will make our own personal and professional journey through these remarkable times to prepare chil- dren to live in a world of diversity.

Advocacy Children of America need advocates to speak for them and their families on issues ranging from health care to education to poverty to professional quality, staff , and wages. It is up to the early childhood professional to give voice to the issues concerning our young children and to educate the public about those issues. Public policy mak-

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ers on the local, state, and national level need to hear from those who can speak out for those who cannot. Part of the role of a professional early childhood educator is to join the voices that support educational and teaching reforms as specifi cally stated in Standard 5. Volunteer with a local organization and make a diff erence in the lives of teachers and caregivers. Local NAEYC affi liates need volunteers to support Th e Week of the Young Child campaign each year and to monitor public policy at the local and state levels. Some early childhood professionals fi nd it useful to sit on the boards of childcare and health organizations.

Becoming a Whole Teacher At some point, teachers emerge with their own point of view about teaching, based on self-knowledge of what calls them to teaching, why they teach the way they do,

FIGURE 5-6 There are many challenges in a variety of careers awaiting the early child- hood professional. (Adapted from “Career Options in Early Childhood Education” by Dianne Widmeyer Eyer. In Beginnings & Beyond: Foundations in Early Childhood Edu- cation (3rd Ed), p. 170. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.)

Career Options in Early Childhood Education

Direct Services to Children and Families Teacher in early childhood program Director of child care facility nursery school, Montessori program Family day-care provider Nanny or au pair Foster parent Social worker/adoption agent Pediatric nurse/school nurse Family therapist/parent educator Pediatrician Parent educator Early intervention specialist Recreation leader Play group leader Home visitor

Community Involvement State/local licensing worker Legislative advocate Child care law specialist ECE environmental consultant Interior designer for children’s spaces Government planning agent on children’s issues Consultant in bilingual education, multiculturalism Nutrition specialist for children Child care referral counselor

Indirect Services to Children and Families Curriculum specialist Instructional specialist—computers Child development researcher ECE specialist Program consultant Consumer advocate Teacher trainer, two- and four-year colleges Consultant Resource and referral programs State and national departments of education and/or human services

Other Options Communications consultant Script writer/editor Freelance writer Children’s book author Children’s photographer Microcomputer specialist/program consultant

DAP Children get emotional support and a sense of belonging when they see that their family culture is valued.

167CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment

and what they know of the children they teach. Th is in- tegration of knowledge and training, experience and life, is referred to by several names. Some say “real” teachers. Others refer to the “total” teacher. A common phrase is the “whole” teacher. Any one of these terms is an apt re- fl ection of the relationship between how teachers view children and how they see themselves. Th ere is a mesh- ing of the emotional, physical, intellectual, and social as- pects of each human being, adult, or child.

Something happens when this blending occurs. Dur- ing the fi rst few years in the classroom, teachers consoli- date their various offi cial functions—merging their teacher training and experience with their personal style and nature. To discover and defi ne the role of a teacher means to develop a personal teaching style. Th is is the sum of one’s response to teaching, and it is unique to each teacher. When it happens, a beginning teacher be- comes aware of “feeling” like a teacher. Th e strengths and convictions one has as a person blend with those one has as a teacher; they become inseparable. What teachers do and what teachers are become woven together. In adding the personal teacher to the professional teacher, the sum becomes greater than two, allowing the whole teacher the freedom to grow in insight and understanding.

The Teacher’s Role: Professionalism in Action

Defi ning the Early Childhood Teacher’s Roles Th e variety of roles early childhood teachers perform has been described in many ways:

Storyteller Traffi c director Confl ict mediator Custodian File clerk Mediator Carpenter Poet Plumber Adult educator Parent Musician Purchasing Resource Faculty member Agent Nurse Program Staff supervisor Business Planner Personnel Manager Treasurer Director Employee Employer Psychologist Sociologist Scientist

Th is diversity is exactly what makes teaching in the early years so appealing. Th e multiple roles a teacher plays add challenge to the job. (Th e role of the teacher in relation-

ship to parents and programs is discussed further in Chapter 8.)

Two prominent early childhood teacher educators state the value of having teachers who have a theoretical and historical grounding. Jones (1994) tells us that teachers, like young children, are constructivists. Th e complexity and unpredictability of teaching, she says, call for on-the-spot decisions, and those decisions are based on developmental and learning theory and con- structed from the teacher’s own experience and practice. Teachers also need to know the theory, history, and tra- ditions of the fi eld and the social and political climate of the day.

Phillips (1994) defi nes teaching as those “daily acts of creation” that are constructed from the teacher’s own repertoire of skills, knowledge, and training added to what he or she observes about children and his or her interactions with their families. Th e teacher as a collabo- rator is a signifi cant part of the teacher’s role defi nition in the schools of Reggio Emilia, Italy (see Chapter 10). Collaboration reinforces the notion underlying many defi nitions that teachers are, fi rst and foremost, lifelong teachers.

In “Insights from the Field” at the end of this chapter, Barbara Biglan tells a story of how students in an early childhood course learn a unique way to identify the many roles of an early childhood professional.

What teachers do with children is not all there is to teaching. Some of the work occurs outside the class- room. It is helpful to look at the teacher’s role in another way. What are the things a teacher does with children? What are the things a teacher does after the children go home? How does the teacher interact with other adults in the early childhood setting?

Professionalism in the Classroom Interacting with Children Teachers fi nd their greatest satisfaction and challenges in their fi rst role—who and what they are with children. Th e teacher–child interactions, the spur-of-the-moment crises, the intense activity, the on-the-spot decisions, the loving and nurturing, go far in making one “feel” like a real teacher. Helping Rhonda get a good grip on the hammer, soothing Josh and Benno after they bump heads, and talking with Alexa about her drawing are at the heart of teaching young children. Th ese encounters are enjoyable and provide moments for interactive teaching opportuni- ties. Th ese times help to establish good relationships with

168 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

the children. It is during these spontaneous, anything- can-happen-and-probably-will times that teachers dis- play their craftsmanship and professionalism.

Th e art of teaching comes alive on the fl oor of the classroom. All teaching skills are utilized. Responses are automatic and ingrained. Teachers intuitively use their knowledge base, their experience, and their proven tech- niques. Almost unconsciously, they reach back in their minds for all those things they know about children. Th roughout the school day they apply that combination of knowledge and know-how.

Managing the Classroom Being a successful manager is a little like being a success- ful juggler. Both require the ability to think about and react to more than three things at once. With a simple gesture, a signifi cant look, or merely moving nearby, the teacher maintains the ongoing activity.

Anticipating a clash between Nathan and Julie, the teacher, Miriam, intervenes, redirects them, and

moves away. At the same time, she has kept a watch- ful eye on Bobby at the bathroom sink. Passing close to Francie, she touches the child’s shoulder in brief acknowledgment, smiling down as Francie struggles with the doll’s dress. Miguel and Lea run up to her, grab her by the skirt and hand, and pull her toward the science display. Th ey need to ask her something about the snake … now! Jake, the handyman, has come into the classroom wanting to know exactly which of the climbers needs repair. Sarah, the parent volunteer, waves to her; it’s time to check on the corn bread baking in the kitchen. Quickly, the teacher fi les a mental note of the names of the children who ac- company Sarah to the kitchen. As she reaches for a copy of Ranger Rick (the one with the great snake pictures in it), she observes Angie and her father en- tering the room. Th ey both look upset. Telling Miguel and Lea she will return, the teacher walks over to greet the latecomers. As she moves past Doug, the student teacher, she comments on how well his language game is going and suggests he con- tinue for another fi ve minutes. Glancing at the clock, she realizes it is almost cleanup time. Her assistant, Chuck, watches her. She looks his way, and a non- verbal signal passes between them. Without a word, they both understand that snacks will be a little late today. Angie’s father begins to explain their delay as the teacher bends down to invite the child to come and look at the new snake cage with her.

In this setting, the teacher has a major role in super- vising a number of people. Aides and volunteers, student teachers, and visitors add to the richness of a program. But it is the teacher who coordinates and supervises their various functions. From the description, it is clear that the teacher’s role as a supervisor and manager includes:

■ caretaker for a safe environment ■ observer of and listener to children ■ on-the-spot teacher trainer for students, aides, and

volunteers ■ on-site supervisor for student teachers ■ liaison and communicator with parents

Setting the Tone Teachers are responsible for what occurs in the class- room, so they must have a fi nger on its pulse at all times and take the pulse while moving around the classroom or yard. From the moment of arrival, the teacher puts into eff ect another vital element by setting the tone, cre- ating an atmosphere in which teachers and children will work and play. Th e skill with which this is done can

Teachers model learning, listening, and loving.

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169CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment

make the critical diff erence between a classroom that is alive and supportive and one that is chaotic or tense.

Th e teacher establishes what will be the emotional framework. Th is is done with body movements, by the tone of voice, facial expressions or lack of them, and non- verbal as well as verbal gestures. Th e way the children respond refl ects this tone. Th is interaction between the atmosphere the teacher creates and the child’s behavior sets the tone.

Young children are very sensitive to adult moods and attitudes. A teacher who exudes calm and confi dence, strength and support, will inspire a more relaxed, comfort- able atmosphere in which children can learn and grow. If the teacher is punitive and harsh, the tone of the class- room will refl ect that. On the other hand, if teachers act on their beliefs that children deserve respect and are intel- ligent, capable human beings, they will create an entirely diff erent climate—and the children will respond in kind.

Normal behavior for the young child includes tan- trums, crying, resistance, curiosity, impatience, emotional swings, noise, and self-centeredness. Th is is the time to achieve a sense of his or her own separate self. Children need a place to work through the developmental stages that their needs and nature indicate. Th e atmosphere that a teacher creates is a key element in that process.

Th e way teachers handle confl ict, react to tears, the words they use, and the voices raised communicate a di- rect message to the child. Th e understanding, the sooth- ing, the warmth, and the acceptance create a climate where children feel safe, secure, and guided. Th is re- quires teachers who respect childhood, the individuality of children, their growing patterns, their emerging feel- ings, and their special capacity to learn. Today we would also stress the need for teachers to become culturally competent: to accept and understand cultural diff er- ences, have a working knowledge of the cultural back- grounds of the children in the class, and appreciate that this may be the children’s fi rst experience outside their own culture. Th e end result is that preschoolers will thrive in an atmosphere infl uenced by teachers who un- derstand this time of tension and growth in their lives.

Planning and Evaluating Curriculum As teachers move through the school day interacting with children, managing the classroom, and sensing the tone, they consciously or unconsciously evaluate what is happening:

■ Th e relay race outdoors produced more tears than cheers; most of the children were interested in par-

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ticipating when the game started but drifted away. Why?

■ Th e Cuisenaire™ rods were never touched today. How can we make this a more inviting activity?

■ Th e toddlers are beginning to participate fully in the “Eensy Weensy Spider” fi nger play. What might they like to learn next?

■ Several children have asked why Sasha “talks funny.” When would be a good time to talk about his lan- guage and teach the class a few words in Russian?

Th e teacher notes where and how children played, the quality of their interactions, and possible “next steps” in curriculum. Th ese notes are then discussed with other staff members at the end of the day or in weekly plan- ning sessions. Eff ective ways to develop curriculum plan- ning are discussed in Chapter 10.

It is important to note that the process has its roots in what the teacher sees happening in the classroom as children play and learn. It is constructivist theory in ac- tion: teachers watching and observing children to give meaning and support to their learning. Early childhood teachers use their observation skills, collect data as they work with children, and build emergent curriculum around their knowledge of actual classroom practice and behavior.

Out-of-Class Responsibilities Good classroom management is often dependent on how teachers spend their time away from the children. Many of the tasks that give added strength and depth to a teacher’s curriculum are those that, out of necessity, must be accomplished after hours. Th e two most obvi- ous jobs that fall into this category are record keeping and meetings.

Record Keeping Early childhood teachers and caregivers keep a variety of records; the type and kind will vary from school to school. Although report writing and record keeping may be considered time-consuming, they are essential to any good early childhood program. Record keeping is based on a number of factors:

■ Th e purpose for which the records will be used. In schools that rely on government funding, record keeping is not optional. Th e children’s progress, the teacher’s performance, and the program itself must

DAP A caring community of learners is based on the relationships among its members. Teachers, children, and families all have a re- sponsibility to support and care for one another.

170 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

be evaluated on a regular basis to ensure continued funding.

■ Th e philosophy of the school. In many settings, but es- pecially in laboratory schools and teacher-training centers, teachers write periodical progress reports on the children to guide them in planning.

■ As part of a teacher-training process. Documentation is critical for accreditation of early childhood pro- grams. CDA (Child Development Associates) can- didates submit a written portfolio of their experi- ences in the classroom as supportive evidence of their competency as teachers of young children.

■ As part of an accreditation process. NAEYC’s accred- itation procedures require extensive documentation of the school’s operation, ranging from governance and management issues to teacher eff ectiveness, space usage, parent involvement, school philosophy, and curriculum.

■ As a commitment to quality and appropriate child de- velopment practices. Recording children’s social and emotional growth provides information from which insights and interpretation can develop. It may be just a brief note taken on the run, a thoughtful an- ecdote written at length after class, or a checklist of the child’s playmates for one day. All of these give teachers a greater understanding of the role they play in children’s development.

■ As a means of family information and education. Re- corded observations, notes, and similar data collected

over a six-month period may show that Abraham is not participating in any strenuous physical activity and studiously avoids activities that involve balancing and climbing. Th is information, when shared with parents, could lead to a medical evaluation and diag- nosis of possible perceptual problems.

■ As a means of developing curriculum. Emergent cur- riculum plans and learning activities sprout from such reports and records. It was not until such data were collected for entry into fi rst grade that the kin- dergarten teacher realized most of the children in the class were not suffi ciently profi cient with scis- sors. A project approach remedied the need and the class learned a necessary skill.

Attending Meetings Meetings are probably the most time-consuming of all out-of-class jobs. Th e teacher may need to communicate with the other people who are involved in the lives of the children, directly or indirectly. Families, other teachers, babysitters, doctors, and social workers are some of the people with whom a teacher may want to confer. Teach- ers also attend professional meetings. Figure 5-7 lists the most common types of meetings.

Organizing and Collecting Materials Some of a teacher’s after-hours activities are intended to fortify and vitalize the classroom. Th erefore, teachers or- ganize and collect materials for use in class. Th ey might

FIGURE 5-7 Teachers attend many different types of meetings, which help them create better programs, learn more about children, and learn how to become better teachers.

Common Types of Meetings

Staff Meetings Held usually once a week for individual teaching teams. Purpose is to plan curriculum, set goals, and discuss children’s progress. Faculty meetings for all school personnel may be held less frequently.

Parent–Teacher Conferences May be offered on a scheduled basis or they may be called by either parents or teachers as needed. Each school defi nes its own policy as to the number and frequency of parent contacts.

Parent Education Meetings Many schools offer evening programs for parents. Teacher attendance may or may not be required.

Professional Meetings Attendance at workshops, seminars, in-service training. Local, state, and national conferences are sponsored by the National Association for the Education of Young Children, Association for Childhood Education International, and Child Care Coordinating Council.

Student–Teacher Conferences In schools used as training sites, teachers arrange time with individual students assigned to their classes.

Home Visits1

May or may not be optional. Some schools schedule them before opening day. Otherwise teachers must arrange them on their own time. 1 Many parents welcome teacher’s visits. Others may fear criticism or judgement about their home environment or family practices.

171CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment

collect space shuttle books from the library, fi nd out if the bagel factory will allow fi eld trips, or cut 18 pumpkin shapes. Th ey might add pictures to the bulletin board, obtain new books and records, or replenish curriculum materials.

Teachers may also need to purchase materials and equipment. Th e kitchen needs new mixing bowls, the supply room is low on red construction paper, and some- one has to pick up fabric for pillow covers. In some set- tings, teachers will serve on committees and assist with ordering supplies and materials. All of these responsibili- ties fall to the family childcare provider.

Making Contacts Teachers may call or e-mail families to check on children who are sick or absent, return calls from parents and col- leagues, or update a parent about a child’s progress. For children with special needs, teachers may need to contact doctors, therapists, and other specialists. Th e popularity of e-mail has made some communications with families much faster and easier.

Working with Families Working with families may include working on multi- cultural events and curriculum or organizing class fairs or school fund-raising events. Th ese duties are a part of

Sharing insights with colleagues helps the early childhood professional become more self-aware.

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the job of teaching young children but many will be shared with other teachers on the team or at the school. Th ough time-consuming, these responsibilities add to the creativity and care that teachers express for the chil- dren and their families. Chapter 8 discusses the teacher– family relationship in depth.

Personal Qualities of Early Childhood Educators Dedication, compassion, insight, a sense of humor, fl exi- bility, patience, energy, and self-confi dence are the hall- marks of a good teacher. Physical and mental well-being are important, as is a demonstrated sense of ethical re- sponsibility and reliability. Teachers should be fair- minded, showing concern for all the people they meet in an early childhood setting. A good teacher knows how to be kind, warm, and loving yet fi rm and consistent.

Th e well-rounded teacher, while maintaining a pro- fessional commitment, has other interests as well. Good teachers have an involvement with the world outside the walls of the early childhood setting. Th ey want to help children understand some of the real-life issues and con- cerns. Th ey know that their interest in the world at large transmits itself to children.

172 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Self-Awareness To be the best teacher possible, understanding and ac- cepting oneself is vital. Self-awareness will make a diff er- ence in the way teachers relate to children. Each teacher must ask: Who and what and why am I? And how does knowing this bring some meaning into my life? How does it aff ect my life as a teacher? What guides my moral and ethical decisions? Good teachers are the ones who are trying every day to become more than they are and who demonstrate to their students that this quest to learn and to grow, to accept failure and go on to new challenges, is what life is all about (LeShan, 1992). Teachers who think like this have learned the importance of refl ective and critical thinking in their own lives.

Implicit in the NAEYC’s standards in Figure 5-2 is that early childhood professionals are life-long learners, pursuing the skills and knowledge they need through av- enues such as coursework, professional development, degree programs, training, and licensing. Good teachers fi nd out what they need to know in order to provide what young children need to develop and learn.

Teachers communicate an authentic appreciation of learning when they have a sense of it in their own lives and ask themselves: Do I see myself as a learner? Where does my learning take place? How? What happens to

me when something is diffi cult or when I make a mis- take? Do I learn from other teachers? Do I learn from children?

Asking—and then answering—these questions helps teachers gain insights into their own behavior as adults and as professionals who work with children. Pausing to look at their own behavior when faced with a diffi cult task or in handling a mistake helps teachers remember what children experience each day.

Opening themselves up to the possibility of learning from students stretches teachers’ capacity to grow into relationships with children based on mutual respect and trust. Th is is especially important when teachers do not share the same cultural background or have no experi- ence with a particular disability.

Opening themselves to learning from other teachers creates a foundation for mutual support, collegiality, pro- fessional mind-stretching, and deepening of friendships.

Self-knowledge—examining values and personal qualities—takes courage and a willingness to risk one- self. Accepting oneself is where to begin in accepting children. When teachers take the time to look at their own style of behavior and how it aff ects others, they place themselves on a par with children as learning, growing people.

Attitudes and Biases A person’s values and attitudes weave their way into every relationship and are an indication of the ethical framework that guides the way they live and teach. Th is can be both positive and negative. Personal beliefs con- cerning race, culture, gender, abilities, and economic status may negatively aff ect our teaching in ways of which we are not aware. Facing prejudices about chil- dren and families based on long-held beliefs may be one of the most diffi cult things for a teacher to do. Most teachers will not have lived through the signifi - cant and powerful experience of adapting to a new cul- ture, learning a new language, surviving on food stamps and aid to support dependent children, or living in a wheelchair; therefore, they may be uncomfortable with people who are labeled “diff erent” because they have faced these issues.

Adults have opinions, born of their own experiences, of what is “good” or “naughty” behavior. Personal histo- ries are fi lled with biases. Children who are messy, who have odors, whose clothes are too big or too small, who eat strange food, who don’t do what girls or boys are sup- posed to do, may bother some teachers. Some of these biases can be resolved, but only if a teacher takes the time to examine personal beliefs and biases.

In addition to working with children, teachers support parents when they keep in touch. A brief, friendly phone call can make a family feel included in their child’s educa- tion process.

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173CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment

Th e anti-bias approach to teaching young children (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010) is as important to- day as it was when it was fi rst presented because of sig- nifi cant changes in the ethnic makeup in the United States. Widespread racial and ethnic prejudice is still prevalent in this country and concern remains on the part of early childhood educators about the harm to children’s self-identity and self-esteem.

The anti-bias movement promotes the concept that all children are worthy of our respect and chal- lenges teachers to examine beliefs, attitudes, and ac- tions that might deny any child that unconditional respect. (See sections in Chapters 9, 11, and 15 for further discussion.)

Th e anti-bias approach aff ords teachers an opportu- nity to confront their own anxieties and biases. As you work with families of various religious and ethnic mi- norities, you learn other cultural norms and practices and are better able to promote greater global under- standing with the children you teach.

As a way to begin, you might ponder these questions:

■ Am I aware of my own identity and its infl uences on my beliefs and behaviors?

■ Do I have a set of ethical beliefs I follow? Is there a system of ethical behaviors related to working with children and families that I could learn?

■ Do I foster a respect for the value of those who are somehow diff erent from me? How?

■ Do I examine my biases and look at ways I can change my own attitudes? When? How?

■ Do I show a preference for children who most closely fi t my own ethnic, cultural, and religious background? When? How?

■ Do I somehow pass along my biases to the children I teach? When? How? With whom?

■ Do I truly enjoy diff erences in human beings? When? With whom?

Kuster (1994) notes some critical issues teachers face when they work with families whose primary language is other than English:

1. Fluency in the child’s language is critical for maxi- mizing the child’s learning experience.

2. Learn to value the family’s child-rearing practices. 3. Preserve and enhance the child’s culture by learning

and valuing your own. 4. Confront your own personal attitudes and biases.

Th ese suggestions reinforce the need for teachers to be- come more sensitive to their own attitudes about cul- tures other than their own.

Teacher Burnout Teacher burnout is an occupational hazard of substantial proportion. Burnout often results when a teacher is faced with a demanding workload, uncertain or inadequate re- wards, and other pressures that damage work eff ective- ness. At its most extreme, teacher burnout can drive a good professional out of the fi eld altogether, a common situation in early childhood settings and one that creates one of the highest occupational turnover rates in the nation.

When teachers feel that their eff orts are not appreci- ated or they are not making the kind of impact with children and families, the results are low morale, stress, and disillusionment in a profession in which staff quality is the most important single factor in program quality. Some consider that the No Child Left Behind plan (see Chapter 15) is causing increased stress with its emphasis on what they see as inappropriate state-induced stan- dards that do not focus on the development of the whole child. Th is creates a confl ict in values and in their ability to meet the requirements of their job.

A major issue for the early childhood professional is fi nancial. Child care teachers make an average of $9/ hour, and preschool teachers a little over $12, whereas kindergarten teachers make over $20/hour (Carter, 2008). Low wages lead to high levels of staff turnover, which then aff ects the quality of the program. Th ese is- sues are further explored in Chapter 15 and play a sig- nifi cant part in teacher burnout.

In a climate in which teachers can meet children’s needs and program goals can be eff ectively addressed, feelings of job satisfaction and productivity will prevail.

Teachers’ values and attitudes are refl ected in the way they work with children.

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174 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Bloom (2005) cites 10 characteristics that produce a healthy and positive school climate that, in turn, pro- mote high morale among the teaching staff :

■ friendly, supportive, and trusting staff relationships ■ emphasis on personal and professional growth ■ leadership with clear expectations that encourages

and supports staff ■ clearly defi ned roles and policies ■ fairness and equity regarding promotions, raises,

and other rewards ■ staff involvement in decision making ■ agreement among staff on philosophy, goals, and

objectives ■ emphasis on effi ciency and good planning ■ a physical environment that promotes responsible

teaching and learning ■ the ability to adapt to change and solve problems.

Teachers and staff must take the responsibility to work together to create the kind of climate that enhances suc- cess and satisfaction in the workplace. (Related discus- sions are in Chapters 10 and 15.)

A Collaborative Effort: Team Teaching Th e heart of teaching is what happens when you begin to work in a classroom every day with adults, as well as children. Numerous adults are included in the total teaching picture. Some of these people may be:

■ other teachers, aides, and student teachers ■ volunteers ■ program directors and administrators ■ school support personnel: clerical and janitorial

staff s, food-service workers, bus drivers ■ families ■ consultants and specialists.

Th at list defi nes the broader meaning of team teaching. Th e majority of classroom interactions, however, will be with other teachers, and these relationships are among the most important a teacher can have. Th e beginning teacher may join a team of teachers or may teach in a small class alone. Th is will depend on:

■ the age level of the children ■ licensing or accrediting requirements ■ the size of the classroom ■ the school’s philosophy and practices

Team teaching is defi ned as two or more adults working together in one classroom with one group of children (Browne & Gordon, 2009). Th e team approach is common in many nursery schools and childcare cen- ters where larger groups of children attend. Kindergar- ten and fi rst- and second-grade teachers generally teach alone in self-contained classrooms, sometimes with an aide. In extended-day and after-school programs, high school and college students may make up the rest of the team.

Team Composition Most teams are composed of people with varying skills, experience, and training. A typical group will have a lead or head teacher—someone who is trained in child devel- opment or early childhood education. Assistants with less experience and training add support. Student teach- ers, interns, and volunteers may round out the group. A resource teacher—someone who specializes in art, mu- sic, or physical development, for instance—may also be available on a part-time basis.

Many state regulations mandate a minimum num- ber of adults in the early childhood setting, and this minimum varies with the ages of the children. In in- fant programs, for instance, there is a higher ratio of adults per child (NAEYC suggests an optimal a ratio of 1:4), so it is more likely there will be several teach- ers in one classroom. Together the teachers will shape, direct, and participate in that program as a team of teachers.

Th e prescribed ratio of adult to children changes as the children mature and become able to function in more independent ways. (See Chapter 2 for more examples.)

Role Defi nition and Satisfaction To teach successfully, each person on the team must have a satisfying role to play and to be appreciated for the special something he or she brings to the team. All teach- ers want to know how their special talents and experi- ences contribute to the success of this program.

A written job description helps teachers understand the scope of their own position, as well as those of other staff members. Clearly defi ned roles also serve as a guard against legal and ethical problems, especially if children are injured at school. A clear understanding of the roles and responsibilities a teacher has is essential for the teacher’s own sense of well-being and for the smooth functioning of the program.

175CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment

Flexibility It is important to adapt to the varying needs of children and equally important to respond to the needs of other staff members. Flexibility involves a willingness to off er and accept negotiation and compromise to preserve the eff ectiveness of the whole staff ’s eff ort. A professional teacher demonstrates a willingness to change with the changing needs of coworkers, to be open to new ideas proposed by others, and to help children become com- fortable with fl exibility and change.

Open and Frequent Communication Th e ability to communicate thoughts, concerns, and feel- ings to others honestly and openly is perhaps the most important factor in promoting good personal relation- ships. Communication takes many forms: verbal and nonverbal, written and spoken, and body language.

Th e three basic reasons for developing successful com- munication links with others on the teaching staff are:

1. To share information—about children and their families (“Sheila’s grandmother died yesterday”), about changes in the schedule (“Th e dentist is un- able to visit today; who wants to conduct group time?”), and about child development strategies (“Remember, we are all going to observe Leah’s gross motor skills this week”).

2. To contribute new ideas—teachers encourage one an- other to keep teaching fresh and alive when they

share a recent article of interest, reports from a con- ference they attended, or a successful art activity.

3. To solve problems—accepting diff erences in opinions, approaches, personality, and style among people is part of the challenge of working closely with others. Open communication is an ongoing process in which people have honest and frequent discussions of their diff erences, respecting each other’s feelings and integrity and working together for mutually agreeable solutions. Section P-3A.1 of the Code of Ethical Conduct states that when we have concerns about the professional behavior of a co-worker, we let that person know of our concerns and attempt to resolve the problem in a collegial manner.

Who Am I? As noted earlier, self-awareness is a prerequisite to becom- ing a professional teacher. Th e kind of self-knowledge that contributes to success as a member of a faculty or teaching team knows how your strengths and weakness comple- ment or confl ict with other team members and in which teaching situations you feel comfortable or uneasy. How you perceive yourself as a leader and your ability to follow others can aff ect team relationships. Be aware of what you have done lately that caused you to learn more about your- self, especially as a member of a teaching team.

Mutual Respect and Acceptance Appreciating and accepting the individuality of other team members are as important to the success of the program as are appreciating and accepting the individu- ality of each child. Th e climate of trust and the non- threatening atmosphere gained through mutual respect allow each staff member to contribute openly and inno- vatively to the program. It helps to know what you have in common with your co-workers, whether or not their teaching philosophies diff er from you and from one an- other, and what values they hold dear. You will want to be clear about what you want them to respect and accept about you as well. Section P-3B.1 of the Code of Ethical Conduct makes it clear that when we do not agree with program policies, we fi rst work within the organizational structure to aff ect change.

Collegiality A sense of being a team does not happen by accident, but by conscious eff ort. Every member of the staff must be committed to working together on a daily basis, as well

Professional attitudes and behaviors enhance team teaching.

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176 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

as to the long-term goals of the program. Jorde-Bloom (2005) defi nes collegiality as the extent to which a team is friendly, supportive, and trusting of one another.

Showing empathy for the feelings and needs of co- workers suggests that you refl ect on how you might show support or off er help to another staff member in order to promote and sustain high morale among your fellow teachers.

Sharing the Spotlight Tension among staff members can arise from a sense of competition. Good team members learn how to share their strengths in ways that support the team without creating a competitive atmosphere. Th ere must be a feel- ing of shared success when things work well, just as there is a shared responsibility when problems arise. One of the challenges of working on a team is to deal with feel- ings that may come from judging another teacher’s abili- ties and/or successes. It helps to know how you feel and react when a parent praises another teacher in front of you or a child prefers another teacher to you. Section P-3A.2 of the Code of Ethical Conduct reminds us to base our views regarding the personal attributes or pro- fessional conduct of others on fi rsthand knowledge and its relevancy to the children and the program.

Evaluation Evaluations are part of the privilege of claiming member- ship in the teaching profession. No teacher can become truly successful unless provisions are made for ongoing evaluations that provide a clear picture that confi rms strengths and pinpoints areas for growth. Th e evaluation process is discussed in depth later in this chapter.

Advantages of Team Teaching Th ere are many reasons why teaching in teams is such an integral part of so many early childhood programs. Th e advantages are numerous:

■ Variety of adult role models. Teachers who are male, female, disabled, young, middle-aged, older, and varying in ethnic backgrounds bring equally diverse attitudes, approaches to children, interests, skills, and knowledge to share. Th is teaches children to ac- cept diff erences in people as they watch adults inter- act with others on the teaching team.

■ Support for children. Th e absence of one teacher is not as disruptive when the children can count on other familiar faces. Th is enables children to learn to trust the teaching environment because someone they know is always there.

■ Collegiality. Teachers can fi nd support from one an- other as they share planning problems and achieve- ments and grow in admiration and respect for one another.

■ Lightened workload. Th ere is a sharing of all the teaching tasks, from curriculum planning and cleanup to parent conferencing and record keeping.

■ Enriched program. Talents and resources of the team are used to best advantage so that team members will teach to their strengths, adding richness to the program.

Challenges Good teachers are “complicated human beings with strengths and weaknesses, talents and limitations, good days and bad days” (LeShan, 1992). Th ey work at becom- ing good teachers by developing skills in interpersonal re- lationships with other adults, just as they promote good social relationships among the young children they teach. Most of the disadvantages of team teaching stem from communication problems among team members.

Communication problems and confl icts arise in ev- ery teaching situation. Th e Code of Ethical Conduct provides a road map for navigating some of the issues that create confl icts. Th e Code outlines clear expecta- tions for professional and collegial behavior among staff members and employers. Review them in Appendix A.

Th e previous section, “Th e Beginnings of Profession- alism,” is particularly useful for team situations. Teachers new to the team-teaching process will want to discuss it with other team members ranging from health care to education to poverty to professional quality, staff , and wages. It is up to the early childhood professional to give voice to the issues concerning our young children and to educate the public about those issues. Public policy mak- ers on the local, state, and national level need to hear from those who can speak out for those who cannot. Part of the role of a professional early childhood educator is to join the voices that support educational and teaching reforms. Volunteer with a local organization and make a diff erence in the lives of teachers and caregivers.

Evaluating Teachers: A Key to Quality Teachers are the single most important factor in deter- mining program quality. What makes “the eff ective teacher” has no one simple answer. Earlier sections in this chapter describe important attributes of the teacher.

177CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment

How these can be assessed is complicated, but assessing them is necessary to guide teachers toward more eff ective teaching in their work with children, co-workers, par- ents, and administrators.

Th ink of teachers as conductors of a symphony or- chestra. Th ey do not compose the music. Th ey do not design or build the instruments, nor do they decide which ones will be played in the orchestra pit. Th ey may even have limited choice of the music that will be played. Yet it is their job to lead a group of musicians through a medley of songs, bringing out the best in each musician, all under the intense scrutiny of a critical audience. Teachers must do this with care and expertise under the watchful eyes of parents and families, boards, supervi- sors, and funding agencies. Th rough the process of eval- uation, the teacher as conductor sets and achieves the goals to create a harmonious eff ect. Reread the introduc- tion to evaluation in Chapter 2, on pages 63–65, for other insights.

Why Evaluate? Most early childhood programs require an annual as- sessment of the teaching staff . An evaluation is not only a professional expectation, but it also refl ects the NAEYC’s Standards for a well-prepared early childhood professional. Evaluations support a teacher’s life-long learning and ability to become refl ective about their teaching experiences.

Th ere are six reasons that an evaluation process is important:

1. to describe job responsibilities 2. to monitor job eff ectiveness 3. to clarify strengths and challenges 4. to create a plan for professional development 5. to determine employment 6. to meet accreditation requirements

To Describe Job Responsibilities It is essential for teachers to understand their job to do it well. A good job description outlines what is expected. One purpose of an evaluation is to see how those expec- tations are being met.

In an infant and toddler center, for example, teachers try to help children learn to separate comfortably from their parents. Evaluation in this setting could focus on the exact skills needed to implement this goal, such as how a teacher helps a parent separate from a young child, what environmental cues are used, how the child is com- forted, and what teaching strategies were or were not successful.

Evaluation for specifying job responsibilities is a part of one’s professional self-defi nition, as well as a clarifi ca- tion of actual duties. Studying ourselves helps us know who we are and what we do. Assessing job responsibili- ties aids in this process.

To Monitor Job Effectiveness Once clear guidelines are set for teaching expectations, a method is needed to monitor actual teaching. Most eval- uation systems attempt to check teacher eff ectiveness. Th is process may vary from school to school. In some schools, teaching eff ectiveness is measured, in part, by child achievement, such as how children score on tests. Other centers may solicit parent opinion.

A teacher’s co-workers may be part of an assessment team. For the most part, an evaluation for job eff ective- ness will include an observation of teaching time with children.

To Clarify Strengths and Challenges Many teachers prefer an evaluation process that iden- tifi es specifi c areas of strength and challenges. Feed- back about actual teaching and other job responsibili- ties is helpful to all teachers, whether beginners or experienced personnel. An assessment that off ers teachers information about how to perform their job better contributes to job competence and satisfaction. By recognizing strengths, teachers receive positive feedback for high-quality work. By identifying areas of concern, they can begin to set realistic goals for improvement.

Evaluations are a professional responsibility that help to clarify job performance, professional growth, and challenges.

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178 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

To Create a Plan for Professional Development One function of teacher evaluation is to foster profes- sional development. Teachers do not become “good” and then stay that way for life. Regardless of their stage of development, teachers need goals in order to continually improve.

To be eff ective, goal setting must be embedded in an on-going system of professional development. Caruso and Fawcett (1999) note that staff development must also be integrated with the overall goals of the center or program for which a teacher is being evaluated.

Professional development takes into consideration the various stages of expertise and development of the individuals on the staff . A career-ladder plan, adopted by NAEYC in 1993, takes into account the diversity of ed- ucation, training, and experience of early childhood pro- fessionals. Th e ladder sets out steps individuals can take to assume more responsibility as they become more qualifi ed and prepared. Th is lattice framework promotes a system of professional development that can motivate early childhood professionals at all levels toward profes- sional growth (Willer, 1994).

To Determine Employment An evaluation can also be used to decide whether teach- ers should be retained, promoted, or released. Assess- ment procedures are an administrator’s most valuable tools in making that decision. A clear and eff ective evalu- ation tool enables the administrator to monitor perfor- mance and target specifi c areas for improvement. Th e administrator then has a fair and equitable way to deter- mine the promotional status of each employee.

To Meet Accreditation Requirements Many programs seek accreditation by organizations whose standards they embrace. NAEYC is the leading accrediting body for early childhood programs through its National Academy of Early Childhood Programs. Th e self-study aspect of the accreditation process in- cludes a teacher’s self-assessment, the director’s assess- ment of the teaching staff , and the teacher’s assessment of the director. Th e criteria in the self-study provide the standards by which these evaluations are made, provid- ing concrete ways to measure quality.

Components of an Effective Evaluation An eff ective evaluation process helps to challenge meth- ods and assumptions and to identify ways to provide support for growth and change. Certain elements are

common to all evaluations. Th e following criteria serve as a guideline to an eff ective evaluation process:

■ Select who and what will be evaluated. Decide how often and under what circumstances the evaluation will take place.

■ Have a clear purpose or motive. Know the reasons for making an evaluation and consider who and what will benefi t from the process. State what you expect to gain from it.

■ Decide how the data will be collected. Have a good understanding of the process or format that will be used. Be clear about who will collect the data and make the report. Some sample evaluations are found in this chapter.

■ Know what use will be made of the evaluation. Be aware of what decisions will be made from the re- sults. Know who receives this information and how they will interpret it.

■ State goals clearly. Evaluators should make sure goals and objectives are outlined in ways that can be mea- sured and observed easily and state behavioral goals in terms of what the person will do. Th e person be- ing evaluated should be equally clear in his or her responses to the evaluation instrument(s).

■ Make a plan. Be prepared to act. Use the results to motivate people to put into action what they have learned from the evaluation. Set new goals based on the evaluation. Set up a timetable to check progress on a regular basis.

Th e important point to remember is that evaluation should be a continuous process, for without follow- through, long-lasting improvement is unlikely to occur. Take a look at Figure 5-8 to see how a feedback loop works for an evaluation process.

Issues in Teacher Evaluations How to evaluate is an important issue in teacher assess- ment. A system for evaluating employees can be one of trust and mutual respect or of anxiety and tension. Th e method often determines how successful the entire eval- uation will be.

Preliminary Steps To begin with, a school follows the same guidelines for developing a teacher evaluation as for child assessment (see Chapter 6). Th at is, the process includes determin- ing a purpose, establishing who will collect the data and how, and clarifying how the evaluation will be used. In the assessment of teachers, the important components are: purpose (as described in Chapter 2), evaluators, process, and follow-through.

179CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment

Evaluators Several models have been developed around the issue of who will assess teacher performance.

Self-Evaluation. Self-assessment is used in the Child Development Associate’s evaluation system for these reasons (Ward & CDA staff , 1976): ■ Th e candidate is a valid source of information for

use in assessment. Certain information is available only from the candidate’s perspective.

■ Th e candidate is able to clarify information on his or her performance, thereby adding to the assess- ment team’s evidence for a valid decision.

■ Th e candidate is better able to identify strengths and weaknesses and to receive recommendations for continued professional growth.

Figure 5-9 is an example of a staff evaluation form, which can also be used as a self-assessment tool. A less formal technique is to ask questions about yourself and your job, such as:

■ How do I approach parent/family relationships? ■ Have my guidance techniques been working well? ■ Am I in a comfortable working relationship with

my colleagues? ■ What should be my next professional goals? ■ How do I help children learn?

DAPDAP

■ Do I have a supportive relationship with my supervisor?

Th e answers to these few questions can provide a solid base for discussion between teacher and supervisor or assessment team.

One drawback of self-assessment is its subjectivity. We see ourselves too closely and too personally to be able to be entirely objective about our teaching. Th ere- fore, self-assessment must be accompanied by other evaluating feedback.

Supervisory Evaluation. Job performance is an ad- ministrator’s responsibility; therefore, teachers can ex- pect their supervisor, director, or head teacher to be involved in their evaluation. Supervisors often use a single form combining a teacher’s self-assessment and the supervisor’s evaluation, such as Figure 5-9. Th is kind of form simplifi es the paperwork and assures both teacher and supervisor that both are using the same criteria for evaluation. Caruso and Fawcett (1999) sug- gest a variety of formats used for evaluations; observa- tions, conferences, videotapes, reports, portfolios, and storytelling are some of the ways to accomplish an assessment.

When selecting an appropriate format or tool, look for a balance in the categories on which a teacher is being evaluated. Th ese usually include some of the following:

■ knowledge and application of child development principles

■ planning ■ behavior management ■ interactions with children

Performance Evaluation

is observed is offered

Teacher Behavior

Growth Goals

are set to improve

FIGURE 5-8 A feedback loop is a continuous cycle in which teacher behavior is observed for a performance evaluation. The evaluation is offered through growth goals, which are set in order to affect teacher behavior. Thus, the circle is continuous, with each part helping the next.

DAP A teacher’s life-long learning includes self-awareness and the ability to learn from others.

A teacher’s self-evaluation provides an opportunity to im- prove his or her effectiveness with children.

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Staff Evaluation

C (90–100%)

Employee ___________________

Evaluation Period _____________

Key How often observed:

C – Consistently F – Frequently

O – Occasionally N – Never

F (60– 89%)

O (30–59%)

N (0–29%)

General Work Habits 1. Arrives on time 2. Reliable in attendance; gives ample notice for absences 3. Responsible in job duties 4. Alert in health and safety matters 5. Follows the center’s philosophy 6. Open to new ideas 7. Flexible with assignments and schedule 8. Comes to work with a positive attitude 9. Looks for ways to improve the program 10. Remains calm in a tense situation 11. Completes required written communication on time

Professional Development, Attitude, and Efforts 1. Takes job seriously and seeks to improve skills 2. Participates in workshops, classes, groups 3. Reads and discusses distributed handouts 4. Is self-reflective with goals for ongoing development

Attitude and Skills with Children 1. Friendly, warm, and affectionate 2. Bends low for child level interactions 3. Uses a modulated, appropriate voice 4. Knows and shows respect for individuals 5. Is aware of development levels/changes 6. Encourages independence/self-help 7. Promotes self-esteem in communication 8. Limits interventions in problem solving 9. Avoids stereotyping and labeling 10. Reinforces positive behavior

11. Minimal use of time out 12. Regularly records observations of children

Attitude and Skills with Parents 1. Available to parents and approachable 2. Listens and responds well to parents 3. Is tactful with negative information 4. Maintains confidentiality 5. Seeks a partnership with parents 6. Regularly communicates with parents 7. Conducts parent conferences on schedule

Attitude and Skills with Class 1. Creates an inviting learning environment 2. Provides developmentally appropriate activities 3. Develops plans from observation and portfolio entries 4. Provides materials for all curriculum components 5. Provides an appropriate role model 6. Anticipates problems and redirects 7. Is flexible and responsive to child’s interests 8. Is prepared for day’s activities 9. Handles transitions well

Attitude and Skills with Co-Workers 1. Is friendly and respectful with others 2. Strives to assume a fair share of work 3. Offers and shares ideas and materials 4. Communicates directly and avoids gossip 5. Approaches criticism with learning attitude 6. Looks for ways to be helpful

Comments:

FIGURE 5-9 The quality and effectiveness of teaching is affected by the quality and effectiveness of the evaluation process. This form is useful for a self-evaluation and supervisory evaluation. (From The Visionary Director: A Hand- book for Dreaming, Organizing, and Improving Your Center, by Margie Carter and Deb Curtis, pp. 266–277. Copy- right © 1998 by Margie Carter and Deb Curtis. Reprinted with permission from Redleaf Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, www.redleafpress.org.

181CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment

■ interactions with adults (other teachers, administra- tors, and parents)

■ interpersonal communication ■ professionalism ■ dependency ■ cultural sensitivity ■ respect for individual diff erences in adults and

children ■ preparing and maintaining appropriate learning

environments ■ health and safety ■ personal qualities

Peer Evaluation. Evaluation by others associated with the teachers is a welcome addition to the evaluation pro-

cess. Often a system includes more than a teacher’s su- pervisor. Possible combinations are:

■ Teacher (self-evaluation) and supervisor ■ Teacher, supervisor, and parent ■ Teacher, supervisor, and another team member

(teacher, aide, student teacher)

A team evaluation is a more collaborative approach. More information is collected on the teacher’s perfor- mance. A team approach may be more valid and balanced because a decision about teaching will be made by consensus and discussion rather than indi- vidual, perhaps arbitrary, methods. Figure 5-10 is an example of a peer observation form that might be used.

Peer Observation

Name of colleague observed ____________________ Date ____________

Signed ________________

As you observe, please note comments about the following aspects of the classroom environment: interactions between teacher and children; interactions between the teacher and other co-workers or volunteers; interactions between the teacher and parents; the physical arrangement of space; the curriculum; and health, nutrition, and safety aspects of the classroom.

Aspects of this classroom I was impressed with include... 1. 2.

3.

Aspects of this classroom that might be improved include... 1. 2.

3.

FIGURE 5-10 An evaluation will have a wider perspective when it comes from more than one viewpoint. (Adapted from Blueprint for Action: Achieving Center-Based Change through Staff Development, by P. J. Bloom, © 2005 New Horizons.)

182 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Peer or team evaluation does have its disadvantages, however. It is a time-consuming process because more than one person is asked to evaluate a teacher. Feedback may be contradictory; what one evaluator sees as a strength, another may view as a shortcoming. Th e sys- tem can be complicated to implement (i.e., fi nding time for teachers to evaluate another team member, fi nding funds to bring in substitutes, and confi dentiality issues when a parent is part of the evaluation team). Clearly, a school must weigh these issues carefully as evaluation systems are devised.

A Systematic Process Many evaluations are based on observable, specifi c infor- mation about a teacher’s activities and responsibilities. Th is is known as a performance-based assessment. Figure 5-11 is an example of performance-based assess- ment in regard to a teacher’s work with children. When paired with specifi c goals and expectations, this system is known as competency-based assessment.

Competency-based assessments outline exactly what teachers must do to demonstrate their competency, or skill, in their job responsibilities. Criteria are set as a teacher be- gins working. Areas are targeted that pinpoint what knowl- edge, skills, and behaviors the teacher must acquire.

Th e evaluation tools or format determine how valid the information gathered will be. Informal techniques may result in unreliable conclusions. A process that is formalized and systematic, related to goal setting and

professional development, has a greater chance of suc- cess. While it is important to select an appropriate method and assessment tool, keep in mind that it is the process through which the evaluation is conducted that matters most.

Portfolio-based assessments are becoming a pop- ular tool for helping teachers make sense of the experi- ences that help them become better teachers. A portfo- lio is not an assessment tool in and of itself. It is the display or collection system used to demonstrate evi- dence of professional growth. Folders, boxes, fi les, and binders are all used to house the collection of data. It is an intentional compilation of materials and resources collected over a period of time that provides evidence for others to review. Campbell, Cignetti, Melenyzer, Nettles, and Wyman (1997) defi ne a portfolio as “an organized, goal-driven documentation of your profes- sional growth and achieved competence in the complex act called teaching.”

Documentation is systematic and an important part of creating the portfolio. Concrete evidence of how a teacher understands and implements the best teaching practices, translates theory into action, and demonstrates knowledge of the nature of teaching is the ultimate goal.

A portfolio is ever changing and refl ects the individu- ality of the teacher by virtue of what it contains. As an assessment tool, the portfolio is useful in many ways. It helps teachers clarify their values, keeps them focused on the goals they have set, provides an avenue for self-

FIGURE 5-11 Performance-based assessment ties the goals of the program to the teacher’s work. This example asks the teacher to do a self-assessment; a director, par- ent, or peer could observe and make a second assessment.

Performance-Based Assessment

Teacher Goal Example To help each child develop a positive self-concept I greet each child with a smile and a personal comment.

To help each child develop socially, emotionally, I have goals for each child in each developmental area, cognitively, and physically fall and spring.

To help provide many opportunities for each child My parent conference sheets have examples; for to be successful instance, Charlie didn’t want to come to group time, so

I had him pick the story and help me read it—he comes every day now!

To encourage creativity, questioning, and problem This is my weak point. I tend to talk too much and tell solving them what to do.

To foster enjoyment for learning in each child I do great group times and give everyone turns.

To facilitate children’s development of a healthy I participated in our center’s self-study and am taking identity and inclusive social skills an anti-bias curriculum class.

183CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment

refl ection, and demonstrates growth. By what is included and what is omitted, a portfolio shows an evaluator tan- gible evidence of a teacher’s abilities, provides a frame- work for setting new goals, and gives a more personal sense of the teacher’s commitment and professionalism. Figure 5-12 lists some of the items often included in a teacher’s portfolio.

Cultural Awareness and Sensitivity Cultural awareness has an eff ect on how a teacher relates to children, and this needs to be taken into consideration when assessing a teacher’s performance. Insight about a teacher’s social and cultural background is particularly useful if the evaluator is a member of the majority popu- lation and the teacher is not.

Th ere are fi ve specifi c cultural factors that can aff ect communication, particularly where supervisors and staff members are concerned (Caruso and Fawcett, 1999). Th ey are:

1. Time sense. Being on time and doing tasks in a timely fashion are high priorities for many people raised in mainstream American culture. Each cul- ture has its own concept of time, and the teacher who is always late for meetings may be refl ecting the cultural context in which he or she was raised.

2. Space. How close you get to someone while talking is also a function of cultural context. In some cul- tures, invading another’s personal space (the “com-

fort zone”) is considered rude. If a teacher backs away, she may be considered cold and unfriendly. If the teacher is the one getting too close, he may be seen as forward and aggressive. Th ese perceptions may be innocent reactions based on their cultural sensibilities and should be viewed in that light.

3. Verbal and nonverbal communication. Eye contact is seen in some cultures to be disrespectful if pro- longed; to others it may be a sign of interest and at- tentiveness. Other facial expressions, such as smiling (or not), gestures, and body language, communicate diff erent things from culture to culture. Silence, too, is used in diff erent cultures in a variety of ways with an assortment of meanings. Speaking loudly may be a cultural norm or it may communicate anger and accusations. Teachers and their supervisors need to learn each other’s communication styles and be par- ticularly aware of those that are culture-bound.

4. Values. Our values drive our behavior and re- sponses. If a teacher comes from a background that emphasizes dependency in the early years and the school philosophy is one that encourages early inde- pendence, a cultural confl ict can erupt and aff ect a teacher’s evaluation adversely. Supervisors and teachers must understand each other’s value system and what causes each of them to make certain decisions.

5. Concepts of authority. Th e way people deal with au- thority is also culture-specifi c. Early childhood pro- fessionals who supervise and evaluate staff members from cultures diff erent than their own need to be aware of what cultural expectations surround the is- sue of authority. In some instances, authority fi gures are often male, and females are raised not to question authority. A correct answer may be more culturally appropriate than expressing one’s true feelings or ideas. Th e supervisor can avoid misun- derstandings if he or she is aware that the teacher is used to an authoritarian style of leadership from supervisors and thus gear the conversation accordingly.

Th e evaluator has a rare opportunity to create bridges of understanding between and among many cultures. By seeing the connection “ between their own cultural knowledge and their behavior as professionals in an early childhood setting,” children can become “cultural brokers,” notes Jones (1993). Within their school com- munity, they can create a two-way interchange about culturally relevant issues with children, parents, and other teachers.

What’s in a Portfolio?

Materials developed by the teacher, such as, but not limited to:

A videotape of the teacher in the classroom

Lesson plans and evaluation of a specifi c activity

Samples of materials and resources developed for the classroom

Articles written for parents or newsletters

Journal of teaching experiences

Photos of fi eld trips or projects

Self-refl ective notes on teaching

Professional articles

Other ________________________________

FIGURE 5-12 A portfolio is a personalized assessment tool and contains a variety of materials and resources that refl ect a teacher’s professional growth. Some cen- ters have their own criteria for a portfolio.

184 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Follow-Through What follows an evaluation is critical to the overall suc- cess of an evaluation system. For instance, after gathering information for an evaluation session, a supervisor and teacher might discuss and evaluate concrete examples and live performance. Together they can establish goals for changing what may be ineff ective or problematic.

Follow-through is the fi nal part of the continuous feedback loop in a good evaluation system. Data are col- lected on teacher behavior and given to the teacher in person. Goals are set to improve teaching. A follow-up check is done periodically to see how—and if—goals are being met. Teaching improves as recommendations are put into practice.

Follow-through makes the feedback loop complete as information about improvement is communicated. Refer back to Figure 5-6, which illustrates this cycle.

Techniques for Productive Evaluation Sessions Evaluations take hard work, time, and dedication to a higher quality of teaching. It is also a shared responsibil- ity. Th e supervisor must be explicit about a teacher’s performance and be able to identify for the teacher what is eff ective and what is problematic.

Teachers themselves must value the process and un- derstand its implications for their professional growth. Th e benefi ts of productive evaluation sessions are clear. Th ey range from improved self-esteem, higher levels of job eff ectiveness, and less absenteeism and turnover to assessment-related salary raises and other job benefi ts. Certain techniques help make evaluation sessions pro- ductive for teachers:

1. Become involved from the beginning as the evalua- tion procedure is established. Know what is ex- pected and how you will be evaluated.

2. Set a specifi c meeting time for your evaluation. Ask your supervisor for a time that works for you both.

3. Set some goals for yourself before meeting with your supervisor. If you know what you want to work on, you are more likely to get help achieving your goals.

4. Develop a plan for action. Be prepared to set a time- line for when and how you will work on your goals.

5. Establish a feedback loop (see Figure 5-6). Make a follow-up date, and make copies of your goal sheet for both you and your supervisor.

6. Approach the meeting with a sense of trust, respect, and openness. Planning ahead promotes these attitudes.

Better teaching and continued professional growth are the results of a good evaluation process. No two teachers are identical, so each evaluation must be interpreted in terms of the behavior and stage of development of the individual person. As teachers become more eff ective in their work with children, the quality of the entire pro- gram is improved.

The Beginning Teacher Beginning teachers of young children cannot expect to successfully blend all of the many facets of teaching at once. However, beginning teachers must be committed to the time and energy needed to become profi cient at their craft.

Beginning teaching can be a great deal of fun, as well as a unique learning experience. Textbook theories come alive as children live out child development concepts. New teachers expect to learn about individual child growth and development; many are surprised to discover that they also learn how children function in groups and with adults. Working with an experienced teacher who models highly polished skills is an important part of the new teacher’s experience.

Yet we know that fi rst-time teaching is not always fun. It is a time for intensive self-searching and self- revelations. Many teachers’ own school experiences loom before them and undermine their confi dence. Th ere may still be doubts about becoming a teacher at all. It is uncomfortable to feel judged and criticized by others. Th is is a time of anxiety for most beginning teachers. But remember, even the poised, confi dent, and always-does-the-right-thing master teacher was once a beginner.

The Student Teacher Many teacher-training programs require a formal period of supervised work with young children either in the college’s child development center or in early childhood programs throughout the community. For students in such a program, practice teaching may be the fi rst hands- on opportunity to work with children.

Beginnings for student teachers are just as important as they are for young children. A child’s fi rst days of school are planned very carefully; likewise, there are some strategies for easing the transition from student to student teacher. Th e following guidelines will help to

185CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment

make the fi rst days of student teaching a satisfying and positive experience:

■ Contact the teacher and meet before school begins. Find out what time school begins, where the class- room is located, what the age group is, the size and makeup of the class, the daily schedule, and what hours you are expected to be on site. Ask if there are children with special needs and if there are cultural considerations of which you should be aware. Find out what is expected of you the fi rst few days. Be sure to meet the other administrative staff of the school.

■ Visit the classroom to which you are assigned to be- come acquainted with its layout. Tour the yard as well. Find out where the janitor’s room, kitchen, nurse’s offi ce, and storeroom are located.

■ Share with the master teacher any special skills or talents you may have; let the teacher help you use

these skills in new ways with young children. Let the teacher know about any other experiences with children: baby-sitting or camp counseling. Be sure to let the teacher know of any course requirements you must meet by this experience.

■ Together, you, the master teacher, and your college instructor in student teaching will set goals and ex- pectations for your student teaching experience. Th is will defi ne more concretely what you would like to get out of the time you spend in the class- room, whether it is gaining experience with a group of children or learning to lead a group time by the end of the semester. By establishing common goals, the master teacher will be able to help guide a course so that these goals will be realized. An evalu- ation process related to those goals should be agreed on so that you will learn whether you have met the expectations of the teacher, the school, and the program.

Through experience, teachers learn how to handle large groups of children. Learning to develop story time and read- ing skills is an ongoing process.

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As early childhood educators, we play many roles. We are surrogate parents, new friends, sources of comfort and support, providers of new and exciting learning experiences, and active learners committed to professional growth. All of these roles are played by the dedicated individuals who work with young children in a variety of educational settings.

In our class, Early Childhood Curriculum, we developed metaphors to explore these diverse roles of a teacher, to gain insight into the development of professional behaviors, and to understand the meaning of commitment to the education of young children. Th ere were common threads running through these descriptions: refl ective learning, strategies for practice, and appreciating culture and diversity.

One metaphor that engaged all of us was that of the early childhood teacher as an artist. We worked as a class to add and expand the description. It became for us a way to think about our personal and collective commitment to the education of young children.

In our metaphor of teacher as artist, the canvas is the foundation knowledge required as a theoretical base for devel- opmentally appropriate practice. Th e brushes are the variety of methods and strategies used to plan and implement educa- tional activities. Th e composition of the work of art involves the balance of respect for each child, family, and culture, and provision of opportunities for each child to achieve the full potential of his or her unique talents in the context of a com-

munity of learners. Each artist uses color to express his or her own unique blend of talents. Bright yellows and reds express the excitement involved in new learning experiences, the blues and purples show the loving and supportive daily interactions, the earth tones provide the background of a team of colleagues with a well-grounded sense of mission, and the greens remind all of us to keep growing in knowledge and ability. Th e fi nal “professional” product is a result of talent, training, experience, and evaluation.

As we grow in our professional commitment, we will each “create” many works of art. Each work of art will express our belief that all children can learn and should be treated with dignity and respect. Each work of art will represent our jour- ney of growth and development as teachers of young children.

We hope that all who prepare to become early childhood educators will fi nd a meaningful metaphor to guide their growth and professional commitment to teaching.

Barbara Biglan, M.A., Ph.D., has been a classroom teacher, computer coor- dinator, the headmistress of an independent school (pre-K–6), and a college professor. She is currently a faculty member in the Education Department at Chatham College in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and the higher education project director for the Math Science Partnership of Southwest Pennsylva- nia, an NSF funded initiative to improve the teaching and learning of sci- ence and math K–16. She started life as an educator 40 years ago with a BS in science as a junior high school science teacher, earned a master’s in Edu- cation and then a Ph.D. in Science Education K–12.

Teaching: A Professional Commitment by Barbara Biglan, M.A., Ph.D.

186 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Insights from the fi eld

SUMMARY Teachers of young children share with other teachers a variety of subject matter. Th e curriculum in the early childhood school is rich in math, science, language, social studies, geography, and the like. Th e format for these learning experiences is a “hands-on” approach. Teachers set out materials, equipment, and activities that invite children’s interest and interaction.

Becoming a professional teacher means that there are professional guidelines and standards to follow. NAEYC’s Standards for Professional Preparation serve as a chal- lenge for what today’s and tomorrow’s teachers should know and be able to do. Th e Code of Ethical Conduct fosters professionalism throughout the fi eld as teachers apply its ideals and principles to everyday situations.

In some areas, the early childhood teacher diff ers from others in the fi eld of education. Team teaching, teacher–child interactions, small group emphasis, and adult relationships are more common in the early years than in other types of schools. Th e teaching role is not restricted to working just with children. Teachers must learn to interact with numerous adults—primarily par- ents, other teachers, and administrators. Teaching roles will vary, depending on whether you teach alone or on a team. Team teaching is common in many early child- hood programs and has many advantages. By keeping in mind the 10 essentials for successful teaching, all early childhood teachers can ensure themselves of optimal working conditions in their setting.

Early childhood teachers have multiple roles. Th ey supervise and manage the classroom, interact with chil-

dren and a number of adults, and set the emotional tone. Much of what they do occurs away from children. Th ere are meetings to attend, reports to write, parent confer- ences to hold, and materials to purchase. Th ese after- hours duties add to the depth of classroom experiences the teacher provides for the children.

Ethical situations arise frequently, calling on the teacher or administrator to make diffi cult choices about children and their lives. A professional code of ethics sets out standards of behavior based on core values and com- mitments all early childhood professionals share. It can support decisions individuals have to make in the best interests of children.

A systematic teacher evaluation process that is linked to professional growth opportunities is important. Th e process should include a self-evaluation by the teacher who, with a supervisor, sets appropriate professional goals. An evaluation by a supervisor and goal setting that relates to the program’s philosophy and mission are also part of the process. Continuing growth within the pro- fessional fi eld includes understanding the cultural con- text from which teachers relate to the children, families, other staff members, and supervisors.

Th e student teacher gains valuable experience work- ing directly with children under the supervision of a ma- ture teacher. As they grow and gain confi dence, teachers pass through several stages of professional development and search for ways to be more eff ectively challenged. As they integrate teaching style and personality, they be- come whole teachers.

KEY TERMS professional standards ethics continuing education emotional framework

self-awareness anti-bias team teaching feedback loop

performance-based assessment competency-based assessment portfolio-based assessment portfolio

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What do you think are the most important reasons for becoming an early childhood teacher?

2. How do the eight essential attributes for successful teaching foster a sense of professionalism?

3. How does a Code of Ethical Conduct help teachers?

187CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment

188 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

4. Name four in-class and fi ve out-of-class responsibilities in the teacher’s role.

5. Give fi ve reasons why team teaching is important in the early years.

6. Describe a good evaluation process.

7. What are some of the diffi culties a beginning teacher faces?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Draw a picture of the fi rst classroom you remember. Place furniture in it, and note where your friends sat, where

you sat, and where the teacher sat. Down one side of the paper write one-word descriptions of what you felt when you were in that classroom.

2. Survey a classroom where you teach or observe. How many diff erent cultures are represented? How does the teacher respond to the cultural diversity?

3. Have you ever had a teacher who was “diff erent”? Describe the person. What did you like most about that teacher? What did you like least? Would you hire that teacher? Why?

4. Write your own code of ethics.

5. Read the ethical situations posed in the section, “Abiding by a Code of Ethical Conduct.” Th ink about how you would solve them. Discuss your answers with a member of your class, a teacher, and a parent.

6. Observe a teacher working in a team situation and one who works alone in a classroom. What seem to be the advantages of each? Disadvantages? Which would you prefer for your fi rst year of teaching? Why? Your third year? Your seventh year?

7. Do you disagree with any core values listed in the section on code of ethical conduct? What are they? How would you change them? Discuss your response with another teacher, another student, or your class instructor.

8. In small groups, discuss the popular images of teachers as refl ected in current movies and literature. Is there a consensus of the portrait of teachers today? Where do early childhood professionals fi t into the picture? Are is- sues raised about teachers being addressed anywhere? Where? How? By whom? What would you conclude about your role as a member of the teaching profession?

9. What elements would you add to Figure 5-1 on the basis of your observation of early childhood programs and teachers?

10. Try to establish goals for your own growth as a professional in the following areas:

Area Goal Objectives/Implementation Timeline Programmatic Administrative Staff Relations Professional Growth

Ask your supervisor or a colleague to help you make a realistic timeline for each goal.

189CHAPTER 5 Teaching: A Professional Commitment

HELPFUL WEBSITES Center for Child Care Workforce http: ///www.ccw.org Council for Professional Recognition (CDA) http: //www.cdacouncil.org National Association for the Education of Young Children http: //www.naeyc.org Association for Childhood Education International http: //www.acei.org Child Care Information Exchange http: //www.ccie.com ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education http: //www.eric.ed.gov National Black Child Development Institute http: //www.nbcdi.org Wheelock College Institute for Leadership and Career Initiatives http: //www.institute.wheelock.edu

REFERENCES Bloom, P. J. (2005). Blueprint for action: Achieving

center-based change through staff development. Lake Forest, IL: New Horizons.

Browne, K. W., & Gordon, A. M. (2009). To teach well: An early childhood practicum guide. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Prentice.

Campbell, D. M., Cignetti, P. B., Melenyzer, B. J., Nettles, D. H., & Wyman, R. M. (1997). How to de- velop a professional portfolio: A manual for teachers. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Carter, M. (2008). Assessing quality: What are we do- ing? Where are we going? Exchange, November/ December, 2008. Volume 30, Issue 6, No. 184, 32-36.

Caruso, J. J., & Fawcett, M. T. (1999). Supervision in early childhood education: A developmental perspective. New York: Teachers College Press.

Derman-Sparks, L., & Edwards, J. O. (2010). Anti-bias education for young children and ourselves. Washing- ton, DC: National Association for Education of Young Children.

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Additional resources including the TeachSource Videos can be found on the premium website for this book. Go to http://www.cengage.com/login to register your access code.

Ramsey, P. G. (2004). Teaching and learning in a diverse world (3rd Ed). New York: Teachers College Press.

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Spodek, B. (1994). Th e knowledge base for baccalaure- ate early childhood teacher education programs. In J. Johnson and J. B. McCracken (Eds.), Th e early childhood career lattice: Perspectives on professional de- velopment. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2008). Labor force characteristics by race & ethnicity, 2007. Report # 1005. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Offi ce.

Ward, E. H., & CDA Staff . (1976, May). Th e Child Development Association Consortium’s Assessment System. Young Children, 244-255.

Whitebrook, M., Sakai, L., Gerber, E., & Howes, C. (2001). Th en and now: Changes in child care staffi ng, 1994-2000. Washington, DC: Center for the Child Care Workforce.

Willer, B. (Ed.). (1994). A conceptual framework for early childhood professional development: NAEYC Position Statement, adopted November 1993. In J. Johnson & J. B. McCracken (Eds.), Th e early child- hood career lattice: Perspectives on professional develop- ment. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

190 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Observation and Assessment of Children

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

■ What does it mean to see children through observation?

■ How can observation help us understand children?

■ How can we record what we see?

■ Why and how can young children’s learning be assessed?

NAEYC CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Th ese Core Values and sections from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct are ad- dressed in this chapter. As you read, note how the Core Values, Ideals, or Principles listed here apply to the topics in this chapter. (Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

Core Values: Helping children and adults achieve their full potential in the context of relationships that are based on trust, respect, and positive regard.

Section I: P-1.4. For every child we shall implement adaptations in teaching strategies, learning

environment and curriculum, consult with the families and seek recommen- dations from appropriate specialists to maximize the potential of the child to benefi t from the program.

Section II: I-2.5. To interpret each child’s progress to parents within the framework of a devel-

opmental perspective and to help families understand and appreciate the value of developmentally appropriate early childhood practices.

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192 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Seeing Children through Observation Children are fascinating. Th ey are charming, needful, busy, creative, unpredictable, and emotional. At school, at home, in the grocery store, and in the park, children demonstrate a variety of behaviors. Th ere is the happy child who toddles toward the swing. Th e angry, defi ant child grabs a book or toy and runs away. Th e stu- dious child works seriously on a puzzle.

Th ese pictures of children working, playing, and liv- ing together fl ash through the mind, caught for an in- stant as if by a camera. Good observational skills can help teachers capture both typical and exceptional mo- ments in a child’s life. Memory leaves just the impression. Documentation with visual samples and the written word are opportunities to check impressions and opin- ions against the facts. In this chapter, you will learn about observing and recording the behavior of young children and how to apply these skills to assess children, to collect their work in a way that refl ects each of them, and to evaluate their growth.

What Is Observation? Teachers learn to make mental notes of the important details in each interaction:

Th at’s the fi rst time I’ve seen Karen playing with Bryce. Th ey are laughing together as they build with blocks.

For fi ve minutes now, Teddy has been standing on the fringes of the sand area where the toddler group is playing. He has ignored the children’s smiles and refused the teacher’s invitation to join in the play.

Antonio stops climbing each time he reaches the top of the climbing frame. He looks quickly around and if he catches a teacher’s eye, he scram- bles down and runs away.

Th rough their behavior, these three children reveal much about their personalities. Th e teacher’s responsi- bility is to notice all the clues and put them together in meaningful ways. Th e teacher sees the obvious clues, as well as the more subtle ones. Th e way observations are put together with other pertinent information becomes critical.

Karen has been looking for a special friend. Now that she has learned some ways to approach other children that don’t frighten and overwhelm them, children want to play with her.

Teddy’s parents divorced two weeks ago. It ap- pears he is just beginning to feel some of that pain and has become withdrawn at school.

At home, Antonio is expected to do things right the fi rst time. Because climbing over the top of the frame might be tricky, he does not attempt it at all. At school, he generally attempts only what he knows he can do without making a mistake.

Th ese simple observations, made in the midst of a busy day at school, give vital information about each child’s abilities, needs, and concerns. It is a more devel- oped picture. Children are complex human beings who respond in many ways. Teachers can observe these re- sponses and use their skills to help each child grow and learn. Th e ability to observe—to “read” the child, under- stand a group, “see” a situation—is one of the most im- portant and satisfying skills a teacher can have. As Curtis (2008) states:

Learning to see children takes time and practice, both when I am with them and when I take time to refl ect on my work. Th e extra eff ort is worthwhile as it is much better to share in children’s insatiable curiosity, deep feelings, and pure delight than it is to be the toddler police, focusing only on fi xing behav- iors, teaching to outcomes, or checking boxes on of- fi cial forms.

A consistent practice of observation will help teachers de- velop what Feeney, Christensen, and Moravcik (2001) de- scribe as “child-sense—a feeling for how individual chil- dren and groups of children are feeling and functioning.”

These two children are seen playing together for the fi rst time. What can teachers learn by observing them regard- ing their use of materials? The way they make friends? How they solve problems?

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Observation is the basis of so much of a teacher’s work. It infl uences how a teacher sets up the environ- ment and how and when it will be changed. It helps a teacher create the daily schedule, planning appropriate time periods for various activities. It allows the teacher to make sense of and respond well to the many interper- sonal exchanges that mean so much to parents and care- givers alike. Observation also plays an important role in assessment, either by replacing (in the case of young children) or by supplementing standardized evaluation tools (for elementary-aged children). In fact, assessing children can be done only on the basis of good observa- tions. In more refl ective and less structured ways, teach- ers will observe how they react and feel, observing them- selves and their own values. Observations are used in nearly every chapter of this book.

Observation is more than ordinary looking. It takes energy and concentration to become an accurate ob- server. Teachers must train themselves to record what they see on a regular basis. Th ey need to discipline them- selves to distinguish between detail and trivia and learn to spot biases that might invalidate observation. Once acquired, objective observation techniques help give a scientifi c and professional character to the role of early childhood educator.

Play is the work of childhood. It is the way children express themselves and how they show what they are re- ally like. By observing play, teachers can see children as they are and as they see themselves. Much of what chil- dren do gives clues to their inner beings. Th e stage is set; the action begins as soon as the fi rst child enters the room. Here, teachers can see children in action and watch for important behavior. All that is needed is to be alert to the clues and make note of them:

Sierra, a toddler, walks up to Brooke. Sierra grabs Brooke’s toy, a shape sorter, away from her. Th en she begins to place shapes into the sorter. She has diffi culty placing the shapes into the container. Sierra then throws the shapes, her face turns red, and she kicks the container away from her.

Nico kneels on the chair placed at the puzzle table, selecting a 10-piece puzzle. He turns the puzzle upside down, allowing the pieces to fall on the table. He se- lects one piece at a time with his left hand and success- fully puts every piece in the frame the fi rst time. He raises both hands in the air and yells, “I did it!”

What are children telling us about themselves? Which actions are most important to note? Understand- ing children is diffi cult because so many factors infl uence their behavior. A child’s stage of development, culture,

health, fatigue, and hunger can all make a diff erence in how a child behaves. Additionally, environmental factors such as the noise level, congestion, or time of day can add to the complex character of children’s actions. Th erefore, the teacher must make it a point to observe children at critical moments.

First, notice the way a child begins each day. Karen al- ways clings to her blanket after her dad leaves her at school. Teddy bounces in each day ready to play the mo- ment he walks in the door. Antonio says good-bye to his grandmother and then circles the room, hugging each adult before settling into an activity. Th ese children show something about their needs. A good observer will con- tinue to watch, taking note of these early morning scenes. One can interpret these behaviors later, seeing how they apply to each child and how behavior changes over time.

Second, watch how children use their bodies. Th e basic routines of eating, napping, toileting, and dressing show how they take care of themselves. Whether or not Nico knows how to put his jacket on by himself may indicate his skills in other areas that require initiative and self- suffi ciency. It may also indicate how he is developing an awareness of himself as a separate, independent being.

Th ird, focus on how children relate to other people. Teachers see Sierra choose Brooke as a playmate even when she fi ghts with her, but she seems to avoid the other toddlers. Th e observant teacher will also make note of the adults in each child’s life. Who does Sierra seek for comfort? For answering questions? Who takes care of the child outside of school? Who picks the child up from school each day?

Finally, check for what children like to do, how well they use the environment, and what they avoid. Specifi c obser- vations about the various areas of skill development— physical-motor, intellectual, aff ective—can be mirrors of growth. Teachers observe whether a child picks materials that are challenging or exhibits the tendency toward the novel or the familiar. Teddy starts each morning in the art area and then plays with puzzles before taking care of the animals. Karen prefers the blocks and dramatic play areas and lately has been spending more time in the cooking corner. Observing children at play and at work can tell us how they learn and what methods they use to gain information.

Why Observe? Classrooms are busy places, especially for teachers who plan many activities and share in hundreds of interactions every day. Th ere is so much that demands attention and

194 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

response; at the same time, by building in systematic obser- vation, teachers can improve their teaching, construct the- ory, assess children, assist families, and solve problems.

Improve Your Teaching It is diffi cult to monitor our behavior while we are in the midst of working with children and time-consuming to refl ect on that behavior afterward. Yet, we know that teachers who are most eff ective are those who are thor- ough in their preparation and systematic in evaluating their own work. It takes a certain level of awareness—of self, of the children, and of the environment—to moni- tor our own progress. Th is includes carefully checking what is happening, looking for feedback, and then acting on it. Teachers can do this by asking others to observe them through videotaping, by observing each other at work with the children, and by self-observation.

Bias and Objectivity. Observing children helps teach- ers become more objective about the children in their care. When making observational notes, teachers look fi rst at what the child is doing. Th is is diff erent from looking at how a child ought to be doing something. Th e teacher becomes like a camera, recording what is seen without immediately judging it. Th is objectivity can bal- ance the intense, personal side of teaching.

Bias is inherent in all our perceptions. We must ac- knowledge this truth without falling prey to the notion that because our eff orts will be fl awed, they are worthless. Observing is not a precise or wholly objective act (see Figure 6-2). No two people will see something in identi- cal ways. For instance, reread the segments about Sierra and Nico. One teacher sees in Sierra a child demonstrat- ing an age-appropriate response to frustration; another sees someone who is too aggressive; a third focuses on Brooke as a victim, rushing to comfort her and ignores Sierra altogether. And Nico? One teacher sees a 5-year- old boy who is fl aunting his “power” over everyone at the table, and another sees a child swept up in the pride of accomplishment. As Seefeldt and Barbour (1997) state:

It is a fact. Observing can never be totally objective or independent of the observer. Whatever is ob- served passes through the fi lter of the observer’s be- liefs, biases, assumptions, history, understanding, and knowledge. Th e individual observer’s biases, be- liefs, and ideas dictate what is observed, how, where, and when. Th e individual always brings his or her perception and interpretation to the observation.

Teachers are infl uenced in their work by their own early childhood experiences. Th ey have notions about

how children learn, play, grow, or behave because of the way they were raised and trained. For example, the same behaviors might be labeled “assertive and independent” by one teacher and “bossy and uncooperative” by another. Th e same applies to parents. “‘My husband and I just completed behavior rating scales for one of our children,’ a colleague writes. ‘Imagine my surprise at the disparity between our ratings on several characteristics. We live with the same child daily! How could we have made such diff erent observations or inferences about the same child?’” (Saxton, 1998).

To pull back, take some notes, and make an observa- tion give the teacher a chance to see the larger scene. Team teaching can help. One teacher can step in and manage a situation so another can get out of the thick of activity and observe from a distance. Teammates can help each other gain perspective by comparing notes on the class, an individual, or a time of the day. Observa- tions can be a means of validating one teacher’s point of view or changing it by checking out an opinion or idea through systematic observation.

Additionally, all teachers develop ideas and impres- sions about children when they spend time with them. Some children seem shy, some helpful, some aff ectionate, aggressive, cooperative, stubborn, and so on. Th ese opin- ions infl uence the way teachers behave and interact with children. Th e child thought to be aggressive, for instance, is more likely to be blamed for starting the quarrel when one occurs nearby. Children who teachers consider polite are often given special consideration. Teacher bias may cause assumptions that stereotype rather than illuminate the child (or the group).

Guidelines. Th ree guidelines come to mind as one be- gins to observe, and these guidelines are illustrated in the second part of Figure 6-3:

1. Practice “intensive waiting.” Cultivate an ability to wait and see what is really happening instead of rushing to conclusions about what it means, where such behavior comes from, or what should be done. Th ese hurried impressions hinder a teacher’s work toward understanding. Try to sus- pend expectations and be open to what is really happening, whether this concerns behavior, feel- ings, or patterns.

2. Become “part scientist” (Cohen, Stern, and Balaban, 1997). A good observer makes a clear distinction between fact and inference, between real behavior and an impression or conclusion drawn from it. Awareness of the diff erence between what actually

Check Your Lenses!

FIGURE 6-1 Observers watching the same scene, seeing the same behavior, think of it in very different terms. Seeing through a different pair of cultural eyes, each of us is thus affected in our reactions and assessments. Excerpted from Gonzalez-Mena, J., in Begin- nings and Beyond (5th Ed), by A. Gordon & H. W. Browne. © 2000. Reprinted with per- mission of Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning: www.thomsonrights.com. Fax 800-730-2215.)

You see: “She’s obviously protecting her security blan ket; she is standing up for herself.”

*Believing in private property.

Or: “Look at that selfi sh child; she disturbs the group and is unkind.”

*Believing in group harmony.

You see: “They are learning pre-math concepts through their senses.”

*Believing children learn best by doing, by using their hands.

Or: “They are playing with food, and rice is sacred.”

*Believing people must take care of food and treat it with respect.

You see: “It is wonderful how the room is set up for quiet napping.”

*Believing in children sleeping independently, on their own.

Or: “How sad that the babies are left alone like that.”

*Believing in children being held, cared for always.

You see: “He’s protecting his space; he takes pride in what he creates.”

*Believing in self- expression and low frustration tolerance.

Or: “He is rude; he hurts others’ feelings and is unfriendly.”

*Believing in group affi liation and building community.

What we see is in the eye of the beholder. What do you behold?

A two-year-old screams “Mine!” and fends off a boy trying to grab the blanket she’s holding.

Kindergartners are sifting and sorting rice at a sensory table.

Infants sleeping in cribs in a child care center.

A four-year-old shouts at another, “No; don’t knock it down; we just built it ourselves!”

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196 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

happens and one’s opinion and conclusions about those events is critical to good teaching.

3. Engage in “slowing down” ( Jones and Reynolds, 1992) so that teachers ask themselves some of these questions as they teach:

■ What is happening for this child in this play? ■ What is his agenda? ■ Does he have the skills and materials he needs to

accomplish his intent?

No one can be free from bias, nor is that the point. Th e impressions and infl uences made can provide valu- able insights into children. Th is can be done only with an awareness of one’s own biases. Knowing personal infl u- ences and prejudices, coupled with observation and re- cording skills, prepares teachers to focus on actual be- haviors. By separating what happens from what you think about it or how you feel about it, you are able to distinguish between fact and inference. Th is does not mean teachers have to become aloof; your body language can refl ect both warmth and a measure of objectivity at the same time.

Construct Theory Observations are a link between theory and practice. All teachers gain from making this connection. New teach- ers can see the pages of a textbook come alive as they watch a group of children. Th ey can match what they see with what they read. By putting together psychology and medical research with in-class experiences, teachers gain a deeper understanding of the nature of children.

Early childhood education is the one level of educa- tion that systematically bases its teaching on child devel- opment. If we are to develop programs that work for young children—what they can do, how they think and communicate, and what they feel—we need to be able to apply sound child development knowledge to the class- room. Your theory and image of the child are where your teaching begins. Malaguzzi (1993) advised the teachers of Reggio Emilia:

Each one of you has inside yourself an image of the child that directs you as you begin to relate to a child. Th is theory within you pushes you to behave in certain ways; it orients you as you talk to the

Can You Spot the Bias?

FIGURE 6-2 Two observations. The fi rst example contains numerous biases, which are numbered in the left column and explained in the right column. The second example has clear descriptions and is relatively free of biases.

Poor Observation Julio walked over to the coat rack and dropped his sweater on the fl oor. He is shy (1) of teachers, so he didn’t ask anyone to help him pick it up. He walked over to Cynthia because she’s his best friend (2). He wasn’t nice (3) to the other children when he started being pushy and bossy (4). He wanted their attention (5), so he nagged (6) them into leaving the table and going to the blocks like four-year-old boys do (7).

Good Observation Emilio pulled out a puzzle from the rack with his right hand, then carried it with both hands to the table nearby. Using both hands, he methodically took each piece out of the frame and set it to his left. Sara, who had been seated across from Emilio with some table toys in front of her, reached out and pushed all the puzzle pieces onto the fl oor. Emilio’s face reddened as he stared directly at Sara with his mouth in a taut line. His hands turned into fi sts, his brow furrowed, and he yelled at Sara in a forceful tone, “Stop it! I hate you!”

Analysis and Comments 1. Inference of a general characteristic. 2. Inference of a child’s emotion. 3. Observer’s opinion. 4. Inference with no physical evidence stated. 5. Opinion of child’s motivation. 6. Observer’s inference. 7. Overgeneralization; stereotyping.

Analysis and Comments Emilio was clearly angry as demonstrated in his facial expressions, hand gestures, and body movements. The way a child speaks is as revealing as what a child says when one wants to determine what a child is feeling. Muscular tension is another clue to the child’s emotions. But the physical attitude of the child is not enough; one must also consider the context. Just seeing a child sitting in a chair with a red face, one doesn’t know if he is embarrassed, angry, feverish, or overstimulated. We need to know the events that led to this appearance. Then we can correctly assess the entire situation. By being open to what is happening without judging it fi rst, we begin to see children more clearly.

197CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children

child. …We must move beyond just looking at the child to become better observers, able to penetrate into the child to understand each child’s resources and potential and present state of mind. We need to compare theirs with our own in order to work well together.

Use as an Assessment Tool Recording observations often takes the form of written or visual documentation that serve as informal ways to assess children’s skills and capabilities. Assessment is a critical part of a teacher’s job, and evaluating children in- cludes observing and assessing their behavior and their development. Authentic assessment, done when chil- dren are in their natural setting and performing real tasks, fi ts best with the overall goal of developmentally appropriate practice. Portfolio use and other kinds of work-sampling systems are discussed later in this chapter.

Observation can be used as a tool for teachers to as- sess the accuracy of their own impressions. Comparing notes with others refi nes a teacher’s own objective obser- vation skills. Th e results lead directly into environmental design, daily scheduling, and curriculum planning as demonstrated below:

■ Does the traffi c fl ow easily or are children stuck in areas and unable to get out?

■ When and where does the trouble start at clean up? Who participates or avoids it?

■ Since sorting and classifying is a math concept goal for the group, what are children doing to show what they know and have yet to master?

By using observation to assess children and the program, teachers are accountable to their clients: the children, the parents, and the public. Assessment issues and early learning standards are described later in this chapter.

Assist Families Families benefi t from teacher observations. Detailed rec- ords collected over time reveal growth in many areas and can be used in school–family conferences. Th e teacher shares fresh, meaningful examples that demonstrate the child’s growth and abilities. Families then know more about the child as a school-person and are reassured that the teachers value and understand their child. Th e child’s teachers also gain a perspective when families share their personal stories and ideas about the child as a home- person. Problems become clearer, and plans can be made to work together. Results can be further tested through

continuing observation. Chapter 8 discusses family– school relationships in detail.

Wonder Why and Solve a Problem In the spirit of being a kind of scientist, teachers can be- come researchers in their own classrooms. A scientist, like a child, sees something and wonders why. Th is curi- osity leads to thinking about the various components of a problem and looking at the parts as well as the whole. Next comes the “head-scratching” part—a time of refl ec- tion, developing hunches or intuitions about the prob- lem, and generating alternatives. Th e teacher is then ready to try out an alternative, known in scientifi c terms as testing the hypothesis. Finally, the teacher gets results, which feeds back into rethinking the problem or cele- brating the solution.

Using observation to research a problem can turn frustration into a more productive approach. For exam- ple, Curtis and Carter (2000) suggest posing children’s noisy play into a research question: “How do children use sounds in their play and what might this mean?” Without extensive training, teachers can engage in a kind of scientifi c thinking for “action research” that is easily adaptable to teaching.

Understanding What We Observe Th e goal of observing children is to understand them bet- ter. Teachers, students, and parents collect a great deal of information by watching children. Observational data help adults know children in several signifi cant ways.

Children as Individuals How do children spend their time at school? What ac- tivities are diffi cult? Who is the child’s best friend? Ob- serving is watching a child with the purpose of trying to understand that child from the inside out—to see the world from that child’s viewpoint and how it is experi- enced. By watching individual children, teachers help them learn at their own pace, at their own rate of devel- opment, in their own time. When teachers know who each child is, they can choose activities and materials to match interests and skills. Th is is called individualized curriculum: tailoring what is taught to what a child is ready and willing to learn.

Th is kind of curriculum gives children educational experiences that off er connected knowledge: a curricu-

198 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

lum that is real and relevant to the individual child and is part of developmentally appropriate practices (see Chap- ters 1, 2, 9, and 10). It is also part of a program for chil- dren with special needs; in these cases, an individualized education plan (IEP) is developed jointly by teachers, ed- ucation specialists, and parents to better serve the child.

Observing helps a teacher spot a child’s strengths and areas of diffi culty. Once these are known, teachers plan intervention measures, helping to make the school expe- rience successful for the child. Th e accommodations made on behalf of individual needs are important for all developmentally appropriate programs and crucial for children with special needs. See “What Do You Th ink?” and Figure 6-3.)

Dowley (not dated) suggests that an observation of a child can be made on three levels. First, a teacher tries to report exactly what the child does: Note exactly what ac- tions the child takes. Second, express how the child seems to feel about what happened: Note facial expressions, body language, and quality of the behavior. Th ird, include your own interpretations: Add as a last and separate step some of your own personal responses and impressions. Figure 6-4, later in this chapter, includes this last level.

Children in General When recording behavior, teachers see growth patterns emerge. Th ese trends refl ect the nature of human devel- opment. Both Piaget and Erikson used this technique to

learn how children think and develop socially and emo- tionally. Gesell studied large numbers of children to get developmental norms of physical growth. Parten (1932) and Dawes (1934) watched hundreds of preschoolers and arrived at the defi nitive description of children’s play patterns and quarreling behavior. For today’s early child- hood educator, observing children can provide the an- swer to these questions:

■ What might you expect when a 2-year-old pours juice?

■ How will the second grade class respond to a fi eld trip?

■ What kind of social play is typical for the 4-year- old?

■ How does an infant move from crawling to walking upright?

Observation gives a feeling for group behavior, as well as a developmental yardstick to compare individuals within the group. Teachers determine age-appropriate expectations from this. It is important, for example, to know that most children cannot tie their own shoes at age 4 but can be expected to pull them on by themselves. A general understanding aids in planning a thoughtful and challenging curriculum. Teachers in a class of 3- year-olds, for instance, know that many children are ready for 8- to 10-piece puzzles but that the 20-piece jigsaw will most likely be dumped on the table and quickly abandoned.

Observation and Analysis

Gabriel [2.4 years]: Observations of Psychosocial Development-Temperament I have seen patterns of quiet and timid behavior all throughout the course of my observation. I suppose that Gabriel belongs to the “slow to warm up” temperament cluster. From what I’ve observed, Gabriel usually withdraws from the crowd. He prefers to play alone, preferably in quiet spaces. He also likes to play with toys as if they are his own. In one situation, a fellow toddler approaches while Gabriel is playing with an abacus. The fellow toddler tries to participate and play with quiet Gabriel, but as soon as this other kid starts playing with the beads, Gabriel quickly grabs the abacus, knocks it down, picks it up, walks away, and plays it alone for himself.

Gabriel also appears “slow to adapt.” When introduced in playtime situations with others, he does not respond promptly to what the others are asking him to do. His usual response would be a stare, or sometimes, no response at all. For example, two children were playing a game of fi lling up buckets with sand. When they saw Gabriel, one of them gave him a bucket; he held it without movement for a minute, then dropped it and wandered away. In another scenario, one of the caregivers pushed a child in a cart; Gabriel watched closely and seemed to wait for her to play with him. The caregiver, however, suggests Gabriel push the cart and play with the kid. In response, he just looks blankly, and afterwards, complies but reluctantly begins to push the cart and only while the caregiver watches.

FIGURE 6-3 Making an observation involves three levels: reporting exactly what the child does, how the child seems to feel, and your own interpretations. (Notes courtesy of M. Duraliza, 2007.)

199CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children

Finally, knowledge of children in general gives teach- ers a solid foundation on which to base decisions about individuals. From observing many children comes an awareness of each child’s progression along the develop- mental scale. Experienced teachers of toddlers will not put out watercolor sets, but the second grade teacher will do so routinely. Teachers learn that it is typical of 4- and 5-year-olds to exclude others from their play because they will have seen it happen countless times. Th e 3½ - year-old who is sure she is “too little” to use the toilet will not concern the knowledgeable teacher, who knows that this is developmentally appropriate behavior. Decisions about single children come from watching and knowing many children. Th is understanding is a valuable asset when talking to parents.

Developmental Relationships Observing brings about an understanding of the various developmental areas and how they are related. Develop- ment is at once specifi c and integrated. Children’s behav- ior is a mix of several distinct developmental domains (see Chapters 4 and 11–14) and, at the same time, an integrated whole with parts that infl uence each other. When we say the whole child, we mean a consideration of how development works in unison.

When observing children, one must focus on the major domains of physical-motor, cognitive/language, and socio-emotional development. Th us, preschool teachers look to ascertain the language abilities of 3- year-olds and also the social skills that preschool chil- dren acquire. Th ey need to know which self-help skills children can learn before age 6 and the expectations and experiences the children have at home. Th ey must ob- serve how fi ne motor development may interact with in- tellectual growth, or if gross motor skill aff ects successful cognitive learning. Overarching for all, teachers observe how self-concept relates to all of the other areas.

Observing helps teachers see how the pieces fi t to- gether. For instance, when given a set of blocks in various sizes, colors, and shapes, a 4-year-old will have no diffi - culty fi nding the red ones or square ones, but (s)he may be puzzled when asked to fi nd those that are both red and square. No wonder that same child has diffi culty understanding that someone can be their best friend and someone else’s at the same time.

DAPDAP

Practiced observation will show that a child’s skills are multiple and varied and have only limited connection to age. Karen has the physical coordination of a 4½ - year-old, the language skills of a 6-year-old, and the so- cial skills of a 2-year-old—all bound up in a body that just turned 3. Sharing the picture of this whole child be- tween parents and teachers can be helpful to both.

Infl uences on Behavior Careful observation gives us insight into the infl uences and dynamics of behavior:

Boaz has a hard time when he enters his child care each morning, yet he is competent and says he likes school. Close observation reveals that his favorite areas are climbing outdoor games and the sandbox. Boaz feels least successful in the construction and creative arts areas, the primary choices indoors, where his school day begins.

Mari, on the other hand, starts the day happily but cries frequently throughout the day. Is there a pattern to her outbursts? Watch what happens to Mari when free play is over and group time begins. She falls apart readily when it is time to move out- doors to play, time to have snacks, time to nap, and so on.

Th e environment infl uences both these children. Th e classroom arrangement and daily schedule impact chil- dren’s behavior, because children are directly aff ected by the restraints imposed by their activities and their time. Boaz feels unsure of himself in those activities that are off ered as he starts his day. Seeing only these choices as he enters the room causes him discomfort, which he shows by crying and clinging to his dad. By adding some- thing he enjoys, such as a sand table indoors, the teacher changes the physical environment to be more appealing and positive. Boaz’s diffi culties in saying goodbye disap- pear as he fi nds he can be successful and comfortable at the beginning of his day.

Th e cause of Mari’s problem is more diffi cult to de- tect. Th e physical environment seems to interest and ap- peal to her. On closer observation, her crying and her disruptive behavior appear to happen just at the point of change, regardless of the activities before or afterward. It is the time aspect of the environment that causes diffi -

DAP The methods of assessment are appropriate to the developmental status and experiences of young children, and they recog- nize individual variation in learners and allow children to demonstrate their competence in different ways. Methods appropriate to the classroom assessment of young children, therefore, include results of teachers’ observations of children, clinical inter- views, collections of children’s work samples, and their performance on authentic activities.

200 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

culty for her. Th e teacher makes a special eff ort to signal upcoming transitions and to involve her in bringing them about. Telling Mari, “Five more minutes until nap- time” or “After you wash your hands, go to the snack ta- ble” gives her the clues she needs to anticipate the process of change. Asking her to announce clean up time to the class lets her be in control of that transition.

Adult behavior aff ects and infl uences children. Kin- dergartner Annika has days of intense activity and in- volvement with materials; on other days she appears sluggish and uninterested. After a week of observation, teachers fi nd a direct correlation with the presence of Chip, the student teacher. On his participation days, Annika calls out to him to see her artwork and watch her various accomplishments; when Chip is absent, Annika’s activity level falls. Once a pattern is noticed, the teacher acts on these observations. Chip off ers Annika ideas for activities she could work on to show him when he re- turns to class. When he is absent, the teacher lets her write him a note or draw him a picture and then reminds Annika of the plan and gets her started.

Children also infl uence one another in powerful ways. Anyone who has worked with toddlers knows how attractive a toy becomes to a child once another has it. Th e fi rst grader who suddenly dislikes school may be feeling left out of a friendship group. Teachers need to carefully observe the social dynamics of the class as they seek to understand and fi gure out how to handle prob- lem situations.

Understanding of Self Observing children can be a key to understanding our- selves. People who develop observational skills notice human behavior more accurately. Th ey become skilled at seeing small but important facets of human personality. Th ey learn to diff erentiate between what is fact and what is inference. Th is increases an awareness of self as a teacher and how one’s biases aff ect perceptions about children. Teachers who become keen observers of chil- dren apply these skills to themselves. As Feeney and col- leagues (2008) note:

In a less structured but no less important way, you also observe yourself, your values, your relation- ships, and your own feelings and reactions. When you apply what you know about observation to yourself, you gain greater self-awareness. It is diffi - cult to be objective about yourself, but as you watch your own behavior and interactions you can learn more about how you feel and respond in various sit- uations and realize the impact of your behavior on others.

Th e values and benefi ts of observation are long- lasting. Only by practicing observations—what it takes to look, to see, to become more sensitive—will teachers be able to record children’s behavior fully and vividly, capturing the unique qualities, culture and personality of each child. Th e challenge of observation is high, but the benefi ts are well worth the eff ort.

Recording What We See Once teachers and students understand why observing is important, they must then learn how to record what they see. Although children are constantly under the teacher’s eyes, so much happens so fast that critical events are lost in the daily routine of classrooms. Systematic observa- tions aid in recording events and help teachers make sense of them.

In recording what you observe, you need to learn how to look and to learn the language of recording. Th ese are the “nuts and bolts” of observing and assessment. Learn- ing to look, however, requires a certain willingness to be- come aware and to do more than simply watch. Although it is true that teachers rarely have the luxury of observing uninterrupted for long periods of time, they can often plan shorter segments. Practice by paying attention to the content of children’s play during free periods—theirs and yours.

Learning to look requires a certain awareness so that the teacher does more than simply watch or become com- pletely involved in an activity.

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201CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children

Next, try your hand at jotting some notes about that play. It is easy to get discouraged, especially if you are unac- customed to writing. Th e language of recording gets easier as you practice fi nding synonyms for common words. For instance, children are active creatures—how many ways do they run? Th ey may gallop, dart, whirl, saunter, skip, or hop. Or think of the various ways children talk to you: they shriek, whisper, whine, shout, demand, whimper, lisp, or roar. Once you have a certain mastery of the language (and be sure to record what you see in the language that comes easiest to you), describing the important nuances of chil- dren’s behavior will become easier. For an example of such descriptions, look at Figure 6-6.

Common Elements of Observations Th e key ingredients in all types of observations used in recording children’s behavior are (1) defi ning and de- scribing the behaviors and (2) repeating the observation in terms of several factors such as time, number of chil- dren, or activities. All observational systems have certain elements in common:

Focus ■ What do you want to know? ■ Whom/what do you want to observe? Child?

Teacher? Environment? Group? ■ What aspects of behavior do you want to know

about? Motor skills? Social development? Problem solving?

■ What is your purpose? Study the environment? Observe the daily schedule? Evaluate a child’s skills? Deal with negative behavior? Analyze transitions?

System ■ What will you do? ■ How will you defi ne the terms? ■ How will you record the information you need?

How detailed will your record be? Will you need units of measure? What kind?

■ For how long will you record?

Tools ■ What will you need for your observations? ■ How will you record what you want to know? ■ Environment ■ Where will you watch? Classroom? Yard? Home? ■ What restraints are inherent in the setting?

In particular, the tools for observation and documenta- tion are crucial, reminds MacDonald (2006), “because

you will miss everything that is happening if you have to scramble to fi nd what you need to record what is right in front of you.” Technology has brought new tools into the recording aspect of observation. MacDonald suggests the following list:

Pencil and paper, clipboards Recorders with batteries Camera with fi lm (or digital camera with memory cards) Video camera Computer or laptop

Using these building blocks of observational systems, teachers seek a method that yields a collection of observ- able data that helps them focus more clearly on a child or situation.

Four major methods of observing and two additional information-gathering techniques will be discussed. Th ey are:

1. Narratives 2. Samplings 3. Ratings 4. Modifi ed child study techniques

Types of Observations Th ere are several types of observations you can conduct, depending on the situation or purpose you are trying to achieve. Several of the most common ones are described in this section.

Narratives At once the most valuable and most diffi cult of records, narratives are attempts to record nearly everything that happens. In the case of a young child, this means all that the child does, says, gestures, appears to think about and seems to feel. Narratives maintain a running record of the excitement and tension of the interaction while re- maining an accurate, objective account of the events and behavior. Narratives are an attempt to actually recreate the scene by recording it in thorough and vivid language. Observers put into words what they see, hear, and know about an event or a person. Th e result is a full and dy- namic report.

Running records and narratives are the oldest and often most informative kind of report. Historically, as Arnold Gesell reported (see Chapters 1 and 3), they were used to set basic developmental norms. Th ey are a standard technique in anthropology and the biologic sci- ences. Irwin and Bushnell (1980) provide a detailed his-

202 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

torical background that traces the narrative back to Pestalozzi (1700s) and Darwin (1800s). Jean Piaget watched and recorded in minute detail his own children’s growth. His observations resulted in a full report on children’s thought processes and development of intelli- gence. Baby biographies, narratives written by parents, were some of the fi rst methods used in child study and reached their peak of popularity in the early 1900s.

Diary descriptions are another form of narrative. Just as the term implies, it is, in diary form, a consecu- tive record of everything children do and say and how they do it. Th e process is a natural one. In the class- room, this means describing every action observed within a given time period. It might be a fi ve minute period during free play to watch and record what one child does. Th e child who is a loner, the child who is a wanderer, and the child who is aggressive are prime candidates for a diary description. Another way to use this type of running record is to watch an area of the yard or room, then to record who is there and how they are using the materials.

Specimen descriptions, a modifi ed version of a run- ning record as it is often called in research, are a more common form of the narrative. Th e procedure is to take on-the-spot notes of a specifi c child each day. Th is task lends itself easily to most early childhood settings. Th e teachers carry with them a small notebook and pencil,

tucked in a pocket. Th ey jot down whatever seems im- portant or noteworthy during the day. Th ese anecdotal notes are the most familiar form of recording observa- tions (see Figure 6-4). Th ey often focus on one item at a time:

■ A part of the environment—how is the science area used?

■ A particular time of day—what happens right after nap?

■ A specifi c child—why is a child hitting others?

Th is system may be even less structured, with all the teachers taking “on-the-hoof ” notes as daily incidents occur. Th ese notes then become a rich source of informa- tion for report writing and parent conferences.

Logs or journals are the fi nal forms of the narrative. Teachers write in details about each child or a critical in- cident. Because this is time-consuming and needs to be done without interruption, it helps to write immediately after the program is over. Sometimes teaching teams or- ganize themselves to enable one member of the staff to observe and record in the journal during class time. Th e important point is that children’s behavior is recorded either while it is happening or soon afterward.

Th e challenging part of this recording technique, the narrative, is to have enough detail so the reader will be able to picture whole situations later. Using language as

The Child Alone

Unoccupied Behavior. SH slowly walks from the classroom to the outside play area, looking up each time one of the children swishes by. SH stops when reaching the table and benches and begins pulling the string on the sweatshirt. Still standing SH looks around the yard for a minute, then wanders slowly over to the seesaw. Leaning against it, SH touches the seesaw gingerly, then trails both hands over it while looking out into the yard. (Interpretive comments: This unoccupied behavior is probably due to two reasons: SH is overweight and has limited language skills compared with the other children. Pulling at the sweatshirt string is something to do to pass the time since the overweight body is awkward and not especially skillful.)

Onlooker Behavior. J is standing next to the slide watching her classmates using this piece of equipment. She looks up and says, “Hi.” Her eyes open wider as she watches the children go down the slide. P calls to J to join them but J shakes her head “no.” (Interpretive comments: J is interested in the slide but is reluctant to use it. She has a concerned look on her face when the others slide down; it seems too much of a challenge for J.)

Solitary Play. L comes running into the yard holding two paintbrushes and a bucket fi lled with water. He stops about three feet away from a group of children playing with cars, trucks, and buses in the sandbox and sits down. He drops the brushes into the bucket and laughs when the water splashes his face. He begins swishing the water around with the brushes and then starts wiggling his fi ngers in it. (Interpretive comments: L is very energetic and seems to thoroughly enjoy his outside playtime with water. He adds creative touches to his pleasurable experience.)

FIGURE 6-4 The narrative form of observation gives a rich sample of children’s behav- ior; even though it risks teacher bias, it still records valuable information.

203CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children

a descriptive tool requires a large vocabulary and skillful recorder. Whatever notes the teachers use, however brief, need to be both clear and accurate. Figure 6-4 is an ex- ample of the narrative type of observation.

At the same time teachers are recording in a graphic way, they need to be aware of the personal biases that can infl uence observations. When we look at children, what we see is in part a result of our personal experiences, the theories we hold, and the assumptions we make. Teach- ing is an intensely personal activity, and what the chil- dren look like, do, and say may arouse strong feelings and reactions. Figure 6-2 compares two observations to il- lustrate this point. By becoming aware of our biases and assumptions, we can become more accurate and objective in our work as teachers.

Th ere are many advantages to this type of observa- tion. Narratives are rich in information, provide detailed behavioral accounts, and are relatively easy to record. With a minimum of equipment and training, teachers can learn to take notes on what children do and say. To write down everything is impossible, so some selection is necessary. Th ese “judgment calls” can warp the narrative. Th e main disadvantages of narratives are the time they can take, the language and the vocabulary that must be used, and the biases the recorder may have. Even though the narrative remains one of the most widely used and eff ective methods of observing young children today, many teachers prefer more structured procedures. Th ese more defi nite, more precise techniques still involve some personal interpretation, but the area of individual judg- ment is diminished. Th e observational techniques dis- cussed in the following sections also tend to be less time- consuming than the narrative.

Samplings Sampling methods examine specifi c types of behavior and divide the observation into measurable units. Two types of this observational method are time sampling and event sampling.

A time sampling is an observation of what happens within a given period of time. Time sampling appears to have originated with research in child development. It has been used to record autonomy, dependency, task persistence, aggression, and social involvement. Devel- oped as an observational strategy in laboratory schools in the 1920s, time sampling was used to collect data on large numbers of children and to get a sense of normative behaviors for particular age groups or sexes. It has been used to study play patterns and to record nervous habits of school children, such as nail biting and hair twisting (Irwin & Bushnell, 1980). Th e defi nitive study using

time sampling is Mildred Parten’s observation in the 1930s of children’s play. Th e codes developed in this study have become classic play patterns: solitary, parallel, associative, and cooperative play. Th ese codes are used throughout this text (see Chapters 3, 10, and 14), as well as in the professional fi eld to describe the interactions of children.

In a time sample, behavior is recorded at regular time intervals. To use this method, one needs to sample what occurs fairly frequently. It makes sense to choose those behaviors that might occur, say, at least once every 10 minutes. Figure 6-5 demonstrates a time-sampling procedure.

Time sampling has its own advantages and disadvan- tages. Th e process itself helps teachers defi ne exactly what it is they want to observe. Certainly, it helps focus on specifi c behaviors and how often they occur. Time sampling is ideal for collecting information about the group as a whole. Finally, defi ning behaviors clearly and developing a category and coding system reduce the problem of observer bias.

Yet, by diminishing this bias, one also eliminates some of the richness and quality of information. It is dif- fi cult to get the whole picture when one divides it into artifi cial time units and with only a few categories. Th e key is to decide what it is teachers want to know and then choose the observational method that best suits those needs. When narratives or time samplings will not suffi ce, perhaps an event sampling will.

An event sampling is another sampling method. With this method, the observer defi nes an event, devises a system for describing and coding it, then waits for it to happen. As soon as it does, the recorder moves into ac- tion. Th us, the behavior is recorded as it occurs naturally.

Th e events that are chosen can be quite interesting and diverse. Consider Helen C. Dawes’s classic analysis of preschool children’s quarrels. Whenever a quarrel be- gan, the observer recorded it. She recorded how long the quarrel lasted, what was happening when it started, what behaviors happened during the quarrel (including what was done and said), what the outcome was, and what happened afterward. Her format for recording in- cluded the duration (x number of seconds), a narrative for the situation, verbal or motor activity, and checklists for the quarrel behavior, outcome, and aftereff ects (Irwin & Bushnell, 1980).

Other researchers have studied dominance and emo- tions. Teachers can use event sampling to look at these and other behaviors such as bossiness, avoidance of teacher requests, or withdrawal. Like time sampling,

P

Child 9:00

Jamal

Marty

Dahlia

Keith

Rosa

Cameron

Hannah

A C P

9:15

A C P

9:30

A C P

9:45

Time Unit

PLAY WITH OTHERS

A C P A C

Totals

P = Parallel A = Associative C = Cooperative

FIGURE 6-5 Time sampling of play with others involves defi ning the behavior and mak- ing a coding sheet to tally observations.

Problems in the Classroom

1. Behavior to be observed: children’s accidents [spills, knockovers, falls].

2. Information you want to know: [who, where, when, causes, results].

3. Recording sheet. [use M–F morning for 2 weeks]

Time Children Place Cause Outcome

8:50 Shelley, Mike play dough M steps on S toes S cries, runs to Tchr

9:33 Tasauna, Yuki blocks T runs through, knocks over Y’s tower

Y hits T, both cry

9:56 Spencer yard S turns trike too sharply, falls off S cries, wants mom

10:28 Lorena, Shelley doll corner L bumps table, spills pitcher that S has just set there

S cries, runs to Tchr

Totals and Analysis: 4 problems

Shelley-2 Mike, Yuki, Tasauna, Spencer, Lorena-1

Inside: Pd, Bk, Dolls Outside: trike

Property: 1 Territory: 2 Power: 1?

Crying: 4 Seeking Tchr: 2 Seeking Parent: 1

FIGURE 6-6 Event sampling can be helpful in determining how frequently a specifi c event takes place. For instance, sampling the number and types of accidents for a given child or time frame helps teachers see what is happening in class.

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event sampling looks at a particular behavior or occur- rence. But the unit is the event rather than a prescribed time interval. Here again, the behavior must be clearly defi ned and the recording sheet easy to use. Unlike with time sampling, the event to be recorded may occur a number of times during the observation. See Figure 6-6 for an example of event sampling.

For these reasons, event sampling is a favorite of classroom teachers. Th ey can go about the business of teaching children until the event occurs. Th en they can record the event quickly and effi ciently. Prescribing the context within which the event occurs restores some of the quality often lost in time sampling. Th e only disad- vantage is that the richness of detail of the narrative de- scription is missing.

Rating Methods Rating methods record either the presence or absence of a behavior or the degree to which a behavior is exhibited. Th e two most common forms are checklists and rating scales.

Checklists contain a great deal of information that can be recorded rapidly. A carefully planned checklist can tell a lot about one child or the entire class. Th e data are collected in a short period of time, usually about a week. Figure 6-7 is an example of an activity checklist. With data collected for a week, teachers have a broad picture of how these children spend their time and what activi- ties interest them. At other times, yes/no lists are preferable.

Observer Date Time

Learning Center

Science/Pets

Dramatic Play

Art

Blocks

Easels & Self Help

Music

Sand/Water

Blocks

Wheel Toys

Climbers

Games

Totals

Indoors

Outdoors

CharlieAnna Leticia Hiroko Max

1 4

1

1

1 1

1

1

1

4

1 1 2

1 1

1 1

Table Toys 1 1 1 3

1 1 2

111 3

1 1 2

1 1 2

1 1 1 3

5 4 7 3 6 4

Woodworking 1 1

1 1

Josie Totals

Activity Checklist

FIGURE 6-7 An activity checklist. With data collected over the course of a week, teach- ers have a broad picture of how children spend their time at school and what activities interest them.

206 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Checklists can vary in length and complexity de- pending on their functions. To develop one, teachers fi rst determine the purpose of the observation. Next, they defi ne what the children will do to demonstrate the be- havior being observed. Finally, they design the actual checklist, one that is easy to use and simple to set aside when other duties must take precedence.

Although they are easy to record, checklists lack the richness of the more descriptive narrative. For instance, by looking at the checklist in Figure 6-7, teachers will know which activities children have chosen but cannot see how they played in each area, the time spent there, or whether and with whom they interacted. Th e advantages of check- lists are that they can tally broad areas of information and

Yes/No Checklist

FIGURE 6-8 A yes/no checklist gives specifi c information about an individual child’s skills.

Motor Skills Observation (ages 2–4) Child

Date Observer Age

Eating: Yes No

1. Holds glass with one hand

2. Pours from pitcher

3. Spills little from spoon

4. Selects food with pincer grasp

Dressing:

1. Unbuttons

2. Puts shoes on

3. Uses both hands together (such as holding jacket with one hand while zipping with the other)

Fine Motor:

1. Uses pincer grasp with pencil, brushes

2. Draws straight line

3. Copies circles

4. Cuts at least 2” in line

5. Makes designs and crude letters

6. Builds tower of 6–9 blocks

7. Turns pages singly

Gross Motor:

1. Descends/ascends steps with alternate feet

2. Stands on one foot, unsupported

3. Hops on two feet

4. Catches ball, arms straight, elbows in front of body

5. Operates tricycle

207CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children

teachers can create one with relative ease. Checklists are often used in child evaluation, as in Figure 6-8.

Rating scales are like checklists, planned in advance to record something specifi c. Th ey extend checklists by adding some quality to what is observed. Th e advantage is that more information is gathered. A potential prob- lem is added because the observers’ opinions are now re- quired and could hamper objectivity.

Rating scales diff er from checklists, as they “identify the degree to which a behavior is exhibited on a contin- uum, using numbers to rate the occurrence or strength of a characteristic (e.g., on a scale of 1–5)” (Bowers, 2008). For example, instead of simply recording which children are at circle time, a rating scale can measure at- tention using numbers or word phrases, such as in Fig- ure 6-9. Th e result is a detailed description of (1) each child’s behavior as each teacher sees it; (2) the group’s overall attention level; and (3) an interesting cross- teacher comparison.

Modifi ed Child Study Techniques Because observation is the key method of studying young children in their natural settings, it makes good sense to develop many kinds of observational skills. Each can be tailored to fi t the individual child, the particular group, the kind of staff , and the specifi c problem. Teach- ers who work in complex, creative classrooms have ques- tions arise that need fast answers. Modifi ed child study techniques can defi ne the scope of the problem fairly quickly. Some of the techniques are shadow studies, ex- perimental procedures, and the methode clinique.

Th e shadow study is a type of modifi ed technique. It is similar to the diary description and focuses on one child at a time. An in-depth approach, the shadow study

gives a detailed picture. Each teacher attempts to observe and record regularly the behavior of one particular child. Th e notes are then compared. Before starting a shadow study, give some form and organization to the notes, as illustrated in Figure 6-10.

Th e data in a shadow study are descriptive. In this, it shares the advantages of narratives. One of its disadvan- tages is that teachers may let other matters go while fo- cusing on one child, and a shadow study can be quite time-consuming. Still, one interesting side eff ect often noted is how the behavior of the child being studied im- proves while the child is being observed. Disruptive be- havior seems to diminish or appear less intense. It would appear that in the act of focusing on the child, teacher attention has somehow helped to alter the behavior. Somehow the child feels the impact of all this positive, caring attention and responds to it.

Two additional strategies are used to obtain informa- tion about a child. Because they involve some adult inter- vention, they do not consist strictly of observing and re- cording naturally occurring behavior. Still, they are very helpful techniques for teachers to understand and use.

Experimental procedures are those in which adult researchers closely control a situation and its variables. Researchers create a situation in which they can:

1. observe a particular behavior 2. make a hypothesis, or guess, about that behavior 3. test the hypothesis by conducting the experiment

For instance, an experimenter might wish to ob- serve fi ne motor behavior in 7-year-olds to test the hy- pothesis that these children can signifi cantly improve their fi ne motor skills in sewing if given specifi c in- structions. Two groups of children are tested. One

Rating Scale: Circle Time

Rating: Circle Time Child: Dates:

NEVER ATTENDS (wiggles, distracts others, wanders away)

SELDOM ATTENDS (eyes wander, never follows fi ngerplays or songs, occasionally watches leader)

SOMETIMES ATTENDS (can be seen imitating hand gestures, appears to be watching leader about half the time, watches others imitating leader)

USUALLY ATTENDS (often follows leader, rarely leaves group, rarely needs redirection, occasionally volunteers, usually follows leader’s gestures and imitations)

ALWAYS ATTENDS (regularly volunteers, enthusiastically enters into each activity, eagerly imitates leader, almost always tries new songs)

FIGURE 6-9 A rating scale measuring attention at group times requires data in terms of frequency, adding depth to the observation.

208 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

group is given an embroidery hoop, thread, and needle and asked to make 10 stitches. Th e other receives a demonstration of how to stitch and is then given the identical task. Th e embroidery created by both groups is then compared. Some previously agreed-on criteria are used to quantify the fi ne motor skill demonstrated by the two groups’ work.

Th e major criteria for a scientifi c experiment may be applied to this procedure as follows:

■ Th e experimenters can control all relevant aspects of the behavior. (In this case, the materials can be controlled, although previous experience with em- broidering cannot.)

■ Usually, only one variable at a time should be mea- sured. (Only fi ne motor skill as it relates to embroi- dery is observed, not other skills such as language or information processing, or even fi ne motor profi - ciency in printing or drawing.)

■ Children are assigned to the two groups in a ran- dom manner. (In other words, the groups are not divided by sex, age, or any other predetermined characteristics.)

Few teachers working directly with children will use the stringent criteria needed to undertake a true scientifi c experiment. However, it is useful to understand this process because much basic research conducted to inves-

tigate how children think, perceive, and behave utilizes these techniques.

Th e methode clinique is the fi nal information- gathering technique that involves the adult directly with the child. Th is method is used in psychotherapy and in counseling settings, as the therapist asks probing ques- tions. Th e master of this clinical method with children was Piaget, who would observe and question a child about a situation (see Chapter 4). Note how the adults wonder “what or why” and then insert their own actions to fi nd out what they want to know in these examples:

■ Th ree-month-old Jenna is lying in a crib looking at a mobile. Her hands are waving in the air. Th e adult wonders whether Jenna will reach out and grasp the mobile if it is moved close to her hands. Or will she bat at the toy? Move her hands away? Th e adult then tries it to see what will happen.

■ A group of preschoolers are gathered around a wa- ter table. Th e teacher notices two cups, one deep and narrow, the other broad and shallow, and asks, “I wonder which one holds more, or if they are the same?” Th e children say what they think and why. Th en, one of the children takes the two cups and pours the liquid from one into the other.

In both examples, the adult does more than simply observe and record what happens. With the infant, the

Shadow Study

Child’s Name

Time Setting (where) Behavior/Response (what and how)

9:00 Arrives—cubby, “I can put on my own nametag” (enthusiastically). removes wraps, etc. Uses thumb to push sharp end of pin, grins widely. Goes to teacher, “Did you see what I did?”

9:15 Blocks Precise, elaborate work with small cubes on top of block structure, which he built with James. “Those are the dead ones,” pointing to the purple cubes outside the structure. Cries and hits Kate when her elbow accidentally knocks tower off.

9:30 Wandering Semidistant, slow pace. Stops at table where children around room are preparing snack. Does not make eye contact with

teacher when invited to sit; Ali grabs J’s shirt and tugs at it. “The teacher is talking to you!” J blinks, then sits and asks to help make snack. Stays 10 minutes.

FIGURE 6-10 A shadow study will profi le an individual child in a class and can be very helpful when communicating with families.

Jeff

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209CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children

adult questions what Jenna’s responses might be and then watches for the answer. Th e preschool teacher in- tervenes in the children’s natural play to explore a ques- tion systematically with them and then listens for and observes the answers. Th e clinical method is not strictly an observational method, but it is an informative tech- nique that, when used carefully, can reveal much about children’s abilities and knowledge.

Observation and its various methods are used exten- sively in early childhood programs and, increasingly, in elementary education to assess children. Figure 6-11 summarizes these systems. It is safe to say that whenever a teacher encounters a problem—be it a child’s behavior, a period of the day, a set of materials, or a puzzling series of events—the fi rst step toward a solution is systematic observation.

How to Observe and Record Effectively Learning how to observe is a serious activity and requires a great deal of concentration. Some preparations can be made beforehand so that full attention is focused on the observation. Th inking through some of the possible problems helps the teacher get the most out of the experience.

Observing While Teaching Th ere are many eff ective ways to observe. Some teachers fi nd certain times of the day easier than others. Many prefer to watch during free play, whereas others fi nd it easier to watch individual children during directed teach-

ing times. Most teachers keep a pencil and paper handy to record observations throughout the day; others choose to record what they see after school is over for the day. Contemporary teachers often keep a digital camera nearby, and some have hand-held video cameras. Th e professional team that is committed to observation will fi nd ways to support its implementation.

Creating opportunities for regular observations can be diffi cult. Centers are rarely staff ed so well that one teacher can be free from classroom responsibilities for long periods of time. Some ask for parent volunteers to take over an activity while a teacher conducts an assess- ment. In one center, the snack was set up ahead of time to free one teacher to observe during group time. Th e environment can be arranged with activities that require little supervision when a teacher is interested in making some observations.

When children know they are being observed, they may feel self-conscious initially, asking pointed questions of the observer and changing their behavior as if they were on stage. When a teacher begins to write, some of the children will pay immediate attention.

“‘What are you writing about?’ asks 4-year-old Nina as I sit down at the edge of the block area. ‘I’m writing about children playing,’ I explain. ‘You’re writing about what I’m doing?’ Nina asks. ‘Yes, I am.’ She’s pleased. She goes back to building a careful enclosure with the long blocks” ( Jones and Carter, 1991). When eff ective obser- vation strategies are used and regular observations are done by familiar adults, children will soon ignore the observer and resume normal activity.

Teachers can improve their observation and record- ing skills outside the classroom as well. Taking an “Ob- servational Skills” class is helpful; so is visiting other classes in pairs and comparing notes afterward. Staff meetings take on added dimension when teachers role play what they think they have seen and others ask for details.

Th e teacher who makes notes during class time has other considerations. Be ready to set aside your record- ing when necessary. Wear clothing with at least one good pocket. Th is ensures the paper and pencil are available when needed and the children’s privacy is protected. Take care not to leave notes out on tables, shelves, or in cupboards for others to see. Th ey should be kept confi - dential until added to the children’s records. Some teach- ers fi nd the “low-tech” materials of pen and notebook or 3 � 5 cards easiest to fi nd, carry, use, and set aside. Oth- ers fi nd a camera, tape recorder, and even a video cam- corder helpful, although the expense, storage, and dis- tracting nature of such equipment need to be considered.

Observation skills are honed when teachers have oppor- tunities to work with a few children at a time.

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Method Observational Interval Recording Techniques Advantages Disadvantages 1. Narratives Running Record Continuous sequences Use notebook and pencil,

clipboard; can itemize activity or other ongoing behavior; can see growth patterns.

Rich in detail; maintains sequence of events; describes behavior as it occurs.

Diary description Day to day Same as running record. Rich in detail; describes behavior after it occurs.

Open to observer bias; time-consuming.

Specimen descriptions Continuous sequences Same Usually documents behavior within a time frame [ex 1 hour].

Sometimes need follow-up.

Log/Journal Regular, preferred daily or weekly

Usually has space for each child; often a summary of behavior.

Less structured than other narratives.

“On-the-hoof” anecdotes Sporadic Ongoing during class time; using notepad and paper in hand.

Quick and easy to take; short- capture pertinent events/ details.

Lack detail; need to be fi lled in at later time; can detract from teaching responsibilities.

2. Samplings Time sampling Short and uniform time

intervals On-the-spot as time passes; prearranged recording sheets.

Easy to record; easy to analyze; relatively bias free.

Limited behaviors; loss of detail; loss of sequence and ecology of event.

Event sampling For the duration of the event Same as for time sampling. Easy to record; easy to analyze; can maintain fl ow of class activity easily.

Limited behaviors; loss of detail; must wait for behavior to occur.

3. Rating methods Checklists Regular or intermittent Using prepared recording

sheets; can be during or after class.

Easy to develop and use. Lack of detail; tell little of the cause of behaviors.

Rating scales Continuous behavior Same as for checklists. Easy to develop and use; can use for wide range of behaviors.

Ambiguity of terms; high observer bias.

4. Modifi ed techniques Shadow study Continuous behavior Narrative-type recording; uses

prepared recording sheets. Rich in detail; focuses in- depth on individual.

Bias problem; can take away too much of a teacher’s time and attention.

Experimental procedures Short and uniform May be checklists, prearranged recording sheets, audio or video tape.

Simple, clear, pure study, relatively bias-free.

Diffi cult, hard to isolate in the classroom.

Methode clinique/ clinical method

Any time Usually notebook or tape recorder.

Relevant data; can be spontaneous, easy to use.

Adult has changed naturally occurring behavior.

Observational Techniques

FIGURE 6-11 A summary chart of the major observational techniques that the early childhood professional can use to record children’s behavior.

211CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children

Regardless of what teachers use, they must organize themselves for success:

■ Gather and prepare the materials ahead of time: Th is may mean getting everyone aprons with large pock- ets or a set of cards or labeled spiral notebook.

■ Consider where you will observe: Set up observation places (chairs, stations); in a well-equipped yard and room, you can plan strategically.

■ Plan when you will observe: In a well-planned day, teachers can have the freedom to practice observing regularly during play time.

■ Prepare every adult to be an observer: Give every teacher some regular opportunities to observe and refl ect on children’s play.

Respect the privacy of the children and their families at all times. Any information gathered as part of an obser- vation is treated with strict confi dentiality. Teachers and students are careful not to use children’s names in casual conversation. Th ey do not talk about children in front of other children or among themselves. It is the role of the

adults to see that children’s privacy is maintained. Carry- ing tales out of school is tempting but unprofessional.

Beginning to Observe In some schools, observers are a normal part of the school routine. In colleges with laboratory facilities on campus, visitors and student observers are familiar fi g- ures. Th ey have only to follow established guidelines for making an observation (see Figure 6-12).

Many times students are responsible for fi nding their own places to observe children. If so, the student calls ahead and schedules a time to observe that is convenient. Be specifi c about observation needs, the assignment, the ages of children desired, the amount of time needed, and the purpose of the observation.

If you are planning to observe in your own class, sev- eral steps are necessary for a professional observation and a believable recording.

■ Plan the observation. Have a specifi c goal in mind, and even put that at the top of your recording sheet. Goals can be general (“Let’s see what activities Ajit

Guidelines for Observing

1. Please sign in with the front offi ce and obtain a visitor’s badge. Your badge must be worn and visible at all times while at the center.

2. Inform the front offi ce when you have completed your visit.

3. Be unobtrusive. Please fi nd a spot that doesn’t infringe on the children’s space.

4. If you are with a small group or another person, do not observe together; consciously separate and space yourselves. Do not talk to other visitors during observation, please.

5. Respond to the children, but please, do not initiate conversations with them.

6. If a child seems upset that you are near him/her, please remove yourself from the area. If you receive direct requests from a child to leave, please respond that you realize that he said you are in his space and will move.

7. Please do not interfere with the teaching/learning process during your observation. Either ask when you check out in the front offi ce or leave a note in the teacher’s mailbox requesting a time to meet. Please understand that we welcome questions but cannot interrupt the program to answer them immediately.

8. Walk around the periphery of the outdoor area or classrooms rather than through them.

9. When possible, do not stand. Please do not hover over children. Sit, squat, or bend down at the knees so you are at the children’s level.

10. Taking photographs is not permitted. In special classes, permission for photographs may be given by the Dean of Child Development and Education.

Thank you for your help and consideration in making your visit to the center a pleasant one for everyone involved.

FIGURE 6-12 Establishing guidelines for observers and visitors helps remind us of the importance of teaching as watching, not just telling. (Courtesy of De Anza College Child Development & Education Department.)

212 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

chooses today”) or specifi c (“Watch for instances of quarreling in the sand area”).

■ Be unobtrusive. Th e success of the observation de- pends on how inconspicuous the observer can be. Children are more natural if the observer blends into the scenery. By sitting back, one can observe the whole scene and record what is seen and heard, un- disturbed and uninfl uenced. Th is distancing sets up a climate for recording that aids the observer in con- centrating on the children.

■ Observe and record. To be objective, be as specifi c and detailed as possible. Write only the behavior— the “raw data”—and save the analysis and your in- terpretation for later.

■ Interpret your data. Reread your notes (transcribing them into something legible if anyone else might need to read them) and make some conclusions.

Your observation was what happened; the interpre- tation is the place for your opinions and ideas of why it happened.

■ Act on what you observed. To implement your solu- tions, plan what you will do next, and then follow through with your ideas.

Wherever an observation is planned, it is critical to maintain professional confi dentiality. If observing at another site, call ahead for an appointment. Talk about the purpose and format of your observation with both director and teacher. Finally, in any discussion of the ob- servation, change the names of the children and school to protect those involved.

Assessment: Evaluating Children How do we evaluate children? What do we look for? How do we document growth and diffi culties? How do we communicate our fi ndings to families and agencies?

An increased emphasis on child and program assess- ment is a result of the trend toward increasing account- ability. Both No Child Left Behind legislation and ac- creditation criteria have raised the bar on assessment. How can early childhood educators make sure they are on the right track? Th ese questions focus our attention on children’s issues, assessment tools, and the evaluation process.

Why Evaluate? Shepard, Kagan, and Wurtz (1998) outline four pur- poses of early childhood assessment:

■ Th e support of learning ■ Identifi cation of special needs ■ Program evaluation and monitoring of trends ■ High-stakes accountability, defi ned as those assess-

ments in which the outcome has major conse- quences for the child, teacher, or organization

Children are evaluated because teachers and parents want to know what the children are learning. Evaluations set the tone for a child’s overall educational experience. Highlighting children’s strengths builds a foundation from which to address their limitations or needs. Th e process of evaluating children attempts to answer several questions: Are children gaining appropriate skills and behaviors? In what activities does learning take place? What part of the program supports specifi c learning? Is

Learning to observe and record effectively takes time and practice. Knowing how to stay unobtrusive yet avail- able allows children to continue their natural behavior without distraction and the teacher to ascertain notewor- thy behavior.

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213CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children

the school philosophy being met? Are educational goals being met?

In assessing children, three goals stand out (Gullo, 2006):

1. To better understand their overall development 2. To monitor children’s progress through the

curriculum 3. To identify children who are at risk for failure or

who may need special education services

In other words, evaluation processes can help teachers discover who children are, what they can (and cannot) do, and how we can help children grow and learn.

In evaluating children, teachers fi rst decide what it is they want to know about each child and why. With an understanding of children in general, teachers then concentrate on individual children and their unique development. Goals for children stem from program objectives. For instance, if the school philosophy is, “Our program is designed to help children grow toward increasing physical, social, and intellectual competen- cies,” an evaluation will measure children’s progress in those three areas. One that claims to teach specifi c lan- guage skills will want to assess how speaking and lis- tening are being accomplished.

Evaluations provide teachers with an opportunity to distance themselves from the daily contact with children and look at them in a more detached, professional way. Teachers can use the results to share their opinions and concerns about children with each other, with families, and with important agencies or specialists. For instance, an infant and toddler center might schedule parent con- ferences around a sequence of child evaluations: the fi rst, a few weeks after the registration of the child; the sec- ond, six months after the child’s admission into the pro- gram; and the third, just before the move up to an older age group (such as moving from the infant to the toddler class), which would include the parents and two teach- ers, the current and the receiving one. Th is concentrated eff ort expands everyone’s vision of who and what the child can be, highlights patterns of the child’s behavior, and helps in understanding the meaning of that behav- ior. It gives teachers the chance to chart growth and ac- knowledge progress and, in doing so, sets the child apart as an individual and unique human being. Evaluations are a reminder to all that they work with individuals and not just a group.

As with observations, evaluations contain varying degrees of subjectivity and opinion. For an evaluation to be reliable and valid, multiple sources of information should be used. Observing young children in action is

the key to early childhood assessment, and readers will notice that most of the child evaluation instruments de- scribed in this chapter are based on what children do spontaneously or in their familiar, natural settings. As Schweinhart (1993) notes, “the challenge of early child- hood assessment is to apply the methods of the assess- ment fi eld to the goals of the early childhood fi eld.” A proper evaluation of a child documents a child’s growth over time (e.g., keeping a portfolio of the child’s cre- ations, dictations, and teacher observations-anecdotes of behavior or snips of conversations overheard). See the section on “Authentic Assessment” and the “Insights From the Field” feature in this chapter.

In general, evaluations are made to:

■ Establish a baseline of information about each child by which to judge future progress

■ Document children’s learning ■ Determine guidance and intervention ■ Plan the curriculum ■ Communicate with families ■ Monitor program accountability and quality

Establish a Baseline One purpose of evaluating children is to establish a starting point of their skills and behavior. Th is is the be- ginning of a collection over a period of time of important information on each child. Th rough this cumulative rec- ord, teachers learn a great deal about the children: whom they play with, how they spend their time, how they handle problems, what fears and stress they show. In other words, they learn a lot about how children live their lives.

A baseline is a picture of the status of each child— an overview of individual development. It shows where the child is in relation to the school’s objectives because the child is being measured according to program expec- tations. Baseline data give a realistic picture of a child at that moment in time, but there is a presumption that the picture will change.

A Baseline Tool. Th e beginning of the school term is an obvious time to start collecting information. Records of a child are established in the context of the child’s his- tory and family background. Parents frequently submit this information with an application to the school. Teach- ers can gather the data by visiting the child at home or holding a parent conference and speaking directly with the parents about the child’s development.

An entry-level assessment made during the fi rst few weeks of school can be informative, particularly when

214 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

added to the child’s family history. Th e evaluation itself should be done informally, with teachers collecting infor- mation as children engage naturally with materials and each other. A few notes jotted during the fi rst month of school can serve as a beginning collection of pertinent data about the child. Many agencies ask for an initial as-

sessment within the fi rst 60 days of enrollment. Figure 6-13 outlines an entry-level assessment; others use the same form as needed all year.

Application. Teachers then use this information to understand children and their various levels of develop-

high receptive language

x

Kristin

Entry-Level Assessment

1. Child’s name Teacher

Age Sex

Primary language Fluency in English?

Any previous school experiences?

Siblings/others in household

Family situation (one/two parents, other adults, etc.)

2. Separation from parent:

Smooth Some anxiety Mild diffi culty Unable to separate

Did parent have trouble separating?

Comments:

3. How does child come to and leave from school?

Parent Car pool Babysitter Bus

4. Physical appearance [general health, expression, clothing, body posture]: M. is carefully dressed, excellent health, cautious expression, opens up over morning and through week.

5. Self-care [dressing, toileting, eating, toothbrushing, sleeping]: M. dresses and toilets without assistance; little appetite, resists toothbrushing; still lays quietly but no sleeping yet.

Allergies/other health-related problems:

6. Child’s Interests: Indoors —books, easel, art Outdoors—swings, animals, sandbox

Group times (level of participation): M. comes to circle, sits on my lap, watchful without any participation yet.

7. Social-emotional development: M. plays alone, seems happy, but has to be invited to any activity with other children; seems tense unless near me.

b. Plays mostly with children of: No play with other children yet.

c. Moves into environment: Hesitantly, but is getting around a little; tends to follow me.

d. Special friends: none yet.

e. Does the child follow teachers? Anyone in particular?

8. Cognitive development: follows directions, does not speak yet, points & nods.

9. Physical development: prefers R-hand; uses scissors & brushes well; have not yet observed climbing or running.

10. Goals/points to remember:

FIGURE 6-13 Entry-level assessments collect baseline information. Once teachers and children have had some time together, these fi rst impressions can be documented.

Mariko Meade Kristin Franklin

3.0 F Japanese

none

sister Hiromi, 6 months

maternal grandmother, baby sister.

mother/no; grandmother/yes; father/no

grandmother stays and has trouble leaving if M. protests

grandma 2x/wk

none reported or observed

yes

Does she have a security object to bring? What does she love to do at home

that we could have here? What Japanese terms should we learn & use? Schedule a home visit this month.

Mother at home, father full-time outside home,

215CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children

ment. Th ey can see children’s strengths and weaknesses and where future growth is likely to occur. When the information is shared with families, they feel more re- laxed about their child and even laugh when they recall those fi rst few days of school. One must remember, how- ever, that the entry assessment is only a fi rst impression. Care must be taken to avoid creating a self-fulfi lling prophesy by labeling children so that they become shaped into those beginning patterns. Again, teachers must be mindful of the cautions associated with all assessments as they document children’s early behaviors. Still, so much happens in that short period of time; the rich in- formation we gain from documenting this growth is invaluable.

Goals and Plans. Teachers use baseline data to set realistic goals for individual children. Th ey tailor the curriculum to the needs and interests they have ob- served. An entry-level assessment is a vehicle for watch- ing children’s growth throughout the year. For instance, after setting a baseline of Mariko’s language ability in English, teachers plan activities to increase her under- standing and use of language. Th en, they make periodic checks on her increased vocabulary as the school year progresses.

Document Children’s Learning Teachers use evaluations to document children’s growth. Data collected provide evidence of children’s growth or lack of progress. A careful evaluation of each child fur- nishes the teaching staff with the necessary foundation from which they can plan the next steps.

Hita has mastered the brushes at the easel. Now we can encourage her to try the smaller brushes in table painting.

Enrico has been asking how to spell simple words. Let’s see that he gets some time away from the blocks to work at the writing center.

All the 2-year-olds seem able to separate from their families and say good-bye comfortably now. How can we celebrate this progress with the group?

A Progress Tool. Figure 6-14 is a sample midyear evaluation. Criteria for each area of development are in- cluded to build a profi le of the whole child. Teachers note the intervention and guidance steps they plan, where appropriate.

Many states, national programs such as Head Start, school districts, and individual programs are de- veloping and using assessment tools to establish and

Assessments that include photos of children in action of- fer a snapshot of a child at a particular moment, which can serve as a baseline or as a mid-year evaluation.

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216 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

A Tool for Monitoring Children’s Progress

Check one of the evaluations below for each skill area; for those that need work, document with specifi c examples.

Developmental Age Highly Needs Area Appropriate Skilled Work

Self-Management Personal care Can feed, dress, toilet self well Making choices Prefers indoors to outside Following routines Does f ine in routines

Physical/Motor 1. Fine Motor Uses easels—brushes good grasp, pens also Art materials Likes blocks, table toys Woodworking tools Hasn’t chosen woodworking, but watches often Manipulatives

2. Gross Motor Very cautious, seems fearful Ball handling Won’t swing, slide, use climber Balancing Wanders outdoors, sometimes does music Jump/hop/skip Runs away when wheel toys are rolled down hill

Communication and Language Vocabulary Exceptionally strong Articulation Converses with adults daily Comprehension Responds to children but rarely initiates talk English as a second language Outstanding at group time—lots of ideas Converses with children Talks around fears, but fears seem to keep him from trying Converses with adults Listens Expresses self (needs, ideas, feelings)

Cognitive Development Sees cause and effect Processes and uses information Solves problems with: Dylan has so much information to share, and lots of interest in objects problem-solving with indoor materials and interactions with teachers. peers We wish he could extend these skills into work with children and adults open up a bit more. Premath (sequencing, measuring, numbers) Prereading concepts (size, colors, shapes, letters, position)

Social-Emotional Independence/initiative Positive self-concept Does well on own, gets around Recognizes/accepts own feelings Is comfortable and confi dent Deals with frustration around adults Seems hesitant/fearful outdoors Flexibility Is more solitary or onlooker; is Leadership this self-esteem or just fear? Initiates social contacts Don’t know about leadership yet; Prosocial behaviors (friendly, sharing, inclusive, cooperative, empathic) have seen little because of lack Child–child interactions of interaction with children Child–adult interactions

OVERALL STRENGTHS: GOALS

FIGURE 6-14 A midyear evaluation is a more detailed description of the child. It high- lights areas of concern and progress.

217CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children

monitor progress. Th ere has been a reluctance in the early childhood fi eld to use the word “standards,” so these tools are often called “essential learning,” “devel- opmental guidelines,” or “learning goals.” One such tool, the California Desired Results Developmental Profi le (DRDP), has profi le forms for infant/toddler (birth through 36 months), preschool (age 3 to kin- dergarten), kindergarten through age 7, and 8 to 10 years. Th e DRDP describes four desired results for children; they are:

■ Children are personally and socially competent. ■ Children are eff ective learners. ■ Children show physical and motor competence. ■ Children are safe and healthy.

For each age group, the tool outlines several indicators for those results and describes growth along a continuum so that the phases children experience as they move to- ward accomplishing an objective can be documented. Many states have similar standards, and several national organizations have posted information about early learn- ing standards from across the United States. (See “Help- ful Websites” at the end of the chapter.)

Application. Information about a child will be used to assess growth and change. How often this happens can vary. Although many changes occur in rapid suc- cession in these early years, it takes time for a child to integrate life experiences and for teachers to see them expressed as a permanent part of behavior. Evaluating too frequently does not reveal suffi cient change to make it worthwhile and places an added burden on the teaching staff as well. Once the initial baseline data have been gathered, a progress evaluation approxi- mately every three to six months is reasonable. Th e sample form in Figure 6-14 off ers one such evaluation in progress.

Goals and Plans. Goals are established for children as a result of an assessment. Th ese goals are changed as growth takes place. A good assessment tool monitors progress in each developmental area so that plans can be made to challenge the child physically, socially, emotion- ally, creatively, and intellectually.

At the same time, theory reminds us that the child develops as a whole, with each area of growth infl uencing and being infl uenced by what changes take place in other areas. Evaluations that document growth include infor- mation so that all teachers see the interrelationships among areas of development. By assessing growth in in- dividual areas, teachers relate that development to the

child’s collective abilities. See what the teachers con- cluded as they went over his mid-year report:

Dylan’s report shows he lacks dexterity in running and climbing and is quite strong in verbal and lis- tening skills. Th is infl uences his development in the following areas:

Emotionally. He appears to lack self-confi dence, and his self-esteem deteriorates the longer he feels in- ept at physical skills. He may even be afraid to master the art of climbing and running for fear he will fail.

Socially. Children tease Dylan because he often cannot keep up with them while playing outside. He often ends up playing alone or watching the other children in more active pursuits.

Intellectually. Th ere is a lack of risk-taking in Dylan’s whole approach to play. Because of his slow physical development he seems unlikely to challenge himself in other ways.

Goals: Focus on physical/motor skills. Help him talk about what he likes and dislikes about the out- doors and bring in picture books that depict charac- ters persisting to master diffi culties (such as Th e Lit- tle Engine Th at Could), using his language strength as a springboard for growth.

Determine Guidance and Intervention A third purpose for evaluation is to help teachers deter- mine guidance procedures. Th ese are based on insights and perceptions brought into focus through the evalua- tion. Th is process serves as a primary tool on which guid- ance and planning are based. When teachers see a prob- lem behavior or are concerned about a child, they plan for further assessment (see Chapter 7). If a developmental screening is done to assess if a child has a learning prob- lem or needs special services, teachers will either refer the family to a proper specialist or agency or administer the screening themselves. Developmental screening tests will be discussed further in this chapter. Often the kinds of guidance and intervention required are more like those in the “What Do You Th ink?” feature on page 218.

A Guidance Tool. Evaluations help in behavior man- agement. Once a need has been pinpointed, the teaching staff decides how to proceed. Individual problems are highlighted when teachers make a point of concentrating on the child’s behavior. Figure 6-15 illustrates a form used to determine intervention. Used at a team meeting, this form demonstrates what steps are to be taken in address- ing the concern directly. It also helps teachers clarify how to talk to parents in a concerned and supportive manner.

218 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Application. Th e following case study and Figure 6-15 demonstrate how information from evaluations is used for guidance and intervention:

Trevor’s parents report that he says he has no friends at school. At their staff meeting, the teachers make plans to suggest that Trevor’s parents invite Ryan and Brooke to play with Trevor at home. Teachers have seen both children approach him, but

he did not seem to know how to respond. At school, the teachers will give Trevor verbal cues when chil- dren make attempts to play with him.

Goals and Plans. An evaluation tool, such as the Child Guidance Form in Figure 6-15, helps teachers set goals for children. Narrowing the focus to include only those behaviors that concern the staff enables the staff to quickly review the needs of many children.

Meet Jody, age 5.

Observations: • He uses scissors in a

“hedge-clippers” fashion. • He has an awkward grip

when using a pencil. • He fi nds it diffi cult to fi t puzzle pieces

together. • He does not choose the woodworking

table, manipulative table, or cooking project during free choice.

Assessment: What would you do? Does he need intervention? How would you address this situation? Results: The caregivers in his kindergarten after-school class were concerned about his fi ne motor skill development. A check with his parents revealed two important facts: Jody had trouble handling table utensils and could not button his sweater. They said there was no provision at home for him to pursue any fi ne motor activities. Knowing of Jody’s interest in airplanes, the teachers used that to draw Jody into areas of the curriculum he did not ordinarily pursue. Small airplanes were added to the block corner, and airplane stencils were placed near the art table. A large mural of an airport was hung on the fence, and children were invited to paint on it. One day, children cut airplane pictures

What Do

YOU Think?

out of magazines and used them on a collage. Simple airplane puzzles were placed on the puzzle table. Felt shapes and small plastic airplanes in the water table helped draw Jody toward activities requiring fi ne motor skills. Jody’s parents supplied him with a special art box at home, full of crayons, scissors, pens, water colors, and stencils. As his fi ne motor skills increased and refi ned, Jody became a more confi dent and happier child. By the end of three months, he was a regular participant in all areas of the school and seemed to be enjoying his newfound interest in art materials.

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219CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children

Plan Curriculum Teachers plan the curriculum on the basis of children’s evaluations. Translating the assessment to actual class- room practice is an important part of the teacher’s role. A thorough evaluation helps teachers plan appropriate activities to meet children’s needs. More importantly, observation itself drives curriculum development, par- ticularly in the program models of Reggio Emilia, the Project Approach, and Emergent Curriculum (see Chapter 2). Figure 6-18 illustrates the connections between observation (listening to children’s enthusias- tic reports of a nearby construction project and their subsequent work in the block corner), curriculum de- velopment, and documentation. Th is documentation can be used in all six areas of child assessment dis- cussed in this chapter, is the backbone of the curricu- lum development in Chapters 11 through 14, and is illustrated in Figure 6-16.

Planning Tools. All three of the previous evaluation tools can be used to plan curriculum. Th e entry-level as- sessment and midyear report can be summarized in a group chart. One such chart, made at the end of the fi rst semester of a prekindergarten class, revealed this pattern:

At least one-third of the class was having trouble listening at group time, as evidenced by the group chart that identifi ed “Group Time” and “Language Listening Skills” as areas for growth for nearly half the children. Th e staff centered their attention on the group time content. It was concluded that a story made the group times too long; the children were restless throughout most of the reading. It was agreed to move story time to just before nap and shorten the group time temporarily.

Evaluation also applies to daily events, such as individual projects and the day as a whole. Chapter 10 discusses curriculum planning in further detail.

Application. Evaluation results assist teachers in see- ing more clearly the strengths and abilities of each child in the class. Curriculum activities are then planned that will enhance growth. Also, areas of diffi culty will be identifi ed:

Jolene has trouble mastering even the simplest puz- zle. Provide her with common shapes found in attri- bute blocks (small plastic shapes of varying color, thick- ness, size), and do some matching exercises with her.

Th e younger children in the class are reluctant to try the climbing structures designed by the older

ones. Build an obstacle course with the youngest chil- dren, beginning with very simple challenges and involv- ing the children in the actual planning and building as well as rehearsing climbing techniques with them.

Th ere are practical connections to be made in learning to “read” the children and actual curriculum planning. Re- fl ective work is critical for making curricular connec- tions. (See “What Do You Th ink?”)

Goals and Plans. Each of the previous case studies demonstrates how evaluation tools can be used to plan curriculum. By analyzing both group and individual skills through periodic assessment, teachers maintain a secure environment and challenging program.

Child Guidance Form

Problem [present in behavioral terms; limit to three] Elizabeth has increased toilet accidents in the last 2 weeks.

Family History [ask family, include home, medical, changes] Dad reports that she is wetting the bed at home, refuses to use toilet at night before bed.

Center History [child’s relations to adults, children, materials, activities] Higher incidence during midmorning snack, often at table or right afterwards.

Intervention [what has been tried with details; what has/not worked; child’s strengths] Teachers started to remind her to use toilet before washing hands for snack; she is resistant to suggestion.

Plans 1. In center: check her comfort level—does she

want privacy? teacher will walk her to bathroom or she can take a friend.

2. With family: parents will take her to toilet before bath, offer bedtime stories after she tries, will ask if she wants company/privacy, or take her teddy bear along.

3. Date for reviewing results: check-in 2 weeks.

FIGURE 6-15 One purpose of evaluating children is to plan for behavior management. A good evaluation form will include how to follow through on plans made for intervention. (Adapted from McLaughlin & Sugarman, 1982.)

220 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Communicate with Families Plans for evaluating children should include the means by which parents are to be informed of the results. Once the teachers have identifi ed a child’s needs and capabilities, parents are entitled to hear the conclusions. Th e teaching staff has an obligation to provide a realistic overview of the child’s progress and alert the parents to any possible concerns. Using the child guidance form (see Figure 6-15), teachers defi ne problem behavior for a child and work closely with the parents to reach a solution:

Yum-Tong refuses to let his mother leave. Th e teachers agree that there are two issues: (1) Y.-T.’s screaming and crying as his mother leaves and (2) his inability to focus on an activity while she at- tempts to go (though she stays as soon as he starts

screaming). Th e family has told them that their other two children had separation problems as pre- schoolers. Th e previous school asked the parents to stay until the children stopped protesting, although the parents report that this took nearly six months and so was a hardship for them in their workplaces.

Th e teachers choose to intervene by asking Yum- Tong’s mother to plan ahead with Y.-T., deciding be- fore school how they will spend fi ve minutes together each morning. After playing and helping him to settle in, she will then say good-bye and leave Y.-T. with Pete, his favorite teacher. Pete will be prepared to be with him at the departure and stay with him until he calms down. Th ey also plan to have a conference date after two weeks of this intervention plan to follow through and review how it is working for everyone.

FIGURE 6-16 Documentation board. Thanks to the observational skills of teachers, a group of children were able to develop their interest and knowledge about building construction through curriculum development. Documentation panel by Maggie Lam and Kären Wiggins-Dowler (2006). Reprinted with permission from Mary Meta Lazarus Child Development Center, College of San Mateo.

Our Construction Project

221CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children

A Tool with Parents. Teachers and parents need to talk together, especially when problems are revealed by the evaluation. As parents and teachers share knowledge and insights, a more complete picture of the child emerges for both. Each can then assume a role in the resolution of the problem. Th e role of the teacher will be defi ned in the context of the parents’ role, and the parents will be guided by the teacher’s attitudes and actions.

Chapter 8 discusses the parent–teacher relationship and off ers guidelines for eff ective parent–teacher confer- ences. Th e tool that works best is one that summarizes the school’s concerns and solicits high parent involvement.

Application. Aside from identifying normal behavior problems, evaluations may raise questions concerning a child’s physical development, hearing and visual acuity, or language problems. Recall that one purpose of assessment is to identify children who may need special education services (all ages), who may demonstrate issues of school readiness (pre-kindergartners), or who are at risk for aca- demic failure (elementary-aged children). Potentially seri- ous problems may emerge from the evaluation, and parents can be encouraged to seek further professional assessment or intervention. Evaluation tools can help parents target areas in which their child may need special help.

Goals and Plans. Because evaluation is an ongoing pro- cess, reevaluation and goal setting are done regularly. Communicating to parents both progress and new goals is critical for the feedback loop of an evaluation form to be eff ective, as shown in Chapter 5 on teacher evaluation.

Monitor Program Accountability and Quality Evaluation results can help a program determine its quality and be accountable to others for its eff ectiveness. Th ey can lead to changes in the overall program or in the school’s philosophy. For example, a child care component might be added to the half-day program after learning that most children are enrolled in another child care situ- ation after nursery school. Or an evaluation might con- clude that there is too little emphasis on developing gross motor skills and coordination. To invite more ac- tive play, the administration might decide to remodel the play yard and purchase new equipment.

Child assessments can, therefore, be one measure of program quality. Other measures include evaluating the en- vironment and schedule (see Chapter 9), the teaching staff (Chapter 5), and the curriculum (Chapters 11–14). Th e Accreditation process developed by NAEYC, based on the application of developmentally appropriate practices in pro- grams, is a comprehensive program evaluation tool.

As regards assessment of children, early educators are reminded that, while evaluation is a central part of quality programs, the assessments must be ethical, ap- propriate, and valid. NAEYC and NAECS/SDE (2003) made specifi c, evidence-based recommendations con- cerning early childhood assessment. No matter what is used, the primary goal is to benefi t children. Figure 6-17 lists the indicators of eff ective assessment practices. Spe- cifi c points to emphasize are to use multiple sources of evidence and to use tools that help teachers make sound decisions about teaching and learning (Hyson, 2008).

Types of Assessments With the increased accountability pressures, issues of assessment have arisen in both public schooling and early care programs. Regardless of agency or funding source, all early childhood programs must be knowledge- able about assessment: their purposes, tools, and compli- cations. Whether you intend to improve children’s learn- ing, identify children with special needs, or account for your program, it is likely you will need to engage in some kind of child assessment.

Indicators of Effective Assessment Practices

• Ethical principles guide assessment practices. • Assessment instruments are used for their

intended purposes. • Assessments are appropriate for the ages and

other characteristics of children being assessed. • Assessment instruments are in compliance with

professional criteria for quality. • What is assessed is developmentally and

educationally signifi cant. • Assessment evidence is used to understand and

improve learning. • Assessment evidence is gathered from realistic

settings and situations that refl ect children’s actual performance.

• Assessments use multiple sources of evidence gathered over time.

• Screening is always linked to follow-up. • Use of individually administered, morn-

referenced tests is limited. • Staff and families are knowledgeable about

assessment.

FIGURE 6-17 Principles of appropriate assessment in early childhood education. NAEYC & NAECS/SDE (2003, pp. 2–3).

222 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Two Types of Assessments “Generally there are two types of assessments: naturalis- tic assessments (sometimes referred to as informal or authentic) and standardized, norm-referenced assess- ments (sometimes referred to as formal)” (Maxwell and Cliff ord, 2004).

Naturalistic assessments include observations, note taking, self-assessments, parent interviews and surveys, samples of children’s work, and teacher-designed forms (checklists, etc.). More formal assessments include stan- dardized, norm-referenced tests and various “screening” instruments. Th e yearly tests taken in elementary and secondary school, using a #2 pencil, are an example of such procedures. “Standardized, norm-referenced assess- ments follow a standard set of administration rules so that each child theoretically experiences the assessment similarly (for example, each person administering the test gives the same instructions). Norm-referenced assess- ments permit a child’s performance to be compared to those of other children his age” (Maxwell & Cliff ord,

2004). Th ese are often used to identify special needs or to evaluate programs. As with the various observation meth- ods, there are advantages and disadvantages to each type of assessment. Naturalistic types do not disrupt children, and a child has multiple opportunities to demonstrate mastery. Th ey do not allow for easy comparison between children or in a group, and bias can aff ect the results. Standardized types do allow for comparisons and dimin- ish some of the bias among many observers. Yet, they may not accurately refl ect a child’s skills due to administration outside the child’s usual experience or setting. Th ere are problems associated with testing and screening of young children (see the section “ Testing and Screening” later in this chapter).

It is important to choose assessment tools and tech- niques that are appropriate for the group or the child un- der consideration. Informal observations can be made more systematic or comprehensive to gain more informa- tion about a specifi c problem. Formal, commercially devel- oped instruments need to be used more carefully. Th ere

Know the reasons for making an evaluation. Evaluations should avoid unfair comparisons, acknowledge individual differences and uniqueness, and not look at children in a compar- ative manner.

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are several instruments that are widely used in the United States. Th e High/Scope Child Observation Record (COR), Work Sampling System (Meisels/Pearson), and Creative Curriculum’s Developmental Continuum are three of the most well known. Th ere are a wide variety of assessments to choose from; at the same time, many are not easily adaptable to individual programs or purposes, and many take considerable preparation and training.

“In choosing an appropriate assessment system, it is important to understand what a developmentally appro- priate, valid, relative, and ethical assessment looks like. Some background research can provide this information” (Shillady, 2004), and the references at the end of the chapter can help. Before choosing any assessment tool or procedure, know the age group and the purpose as well as the children’s cultures, languages, abilities, and disabili- ties. Assessing special populations is important but chal- lenging, as the procedures need to account for cultural and linguistic diff erences (see helpful website CLAS).

Authentic Assessment: The Portfolio Th e dictionary defi nes “authentic” as “of undisputed ori- gin, genuine … made or done in a way that faithfully re- sembles an original” (New Oxford American Dictionary, 2005). For a child assessment to be authentic, it must try to capture who the child is, and what that child knows (or does not) and can (or cannot) do. Teachers must as- sess to know the child better in order to improve learn- ing. How do we get there?

Many early childhood educators have embraced the idea that children’s work samples in a portfolio form are an excellent way to document children’s learning and faithfully capture the child’s development. In light of the concerns you have read in this chapter about the mis-assessment of young children and the “test mania” that standardized tests in the primary grades have fomented, many professionals have looked for alternative assessment measures.

Portfolios can provide a “history of learning, a struc- tured record of learner accomplishment… as well as a method for assessing progress” (Fenwich & Parsons, 2000). Although they take considerable planning, they help you collect children’s work intentionally. You can evaluate children on their work and play as they are spontaneously, rather than with standardized tests or unnecessary screening.

Th ere are several types of portfolios and plans for collecting material for them. Danielson and Abrutyn (1997) identify three types of portfolios:

1. Display portfolios—scrapbooks that collect items without teacher comments.

2. Showcase portfolios—the best pieces of the child’s work.

3. Working portfolios—include selections of typical work along with teacher documentation to show the child’s progress.

Gronlund (2008) recommends a working portfolio that combines work samples with teacher commentary. In our “Insights from the Field” article, Kären Wiggins- Dowler, an outstanding practitioner, describes this type of portfolio:

1. Make a portfolio plan. Th is includes a brief set of guidelines for collecting items for saving (see Figure 6-18). Since simple collection of work is not enough, here are some tips to expand upon collec- tion (Pendowski, 2006):

■ Do not try to collect everything. Look for work samples that demonstrate your educational ob- jectives and a child’s progress over time on a goal.

■ Be organized when storing work samples. Ideas include pocket folders or even pizza boxes.

2. Collect children’s work with purpose. Look for work in all developmental domains (Chapters 3 and 4), each interest area (Chapter 9), or other categories, such as those you are accountable for teaching. Many suggest you collect a piece of each child’s work two or three times a year. Each child’s individ- ual portfolio may have completely diff erent work samples from others in the program, but every port- folio will still show growth over time in every devel- opmental area.

3. Add written comments to the work samples. Th e commentary “enhances the documentation by giving the information necessary to assess the process of learning that is going on. Teachers have told me that a picture may be worth a thousand words; but for assessment purposes, the words are essential, not the photo.” At least, not the photo or drawing alone: Teacher commentary becomes a critical source of in- formation to tell how the child did it, what it means, and how it shows growth or lack of it. Teacher ob- servation and comments will document information for the teacher, the family, other specialists, or future teachers to use in a confi dential and ethical manner.

Early Learning Standards Standards, standards everywhere! … Th ere are child outcome standards that defi ne what young children should be learning. … What are the reasonable ex- pectations that guide early educators in planning

224 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

curriculum for preschool children and in assessing their progress in achieving these expectations? (Gronlund, 2006)

Th e standards movement in K–12 that began in the 1980s has arrived at the early childhood doorstep. More than half the states now have standards that describe re- sults (see DRDP), outcomes, or learning expectations for children under kindergarten age, and Head Start has a framework for Child Outcomes. “Th e idea is to use standards to improve the odds that preschool programs will boost school readiness and lay a solid foundation for later achievement (Bodrova, Leong, & Shore, 2004). Yet the results are that more children are being denied en- trance to a school system, being put in extra-year or pull- out programs, or being placed in kindergarten twice.

Using standards to clarify what children ought to learn and know how to do and to hold programs (and teachers) accountable is here to stay. Early learning standards are “statements that describe expectations for the learning and development of young children across the domains of: health and physical well-being; social and emotional well-being; approaches to learning; lan- guage development and symbol systems; and general knowledge about the world around them” (CCSSO, 2005).

Th e challenge is determining standards for children in the early years, since the ways children learn and what

they are learning is diff erent from those in elementary school. “In early childhood, the development of founda- tional skills (skills that lay the foundation for later learn- ing) is just as important as mastery of content matter” (Bodrova et al., 2004). It is essential that eff ective early learning standards (NAEYC & NAESC/SDE, 2003):

■ emphasize signifi cant developmentally appropriate content and outcomes

■ are developed and reviewed through informed, in- clusive processes

■ gain their eff ectiveness through implementation and assessment practices that support all children’s de- velopment in ethical, appropriate way

■ require a foundation of support for early childhood programs, professionals, and families

Th ere are benefi ts to early learning standards, as well as potential problems. Th ese “reinforce the fact that there is an incredible potential for learning and growth in the infant, toddler, and preschool years and that there is value and importance in providing quality early child- hood programs for children’s long-term success in school and in life” (Gronlund, 2008). Th ey can articulate both the sequence of typical development and set reasonable expectations for children at diff erent ages. Learning stan- dards are intended to set the bar for student achieve- ment, and in the primary years, they can be crafted to

Child Portfolio

• Identify the purpose of the portfolio (improving communication with families, connecting with other teachers or programs).

• Identify the types of items to be collected (artwork, photos of block or dramatic play, etc.).

• Specify who will collaborate to create the portfolio (teacher, other caregivers, the child, family).

• Set a timetable (for instance, the fi rst set by November 15, second set by April 30).

• Establish any standards or tool you will use (for example, Desired Results or Child Outcomes).

• Have in writing when any portfolio conferences will take place and who will be there (teacher, family, child?).

• Identify procedure for maintaining confi dentiality and for release of items.

FIGURE 6-18 Having a set of guidelines for developing and using portfolios keeps the process clear for all involved.

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apply brain and developmental research in their imple- mentation (Schiller & Willis, 2008).

At the same time, standards can result in standardiza- tion, the notion that “one size fi ts all” about a vulnerable and tender population. Th e challenge is to implement standards that are developmentally appropriate and good for all children and that allow teachers to be creative and enthusiastic as they take good care of children Figure 6-19 details the pros and cons of early learning standards.

Testing and Screening Th e practice of testing and screening for readiness, re- tention, and special needs has increased dramatically in the last decade. With the passage of Public Law 94-142 (Education for All Handicapped Children Act) and the

early childhood amendment to the law (PL. 99-457), states now have the responsibility to establish specifi c procedures and policies to identify, evaluate, and provide services to all children with learning problems. More- over, testing for admittance to kindergarten or promo- tion to fi rst grade has become more common.

Ethical and appropriate principles state that early childhood educators shall not participate in practices that are “emotionally damaging, physically harmful, dis- respectful, degrading, dangerous, exploitative, or intimi- dating to children” (NAEYC & NAECS/SDE, 2003). As mentioned previously, decisions about children must be based on multiple sources of information and not based on a single test score or single observation. One assessment could never tell all that is needed to know about a child or a group.

DAPDAP

Early Learning Standards

Pros Cons • They can provide richness to our conversation • They lead to teaching to the standards only in a

about children’s growth and learning. cookie-cutter curriculum. • We can match standards to what we are already • They bring a pressure of accountability with the risk

doing. of a push-down in curriculum and inappropriate • They can be linked to primary standards so that we expectations for younger children. are indeed contributing to children’s school readiness. • Direct instruction is assumed as the only way that • They help us identity next steps and transitions. standards are addressed. • They are a strategy for professionalizing our fi eld. • Learning in self-directed, exploratory ways is not • They help us communicate across the grades, trusted. among ourselves, and with our public. • They contribute to a “we/they” mentality between • They help us to have higher expectations for children. preschool and elementary teachers. • They take time for early educators to learn and work

through, to fi gure out how to integrate into good practices.

• They result in testing and other inappropriate assessment methods being used.

• There is little money to support education and training of early educators in the standards and how best to use them.

FIGURE 6-19 There are both benefi ts and problems with early learning standards so teachers should use standards intentionally to inform their planning. (Adapted from Make Early Learning Standards Come Alive: Connecting Your Practice and Curriculum to State Guidelines, by Gaye Gronlund, pp. 4–5. Copyright © 2006 by Gaye Gronlund. Reprinted with permission from Redleaf Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, www.redleafpress.org.)

DAP Decisions that have a major impact on children, such as enrollment or placement, are never made on the basis of results from a single developmental assessment or screening instrument/device but are based on multiple sources of relevant information, in- cluding that obtained from observations of and interactions with children by teachers and parents (and specialists, as needed).

226 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Testing Ironically, the last decade has also taught us that standard- ized tests fail to refl ect adequately what children learn (National Commission on Testing and Public Policy, 1998). Indeed, “children know so much more than they are ‘taught,’ and what is tested may not be the important learning that the children have done” (Bergan & Feld, 1993). Howard Gardner, whose work on multiple intelli- gences is described in Chapters 4, 12, and 13, affi rms:

Over the past several decades the assumptions un- derlying the current testing edifi ce have been chal- lenged by developmental, cognitive, and educational studies. Th ere’s a considerable body of scientifi c fi ndings telling us that if we want to understand people’s competence or knowledge about something, we should not examine them in an artifi cial way in an artifi cial setting. (1988)

Moreover, most formal testing engages only two (linguis- tic and logical mathematical) of the eight intelligences Gardner has identifi ed. Such practices raise some practi- cal and serious philosophical issues:

■ Young children do not function well in common test situations, nor do the test results necessarily re- fl ect children’s true knowledge or skills.

■ Th ese practices (often based on inappropriate uses of readiness or screening tests) disregard the poten- tial, documented long-term negative eff ects of reten- tion on children’s self-esteem and the fact that such practices disproportionately aff ect low-income and minority children. (National Center for Fair and Open Testing, 2006)

■ Although the most needed and appropriate tests (teacher-made) are the hardest to create, the stan- dardized ones are frequently misused and misun- derstood by teachers and parents. (Meisels & Atkins-Burnett, 2005)

■ Teachers are pressured into running programs that overemphasize the testing situation and test items.

■ Most tests focus on cognitive and language skills; such a narrow focus ignores other areas of development.

■ Special training to administer tests is imperative yet often overlooked, and standardized tests require specifi c protocols. (Klein & Estes, 2004)

Th e practice of standardized testing has caused early childhood curricula to become increasingly academic. Early childhood educators and parents are alarmed that:

Many kindergartens are now structured, “watered- down” fi rst grades, emphasizing workbooks and

other paper-and-pencil activities that are inappro- priate for 5-year-olds. Th e trend further trickles down to preschool and child care programs that feel that their mission is to get children “ready” for kin- dergarten. Too many school systems, expecting chil- dren to conform to an inappropriate curriculum and fi nding large numbers of “unready” children, react to the problem by raising the entrance age for kinder- garten and/or labeling the children as failures. (NAEYC, 2003)

Th e implications of such testing further erode the cur- riculum when teachers, wanting their classes to do well on the test, alter activities to conform to what will be tested. Th ey then begin teaching children to learn “right” answers rather than to engage in active, critical thinking. Rather than making teachers more accountable, “the overuse (and misuse) of standardized testing has led to the adoption of inappropriate teaching practices as well as admission and retention policies that are not in the best interests of individual children or the nation as a whole” (NAEYC & NAECS/SDE, 2003).

Teachers and schools can respond to the overuse and inappropriate use of tests. Th e National Association of Elementary School Principals now urges limited use of formal tests and retention. Th e Texas Board of Educa- tion has barred retention before fi rst grade, and in New York State a coalition of groups is urging a ban on mass standardized testing of children before grade three.

Screening Many kindergartens and some nursery schools use vari- ous kinds of screening tests before children begin school in the fall. Th e usual purpose of these evaluations is to determine readiness: that is, to verify that the child will be able to cope with and succeed in school. Th ese tools are best devised with the individual child in mind. Th eir purposes are positive: to highlight the skills the child has and to identify the areas in which the child may need help in the next class.

Using valid screening tests to identify children who, because of the risk of possible learning problems or a handicapping condition, should proceed to a more inten- sive level of diagnostic assessment is an appropriate and necessary procedure. Note that screening tests are not diagnostic tools; a properly developed screening only in- dicates if more investigative work is needed. Such instru- ments are not achievement tests and are not meant to describe child learning outcomes:

Developmental screening tests identify at an early point which children may have learning problems or

227CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children

disabilities that could keep them from realizing their potential…By triggering in-depth assessment, screening instruments help teachers and other pro- fessionals decide who needs additional support for learning, rather than potentially being used to judge whether classrooms are meeting standards set from the outside. (Meisels & Atkins-Burnett, 2005)

Head Start programs use an “Ages & Stages Question- naire,” for instance, so parents/adult family members can inform teachers about children’s behaviors that allow for more accurate child monitoring.

Perhaps most important is the reminder to all teach- ers that tests have no special magic. Assessment is more than testing. A standardized test, a homemade tool, or a screening instrument should be only one of several mea- sures used to determine a child’s skills, abilities, or readi- ness. Any test result should be part of a multitude of in- formation, such as direct observation, parental report, and children’s actual work.

Concerns about Assessment Assessment is challenging! Of all the functions per- formed by teachers, probably none calls for more energy, time, and skill than evaluation. Anyone involved in eval- uation should avoid:

■ Unfair comparisons. Evaluations should be used to identify and understand the child involved, not to compare one with another in a competitive manner.

■ Bias. Evaluations can label unfairly or prematurely the very people they are intended to help. Typecast- ing will not produce a useful assessment. Insuffi - cient data and overemphasis on the results are two areas that need close monitoring. Evaluation tools should be free of language bias or other cultural bias. For instance, an evaluation of children should not include experiences unfamiliar to the cultural group being assessed.

■ Overemphasis on norms. Most evaluation tools imply some level of normal behavior or performance, ac- ceptable levels of interaction, or quantities of mate- rials and space. People involved in an evaluation must remember to individualize the process rather than try to fi t a child into the mold created by the assessment tool.

■ Interpretation. Th ere is sometimes a tendency to over interpret or misinterpret results. It must be clear what is being evaluated and how the informa- tion will be used. It is particularly important to be sensitive to the feelings of those being evaluated

when communicating the results of the assessment. Parents and teachers need to interpret evaluations clearly and carefully if they are to understand the fi ndings and feel comfortable with them.

■ Too narrow of a perspective. An evaluation tool may focus too much on one area and not enough on oth- ers. Moreover, no single occasion or instrument will tell teachers all they need to know about a child’s abilities, a teacher’s performance, or a program’s ef- fectiveness. It is essential that information be gath- ered in many ways and on several occasions. Sam- pling only children’s skills as the single measure would lead to conclusions that were neither reliable nor valid. An imbalanced assessment gives an in- complete picture.

■ Too wide of a range. An evaluation should be de- signed for a single level or age group and not cover too wide of a range. It is appropriate to measure a child’s ability to print at age 6 but not at age 2. What is expected of the person or task should be taken into account and the evaluation method mod- ifi ed accordingly.

■ Too little or too much time. Th e amount of time nec- essary to complete an evaluation must be weighed. Th e evaluation that is too lengthy loses its eff ective- ness in the time it takes. Time for interpretation and refl ection must be included in the overall process.

Goals for children encompass all areas of develop- ment, and one measurement will not describe every area. Doing so also changes what happens in the program: ” Teachers are very likely to shape their instruction to match a test’s specifi c focus. Th is phenomenon, known as ‘measurement-driven instruction,’ [creates] a narrowing of the curriculum” (Meisels & Atkins-Burnett, 2005). Using a single yardstick to measure a child ignores the fact that young children do not always demonstrate what they know in a “testing” or single situation.

Some teachers conclude the year with a summary re- port. Th is evaluation serves as an overview of what a child has accomplished, what areas of strength are pres- ent, and what future growth might occur. Th ese records are useful to parents as a summary of their child’s learn- ing experiences. Teachers may use them as references should they ever be consulted by another school about the child. Again, it is critical to assess a child in a sensi- tive and accepting manner, to keep the time period as brief as possible, and to communicate the results in the same tone. If this is not done, the child’s self-esteem may be damaged and the family trust may be lost. Th e disad-

228 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Com- municating with Families: Best Practices in an Early Childhood Setting.” After you study the video clip, view the artifacts, and read the teacher interviews and text, refl ect upon the following questions:

1. How does pre-school teacher Mona Sanon fi nd out important information about her children and their families?

2. Why is child assessment important in early care and education and how is it best implemented?

TeachSource Video

❙ ❙

vantages of these tools parallel those of standardized tests.

Chapter 15 includes a discussion about the stan- dards movement and the No Child Left Behind legisla- tion. Above all, keep the testing to a minimum, thus guarding against “pulling up the plants to look at them before the roots take hold” (Cryan, 1986).

Using Observation and Assessment Information Applying our observations to work in the classroom and with families and other professionals is a time- consuming, yet essential, aspect of teaching young children. Informa- tion gathered through direct observation and appropri- ate assessment reveals who children are, where their strengths and interests lie, and what challenges they have that need addressing in the program. Teachers use their observations to plan relevant space, materials, and cur- riculum for children. In addition, they adjust the envi-

ronment and schedule based on what they have seen of the group in action. Finally, teachers adjust their interac- tions with children because of what they see.

Helping special populations and individuals is an- other way to use information gleaned from observation and assessment. Children with identifi ed special needs will need an individualized plan for their educational experience, based on formal assessment and adjusted with accurate direct observation. Many children in early education and care may not have identifi ed special needs but will require special handling. For instance, a child with a sensitive temperament may be repelled by ordinary cuddling; one adjusting to a new baby may need more teacher interaction for awhile; the children whose soccer team just won a game might be rambunc- tious that day. Observant teachers use what they see to good advantage.

Th ere are four principles that guide our assessment practices in order for them to benefi t young children, their families, and us as teaching professionals:

1. Standards should be in place that outline the im- portant and developmentally appropriate outcomes we want for the children in our care.

2. Processes should be in place to develop and review the standards and our techniques for assessing chil- dren with them.

3. Assessment strategies must be ethical and appropri- ate for young children as they work and play in our settings.

4. Communication about both the standards and the observations and assessments we use must be in place that includes teachers, families, and relevant professionals.

Observation and assessment of children can be done ap- propriately and can tell us so much about children; we owe it to ourselves and the children we teach to use both to benefi t all.

229CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children

Early childhood portfolios are an excellent visual aid for showing the dispositions, strengths, and interests of a child as well as what universal skills and knowledge they have acquired under your care. Th ey also serve as a history for each member of a shared community of learners. A portfolio orga- nizes these samples into an integrated whole that off ers par- ents and teachers a window into who the child is now and is becoming.

When you fi rst think of portfolios, your initial reaction may be that it is too much work and that it adds one more responsibility to your already busy schedule. Instead, it can be a natural extension of your day and what you do with children. To have documentation become part of your regular day, keep clipboards, Post-it® notes, cameras, and tape recorders handy and ready to use. Every time a staff member points out an “a-ha” moment of a child’s life, you can write it down immedi- ately. Items to look for include:

1. art samples

2. cutting samples

3. dictated stories

4. invented writing

5. photographs of constructions

6. written samples

7. emergent play activities

8. written conversations during science and math activities

9. social interactions with peers and adults

10. photographs of children using motor and self-help skills

When children see adults engaged in data collection, they be- gin to take part. Th ey take clipboards from the writing table to “write down important things.” I had a 4-year-old child once who insisted I “support him.” When I asked him to explain what he meant, he said, “Write down what I am doing: it’s important.”

Getting Started: What Works for Me Recording what children say and how they interact can seem overwhelming. I use Post-it® notes as a convenient, quick way to capture revealing moments. I attach these to my lesson

plans as they are easily transferred to individual portfolios. Photographs can also supplement written documentation.

During the beginning stages of developing portfolios, the gathered information tends to be just snapshots of moments out of time and context. Pictures look like scrapbook portraits and not examples of professional documentation. Do not de- spair; teachers who have limited experience in observation and assessment practices can begin with simplicity and conve- nience. Th ese samples add to the total picture of a child’s growth and should not be discredited.

Remember to keep your writing legible—rewriting your notes takes additional energy and time, which most teachers don’t have. If English is not your fi rst language, it is often easier to write in your primary language and translate later. If writing is diffi cult, use a tape recorder to document. A few lucky cen- ters have video, although one must use it regularly enough so a taping is easy for you and so it doesn’t become a dramatic play scene when the camera arrives. All samples and records need names of those involved, time, and date. As you become more profi cient, your observation skills become more specifi c and the samples you choose are not just their best work but now are indicative of that child’s developmental process.

Finally, I use a folding document with fi ve separate sec- tions for each developmental domain. Each labeled section has a cascading fi le of four to eight pages (depending of the length of stay in the program) and on each of these cascading pages are examples of developmental landmarks or unique attributes of the child. Th e most historical work samples and observa- tions are located on the bottom page, with each overlap show- ing the child’s progressive development. Th en, on the top of each fi le is a developmental checklist or a summary of growth. Th us, the portfolio can be an excellent visual “unfolding” of the child. What results is the amazing image of each child as a competent learner who actively constructs knowledge within a social and cultural context. Parents are so excited when pre- sented with this in-depth refl ection of their child’s history and learning!

Kären Wiggins-Dowler, B.A., is a head teacher at the Mary Meta Lazarus Children’s Center of the College of San Mateo, California, and a State Men- tor Teacher. She has a degree in Anthropology and Elementary Education from California State University, Hayward, and has done post-baccalaureate studies at San Francisco State University. She has also modifi ed the portfo- lios to highlight the development of English profi ciencies with a group of Korean ESL elementary school students.

Insights from the fi eld

The Portfolio: An “Unfolding” of the Child by Kären Wiggins-Dowler, B.A.

230 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

SUMMARY Systematic observation and recording of children’s be- havior are fundamental tools in understanding children. What children do and say and how they think and feel are revealed as they play and work. By learning to ob- serve children’s behavior, teachers become more aware of the children’s skills, needs, and concerns.

Th e ability to observe is a skill in itself; teachers exam- ine their own beliefs, infl uences, and attitudes to achieve a measure of objectivity. Recording the observations is an- other skill, one that requires facility with the written word and an understanding of the purpose for observing. To make a successful observation, teachers fi rst decide what it is they want to fi nd out about the child.

Key ingredients to successful observations include clear defi nitions of the behaviors to be observed and techniques for observing and recording them. Th ese pro- vide the tools for gaining a deeper understanding of in- dividual children and the group. Th ey also enhance knowledge about the interrelationships of developmen- tal areas. Also, one gains insight into the dynamics of child behavior and what infl uences are brought to bear on it. Finally, observing children can give insight and greater understanding of self.

Th e general types of observational techniques ex- plored in this chapter include narratives, time and event sampling, ratings such as checklists and scales, and the

modifi ed child study techniques of shadow studies, ex- perimental procedures, and the clinical method. As teachers observe and record the behavior of young chil- dren, they are aware of professional guidelines that pro- tect children. Th e guidelines help ensure accurate obser- vation and help the observer respect the privacy of the individual or group.

Evaluating children involves assessing their growth in all of the developmental domains and over time. We evaluate children to establish a baseline and to document their learning. Evaluation helps us determine guidance and intervention, to plan curriculum, to communicate with families, and to monitor program accountability and quality.

Of all the functions performed by teachers, assess- ment is one of the most challenging. Two types of assess- ments are naturalistic and formal, and the authentic as- sessment tool of a child portfolio can include data from both types. Early learning standards are a new and com- plicated addition to the teacher’s job of observation and assessment. Testing and screening, also used in many settings, can be inappropriate, costly, and can unduly af- fect teacher’s curriculum and children’s daily care and education. Many concerns arise as programs attempt to evaluate children, and there are several guidelines to fol- low in order to assess children appropriately.

KEY TERMS assessment evaluation objectivity bias authentic assessment individualized curriculum connected knowledge intervention accommodations norms narratives

running record diary descriptions specimen descriptions log/journal time sampling event sampling checklists rating scales continuum shadow study experimental procedure

methode clinique (clinical method) professional confi dentiality accountability baseline documentation naturalistic assessments formal assessments norm-referenced test portfolio early learning standards screening

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. To see children through observations, teachers use several observational methods. List four and describe the ad- vantages and disadvantages of each. Which would you prefer? Why? Which one(s) might best suit a beginning teacher? A parent? An experienced teacher? Th e director of the school?

231CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children

2. In recording observations, teachers must be careful of bias. Poor observations usually contain inferences, over- generalizations, and/or opinions that cloud a complete, objective sampling of a child’s behavior. Read the follow- ing segment and underline the language segments that contain such passages:

C is sitting on the rug with four friends and he is playing with cars and he starts whining about his car. He is just having a bad attitude about its not moving correctly. C is crying because he just got hit with the car. Let me tell you something about him. He is a big whiner about anything and he always wants it his way. Th en he goes over to the book corner and is very quietly reading a book and he is happy by himself.

3. Put this chapter to the test. Match the behavior with the category it describes: Category Behavior Children in general Matthew cries when his grandma says goodbye. Infl uences on behavior Most 4-year-olds can pull up their pants on their own. Understanding of self To really know Celia, I’ll have to observe her with scissors, at the climber, fi gur-

ing out a problem, with her friends, in our small group time, when her mom leaves, and doing a painting.

Developmental I wonder why Mondays are so hard on Serena? Which weekends does she stay relationships with her Dad?

Children as individuals You know, I just overreact when I see children playing with their food.

4. Why and how can children’s learning and skills be assessed? What are the reasons for assessing children’s prog- ress? Describe some of the problems with testing or screening of young children. How can you address these problems if you are required to administer a standardized test to your class?

5. How might a working portfolio help us understand a child?

6. How do we observe and record eff ectively? What do you consider to be the three most important guidelines to follow when observing young children? Why?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Observe a child for 10 minutes. Using language as your paintbrush, make a written picture of that child’s physi-

cal appearance and movements. Compare the child’s size, body build, facial features, and energy level with those of other children in the class. In narrative form, record as many of the body movements as you can, noting seem- ingly useless movements, failures, and partial successes, as well as fi nal achievements.

2. Try a time sample of children’s play in your classroom. Observe 10 children for one minute each during free-play times, and record the type(s) of social behavior they show. Using Parten’s categories, your chart would look like this one. Compare your results with the impressions of the other teachers with whom you work. Did you come to any conclusions on how children develop socially?

Child/Age Unoccupied Solitary Onlooker Parallel Associative Cooperative 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Totals

232 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

3. If you can, try a shadow study on a child in your class. Choose a child you do not know much about, you have trouble working with, or who is exhibiting inappropriate behaviors. How did this study help you to see the class and school from that child’s point of view?

4. Perceptions of a person’s character are in the eyes of the beholder. Th ese perceptions aff ect how teachers behave with children. What color are your glasses tinted? Divide a piece of paper in half, lengthwise. On one side, list some words to describe your feelings about childhood, school, teachers, children, authority, making friends, los- ing friends, hitting, and playing. On the other side, describe how these feelings may have infl uenced your teach- ing and helped create your own biases.

5. Does your own setting have an evaluation plan for child assessment? Analyze the goals of your plan and how the tools or implementation meet (or do not meet) those goals. Be sure to address the concerns about assessment.

6. Teachers have noticed that several children consistently interrupt at story time with seemingly irrelevant ques- tions and constantly grab children seated nearby. What is happening—and why? What observational tools would you use to fi nd out? What clues from individual behavior would you look for? How would you look at the group as a whole? What other information would you need?

HELPFUL WEBSITES National Association for the Education of Young Children http: //www.naeyc.org Culturally and Lingustically Appropriate Services (CLAS) Early Childhood Research Institute

http: //clas.uiuc.edu Early Childhood Research Quarterly http: //www.elsevier.com/wps/fi nd/ Early Childhood Research Online http: //ecr.sagepub.com Early Childhood Education Assessment (ECEA) Consortium & Council of Chief State School Offi cers

http: //www.ccsso.org High/Scope http: //www.highscope.net National Center for Fair and Open Testing http: //www.fairtest.org National Institute for Early Education Research (NIEER) http: //www.nieer.org/standards/statelist.php Work Sampling System http: //www.worksamplingonline.com

REFERENCES Bergan, J. R., & Feld, J. K. (1993). Developmental as-

sessment: New directions. Young Children 48(5), 41–47.

Bodrova, E., Leong, D., & Shore, R. (2004, March). Child outcome standards in pre-K programs: What are standards: What is needed to make them work? In Preschool Policy Matters. National Institute on Early Educational Research (NIEER), www.nieer. org. Issue 5.

Bowers, F.B. (2008, November/December). Developing a child assessment plan: An integral part of program quality. Beginnings Workshop: Assessment and Documentation, Exchange, 51-55.

California Department of Education. Desired results developmental profi le—revised (2006). www.cde.ca. gov.

Cohen, D. H., Stern, V., & Balaban, N. (1997). Observ- ing and recording the behavior of young children (4th Ed). New York: Teachers College Press.

Additional resources including the TeachSource Videos can be found on the premium website for this book. Go to http://www.cengage.com/login to register your access code.

233CHAPTER 6 Observation and Assessment of Children

Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S., Eds., (2009). Develop- mentally appropriate practice in early childhood pro- grams serving children from birth through age 8. Wash- ington, DC; National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Council of Chief State School Offi cers (CCSSO (2005). Th e words we use: A glossary of terms for early childhood education standards and assessment. Wash- ington, DC: Early Childhood Education Assessment Consortium.

Curtis, D. (2008, November/December). Seeing chil- dren. Beginnings Workshop: Assessment and Docu- mentation, Exchange, 37-42.

Curtis, D., & Carter, M. (2000) Th e art of awareness: How observation can transform your teaching. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Cryan, J. R. (1986, May/June). Evaluation: Plague or promise? Childhood Education, 62 (5).

Danielson, C., & Abrutyn, L. (1997). An introduction to using portfolios in the classroom. Alexandria, VA: As- sociation for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Dawes, H. C. (1934). An analysis of two hundred quar- rels of preschool children. Child Development, 5, 139-157.

Dowley, E. M. (not dated). Cues for observing children’s behavior. Unpublished paper.

Feeney, S., Christensen, D., & Moravcik, E. (2008). Who am I in the lives of children? (8th Ed). Engle- wood Cliff s, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Fenwich, T., & Parsons, J. (2000). Th e art of evaluation: A handbook for educators and trainers. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Gardner, H. (1988, September/October) Alternatives to standardized testing. Harvard Education Letter.

Gonzalez-Mena, J. (2000). Focus Box: Understanding what we observe: A multicultural perspective. In A. Gordon & K. W Browne (Eds.). Beginnings and beyond: Foundations in early childhood education (5th Ed). Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Gronlund, G. (2008). Creative and thoughtful strate- gies for implementing learning standards. Young Children, July, 10-13.

Gronlund, G. (2006). Making early learning standards come alive. St Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Gullo, D. F. (2006). Assessment in kindergarten. In D. F. Gullo (Ed.). KToday: Teaching and learning in the kindergarten year. Washington, DC: NAEYC, 138-147.

Hyson, M. (2008). Enthusiastic and engaged learners: Approaches to learning in the early childhood class- room. NY: Teachers College Press.

Irwin, D. M., & Bushnell, M. M. (1980). Observational strategies for child study. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Jones, E., & Reynolds, G. (1992). Th e play’s the thing: Teachers’ roles in children’s play. New York: Teachers College Press.

Jones, E.J., & Carter, M. (1991, January/February). Th e teacher as observer—Part 1, and Teacher as scribe and broadcaster: Using observation to communicate— Part 2. Child Care Information Exchange, 35-38.

Klein, A. S., & Estes, J. S. (2004, January/February). Using observation for performance assessment. Early Childhood News.

Lam, M., & Wiggins-Dowler, K. (2006). Documenta- tion panel: Our construction curriculum project. San Mateo, CA: MML Children’s Center, College of San Mateo, 2005-2006.

MacDonald, B. (2006, November/December) Observa- tion, the path to documentation. Beginnings Work- shop: Observation and Assessment, Exchange, 45-49.

Malaguzzi, L. (March, 1994) Your image of the child: Where teaching begins. Exchange, 52-56.

Maxwell, K. L., & Cliff ord, R. M. (2004). School readi- ness assessment in Spotlight on Young Children and Assessment. Washington, DC: NAEYC, 29-37.

McLaughlin, K., & Sugarman, S. (1982). Personal com- munications.

Meisels, S. J., & Atkins-Burnett, S. (2005). Developmen- tal screening in early childhood: A guide (5th Ed). Washington, DC: National Association for the Edu- cation of Young Children.

National Association for the Education of Young Chil- dren (NAEYC) and the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education (NAECS/SDE). (2003). Position state- ment on early childhood curriculum, assessment, and program evaluation—building an eff ective, ac- countable system in programs for children birth through age 8. http: //www.naeyc.org/about/ positions/pdf/CAPEexpand.pdf

National Center for Fair and Open Testing (NCFOT). Cambridge, MA: Fair Test, 2006.

New Oxford American Dictionary (2nd Ed). England: Oxford University Press, 2005.

Parten, M. B. (1932). Social participation among pre- school children. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psy- chology, 27, 243-269.

Pendowski, J. L. (2006, Spring). Portfolios and their use in the early learning environment. CAEYC Con- nections.

Saxton, R. R. (1998, April). Personal communication.

Schiller, P., & Willis, C. A. (2008, July). Of primary in- terest: Using brain-based teaching strategies to create supportive early childhood environments that ad- dress learning standards. Young Children, 52-55.

Schweinhart, L. J. (1993, July). Observing young chil- dren in action: Th e key to early childhood assess- ment. Young Children, 45(5), 29-33.

Seefeldt, C., & Barbour, N. (1997). Early childhood edu- cation: An introduction (4th Ed). New York: Mac- Millan College Publishing.

Shepard, L. A., Kagan, S. L., & Wurtz, E. (Eds.) (1998). Principles and recommendations for early childhood assessments. Washington, DC: National Education Goals Panel.

Shillady, A. L. (2004) Choosing an appropriate assess- ment system. In Spotlight on Young Children and As- sessment. Washington, DC: NAEYC, 54-59.

Special thanks to the following Early Childhood Edu- cation students for their observation samples: M. Duraliza, J. Gallero, C. Grupe, L. Hutton, C. Liner, C. Robinson, & M. Saldivar.

234 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Guiding Children’s Behavior

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

■ Why do children behave the way they do?

■ What are the factors that aff ect children’s behaviors?

■ What is the diff erence between discipline and punishment?

■ What are the most eff ective guidance techniques?

■ What should the teacher do if school and home guidance techniques diff er?

NAEYC CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Th ese Core Values and sections from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct are ad- dressed in this chapter. As you read, note how the Core Values, Ideals, or Principles listed here apply to the topics in this chapter. (Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

Core Values: We have committed ourselves to helping children and adults achieve their full potential in the context of relationships that are based on trust, respect, and positive regard.

Section I: I.1-4 To appreciate the special vulnerability of children P-1.1 Not to participate in practices that are disrespectful, degrading, dangerous,

exploitative, intimidating, emotionally damaging, or physically harmful. I-2.4 To respect families’ childrearing values and their rights to make decisions for

their children. P-3C.1 To utilize the education, training, experience, and expertise of staff members

in decisions concerning children and programs.

7

© Cengage Learning

C H A P T E R

236 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

The Guidance Triangle Guidance is the ongoing process of helping children learn to control their basic impulses, express their feel- ings, channel their frustrations, and solve their problems. Th ere are no quick fi xes or strategies that apply to all circumstances. Positive guidance methods are created to fi t a child, an adult (parent, teacher), and a situation. Th ese three elements, when considered together, suggest the most appropriate guidance strategies. Figure 7-1 shows these three factors in relation to one another.

Th roughout this chapter, the relationship between the child, the adult, and the situation will be refl ected in guidance theory and practices.

Understanding Behavior In the toddler class, 2-year-olds Shawnsey and Kim are playing in the dress-up area. Kim grabs at one of the many necklaces Shawnsey has draped around

FIGURE 7-1 The Guidance Triangle (From Ann Gordon & Kathryn Williams Browne, Guiding Young Children in a Diverse Society. Published by Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 1996 by Pearson Education. Reprinted with permission of the pub- lisher.)

as an individual • level of development • unique style/temperament • “whole child”: physical, emotional, social, intellectual as a member of • a family • a race/ethnic/cultural group • the group of children in this class

Child

• the role (teacher, parent, coach, advocate, friend) • relationship to the child • values, biases • skills and guidance techniques

Adult Situation • the physical environment • time of day • who, what is involved • what else is happening • what is unique about it

In establishing effective guidance practices, adults take into consideration three important elements: the child, the adult, and the situation. For instance, a 2-year-old needing assistance is more likely to respond to the intervention

of a familiar teacher than one who is substituting for the day.

The Guidance Triangle

237CHAPTER 7 Guiding Children’s Behavior

her neck. Startled, Shawnsey lets out a cry, grabs Kim’s arm, and bites her.

Malcolm, a 5-year-old, rushes through the room, heading for the block area. For just a moment, he stands and watches Lorraine balancing blocks on top of one another in a tall column. With a swift wave of his arm, Malcolm topples the structure.

Mac, a 3½ -year-old, is busy with a puzzle. When a teacher stops at the table to tell the chil- dren it is nearly time to clean up for snacks, Mac re- plies, “My daddy says that cleaning up is a girl’s job and I don’t have to do it.” He throws the puzzle on the fl oor and dashes away from the teacher.

Th ese are typical scenes in any early childhood center. No matter how plentiful the materials, how many or well trained the adults, or how good the program, confl icts are sure to occur. Helping children learn how to cope with their anger, their fears, their frustrations, and their desires is one of the most challenging jobs for a teacher.

To teach children to respect themselves and each other is a complex and diffi cult task. It takes experience, skill, and practice. Look at the examples again. What do they say about children in general? What do they say about Shawnsey, Malcolm, and Mac? How should teach- ers respond to these children, and how does that re- sponse infl uence future behavior? (See “What Do You Th ink?” on spanking on page 240 and Figure 7-6 for discussing solutions to these types of situations.)

Theories To guide children’s behavior, a teacher must fi rst under- stand it. Th is requires a background in child develop- ment, skills in observing, and an understanding about why children behave and misbehave.

Th ere are several ways of explaining what people do and why. One idea is that people’s behavior is mainly a re- sult of heredity (nature). Another is that experience and environment shape behavior (nurture). A third theory sug- gests that children go through “stages” at certain times of their lives regardless of their genes or home background.

All sides have valid arguments in the nature/nurture debate. It is useful to remember that both heredity and experience aff ect behavior. Age and stage theory is also familiar. People speak of the “terrible 2s” or say that all 4-year-old girls are silly. Th ere may be some truth to those generalities, but that does not excuse the inappro-

DAPDAP

priate behavior at the various developmental stages. Teachers and parents cannot ignore misbehavior (unless it is a specifi c guidance strategy) just because children are the “right” age or because of their home situations. Th at attitude implies adults are powerless to help children form new behavior patterns. Not true!

Adults can do something about children’s behavior if they understand what is happening to the child. Where does appropriate behavior come from? Why do children misbehave?

Factors That Affect Behavior Knowing what aff ects children’s behavior and feelings helps adults understand and manage the misbehaving child. Teachers can anticipate problems instead of wait-

DAP Every culture has different ways of dealing with emotions, so early childhood educators will need to be aware of how they and the families respond to children’s emotions.

For guidance to be successful, a teacher must fi rst under- stand children’s behavior.

© C

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a rn

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238 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

ing for them to occur; preventive measures are part of guiding children’s behavior. Th ese factors combine as- pects of both nature and nurture theories, as well as the theories of ages and stages of development. Th e three vi- gnettes at the beginning of the chapter provide examples of all fi ve factors, which are: (1) developmental; (2) envi- ronmental; (3) individual; (4) emotional and social; and (5) cultural.

1. Developmental Factors. Adults who work with chil- dren should be aware of developmental theory to know what type of behavior to expect of children at various ages. Developmental theory helps teachers anticipate what children will do so that they can maintain reasonable expectations. To see behavior as predictable and developmentally appropriate is to understand it more completely and guide it more eff ectively.

Th e facts are that Shawnsey, Kim, Malcolm, and Mac have been in a group setting for more than three hours and it is nearly snack time. Teachers know that preschoolers cannot be expected to be in control of themselves over extended periods of time. Confl icts and disagreements happen in any group of children. Hungry children are often ineff ective problem solvers; Mac might be more manageable af- ter snack. It is also clear to the teacher that the tod- dlers do not have the language or social develop- ment skills to talk problems out with other children as do Malcolm and Mac.

2. Environmental Factors. Th rough the intentional use of the environment, the teacher indirectly in- fl uences behavior in the classroom. Th e goals for positive behavior should be refl ected in the class- room setting. Th e physical environment should tell children clearly how to act in that space. Child-size furniture that fi ts the preschool body encourages sitting and working behavior. Room arrangements that avoid spaces that could be used encourage children to walk from place to place. Low, open shelves create an expectation that chil- dren will take materials out and put them away after use.

Materials and equipment should be adequate and in- teresting to the age group. When children are occupied

with stimulating and interesting age-appropriate materi- als, there are fewer opportunities for misbehavior. Th e materials can challenge children, overwhelm them, or bore them. If materials and equipment are suitable, chil- dren will feel more at ease with themselves and be more willing to accept adults’ limits and controls. Adding ma- terials and equipment can help prevent arguments over a favorite toy, create new and interesting challenges, and extend children’s play ideas.

Shawnsey and Kim’s teacher will want to add more necklaces to the dress-up area if there are not enough to outfi t several children.

Changing the environment when needed can help avert behavior problems. Removing attractive but breakable items reduces tears and confl icts. Some materials may prove to be too stimulating and may need to be removed for a while. Some activities may need to be limited to specifi c locations to control the level of activity and be- havior. Look at Figure 7-2 to evaluate how the environ- ment is related to your guidance philosophy and chil- dren’s behavior. Chapter 9 contains a detailed discussion of many factors that should be considered when design- ing spaces for young children. Many of these environ- mental considerations directly infl uence children’s behavior.

Th e daily schedule and timing of events indirectly infl uence classroom behavior. When there are blocks of time to choose activities, children can proceed at their own pace without feeling hurried.

Mac, for instance, had just settled in at the puzzle table when the teacher told him that it was time to clean up. Uncooperative behavior is sometimes re- lated to time pressures.

Children feel free to work, move, and play and are able to accept the teacher’s control when it is necessary. Th e physical needs of eating, sleeping, and toileting are met by careful scheduling so that children are able to play without concern for the necessities of life. Schedules that do not allow enough time for clean up and transitions produce a frantic climate.

3. Individual Factors. Teachers of young children soon learn the temperamental characteristics of each child in the class.

DAPDAP

DAPDAP

DAP Foster inclusion by choosing materials that refl ect gender equity, varying abilities, and multiculturalism. DAP Children’s individual temperaments are a signifi cant consideration in guiding their behavior.

239CHAPTER 7 Guiding Children’s Behavior

Hondi works and plays with great intensity; Norman is easily distracted. Tawana fears any change, whereas Enrique thrives on challenges. Th e consistent patterns of temperament that emerge help defi ne each child’s individual style. Th e teacher will want to support and comfort Kim at the same time she lets Shawnsey know that biting will not be tolerated. It is important to maintain a level of trust with Shawnsey so that she can help learn better ways to communicate her needs.

Research by Th omas and Chess (1977) has identifi ed three types of temperament in babies: the easy child, the diffi cult child, and the slow-to-warm-up child. Th e traits used to classify these children were: activity level, regu- larity and rhythm of bodily routines, adaptability, physi- cal sensitivity, intensity of reaction, ease of distraction, mood, and attention span. Th ese diff erences were ob-

served in very young infants and seem to remain consis- tent as the child grows.

Research supports the concept of individual diff er- ences that are present from birth and the importance of acknowledging those diff erences. If parents and teach- ers come to know the nature of a child’s temperament, they can accept that as part of the wholeness of that particular child. Guidance measures can be tailored to meet the unique needs of a slow-to-warm-up child, for instance, or a diffi cult child. Th ose strategies will need to be diff erent from techniques used to discipline the easy child. Children’s temperament also aff ects the way people deal with them. An easy child is easy to respond to; a slow-to-warm-up child may be harder to reach. Diffi cult children may tend to be blamed for things they did not do. Identifying traits can be useful as long as adults are careful not to label children unfairly or prematurely.

Relationship of Family Patterns to Child’s Behavior and Guidance Strategies

____ Are the materials within easy reach of the children, promoting self-selection and independence?

____ Are there enough materials so that sharing does not become a problem?

____ Are the areas in which activities take place clearly defi ned so that children know what happens there?

____ Does the room arrangement avoid runways and areas with no exits?

____ Do children have their own private space? ____ Are children able to use all visible and accessible

materials? Are there materials about which children are told “Don’t touch”?

Personnel ____ Are there enough teachers to give adequate

attention to the number of children in the class? ____ Are the group size and makeup balanced so that

children have a variety of playmates? ____ Are the teachers experienced, and do they seem

comfortable in setting limits and guiding children’s behavior?

____ Do teachers use their attention to encourage behavior they want, and do they ignore what they want to discourage?

____ Do all adults consistently enforce the same rules?

Time ____ Does the daily schedule provide enough time for

unhurried play? ____ Are those periods that create tension—

transitions from one activity to another—given enough time?

____ Is cleanup a leisurely process built in at the end of each activity, with children participating?

Program Planning and Curriculum ____ Is there enough to do so that children have

choices and alternatives for play? ____ Is the curriculum challenging enough to prevent

boredom and restlessness? ____ Are there activities to help children release

tension? Do the activities allow for body movement, exploration, and manipulation of materials?

____ Are children included in developing the rules and setting guidelines? How is their inclusion demonstrated?

Organization and Order ____ If children are expected to put things away after

use, are the cabinets low, open, and marked in some way?

FIGURE 7-2 Classroom checklist. By anticipating children’s needs and growth patterns, teachers set up classrooms that foster constructive and purposeful behavior.

240 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Malcolm, for instance, is enthusiastic and plunges into activities spontaneously, sometimes without looking ahead or surveying the wreckage he leaves behind. His teacher is aware that he can be person- able and cooperative if he is given options and a chance to make decisions. As they talk together about Lorraine’s blocks, the teacher off ers Malcolm a choice: to talk with Lorraine to see if she would like to have him help rebuild the same structure or start a new one. Both Malcolm and the teacher fi nd satisfaction in working together in ways that acknowledge and respect Malcolm’s personal style.

4. Emotional and Social Factors. Some behavior prob- lems stem from the child’s attempt to express social and emotional needs. Th ese include the need to feel loved and cared for, the need to be included, the de- sire to be considered important and valued, the desire to have friends, and the need to feel safe from harm. Young children are still working out ways to express these needs and feelings. Typically, because they are only just learning language and communication skills, it is often through nonverbal or indirect actions that children let us know what is bothering them. It is also important to provide children with models of language for resolving these confl icts. It is important

to let children know that we recognize they can be angry, jealous, or hurt. Th e supportive adult will help children fi nd satisfying ways to cope with their social and emotional feelings.

Shawnsey is an only child of older parents and has little opportunity outside of school to interact with others her age. Malcolm comes from a big, boisterous family in which taking care of one’s own desires and needs is instilled early on. Mac’s parents are divorced and he is now living with his grandmother while his mother looks for work in another town. Th eir teachers understand their bids for attention and weigh each child’s social and emotional history as they guide them toward positive behavior.

Other infl uences aff ect behavior. Weather seems to aff ect children. Wild, windy, rainy days seem to stimulate chil- dren into high and excitable behavior. Bright, sunny days also seem to infl uence a child’s mood and temperament.

“Spanking may allow a parent to let off steam, but it doesn’t teach a child the right way to behave. What’s more, it is

humiliating and emotionally harmful, and it can lead to physical injury. Worst of all, spanking teaches youngsters that violence is an acceptable way to communicate. The American Academy of Pediatrics strongly opposes hitting children” (American Academy of Pediatrics, 1997).

Spanking children is a controversial issue. Do you agree or disagree with the AAP? Why? Where in the Code of Ethical Conduct in Appendix A does it address this issue?

What Do

YOU Think?

Teachers are called upon to deal with a variety of emo- tional needs.

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Problems that upset adults can make an impression on a child. A family crisis, a new baby, or a recent divorce has impact. Sharing a bedroom, visits from relatives, illness, television, videos or movies, siblings, nutrition, and health aff ect children’s behavior. Th e longer teachers work with children, the more adept they become at see- ing how these various factors shape the behavior of the individual children in their class. In Chapter 14, the young child’s social and emotional growth is further explored.

5. Cultural Factors. Today’s children are growing up in a country of unparalleled diversity. Many diff erent cul- tures are converging and creating a nation of peoples, cultures, languages, and attitudes. Children and their teachers are living in a world of continual cross-cul- tural interactions, so the ability to communicate across cultures is a critical skill to have when guiding children’s behavior. (See also discussions in Chapters 2, 5, 8, and 15.) A review of Erikson’s and Vygotsky’s theories in Chapter 4 and Bronfenbrenner’s theory in Chapter 15 underscores the connection between culture and behavior.

Discipline is deeply embedded within the values and beliefs of the family. Th e family’s culture shapes how they raise their children, and each family is unique in the way it interprets its cultural values. Child-rearing prac- tices such as the timing of toilet training to physical punishment are culturally infl uenced. Th e messages chil- dren receive about their behavior should be consistent between school and home. Yet, confl ict may be inevitable because the culturally infl uenced child-rearing practices of the family may be at odds with a teacher’s ideas and expectations (Gordon & Browne, 1996).

In some cultures, children are encouraged to chal- lenge adult opinions, whereas this would be considered disrespectful in other cultures. Each child must be val- ued as part of a family system, no matter the origin or structure, and the teacher’s role is to support the child’s sense of security and identity within the family. Children bring their unique individuality to the classroom, but they are also bearers of the context in which they are be- ing raised: their family, culture, ethnicity, religion, socio- economic status, and neighborhood. When we are aware of these infl uences, we are better able to match who the child is with the most eff ective guidance approach (Gor- don & Browne, 1996).

DAPDAP

In some families, a sense of community is valued over individualism, a concept that can create diffi culty in the early childhood classroom unless it is understood and appreciated. Early childhood educators, for the most part, do not force children to share personal possessions before they seem ready to, and they encourage children to become autonomous at an early age. Th is is at odds with families in which cooperation and sharing are val- ued concepts, as is dependency on other family mem- bers. Teachers will need to become culturally sensitive to some of the long-held assumptions of teaching young children. Th e sections on “Self-Awareness” and “Atti- tudes and Biases” in Chapter 5 suggest ways in which teachers can address stereotypes and prejudices that may interfere with their eff ectiveness in guiding children’s behavior.

Schools must be inviting and safe places in which families from all cultures can express their perceptions, concerns, and expectations about their children. Teach- ers will need to be fl exible and nonjudgmental as they work with the cultural implications of children’s behav- ior. Figure 7-3 shows how diff erent family cultural pat- terns relate to a child’s behavior and an appropriate guidance strategy. Kim (who was playing with Shawnsey) has a family culture that views the teacher as a respected authority fi gure and one who must be obeyed. Th is places Kim in an uncomfortable position if her teacher does not understand why Kim does not make activity choices easily and prefers to have the teacher tell her where to play and work each day. As teachers become fa- miliar with the customs and beliefs of the families in the program, they will gain insights into children’s behavior and understand the reasons for the way a child responds.

DAP Culturally sensitive teaching strategies recognize the parent’s perspective and the child’s family experience.

Ask yourself: Do my classroom and teaching style refl ect the patterns and relationships of one particular culture or many cultures?

What Do

YOU Think?

242 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Family Culture Child’s Experience and Behavior Guidance Strategy

Power Structure

Democratic family—members share in decision making

Child is encouraged to negotiate and compromise.

Offer real choices; use problem- solving techniques.

One family member makes all of the decisions

Child is expected to obey, follow commands, and respect adult authority. Child may be unable to choose activities, look adults in the eye, or call them by name.

Don’t insist on eye contact. Child may need help in selecting an activity. Work with the family members who make the decisions.

Values

Strong, close-knit family Child learns that the family comes fi rst; the individual sacrifi ces for the family.

Recognize that family matters may take precedence over school.

Honor, dignity, and pride Child’s behavior refl ects family honor; child is disciplined for rudeness or poor manners.

Share achievements with parents; help child learn manners; be sensitive when discussing child’s behavior problems.

Expressing feelings is accepted Child is allowed to cry, scream, throw temper tantrums.

Accept child’s crying as you give comfort; stay with child until he is calm.

Issue of Discipline

Clear, direct discipline Child learns to respect authority and does what he is told to do; child may not take positive guidance strategies seriously or ignore them.

Use a sense of humor; make fi rm statements.

Discipline motivated toward inherent goodness

Child has freedom to explore consequences and is warned of possible embarrassment due to behavior.

Child may be passive if disciplined harshly. Use natural consequences; ask rather than demand.

Discipline motivated from inherent self-interest

Child is scolded, threatened, and controlled by promises.

Model desired behavior; use “if/ then” statements: “If you fi nish eating, then you can play.” Praise good manners and good behavior.

Family Patterns and Children’s Behavior

FIGURE 7-3 Sample of culturally diverse family patterns that affect guidance and disci- pline. Knowledge of culturally diverse family patterns and guidance strategies to paral- lel these child-rearing styles can allow you to begin a dialogue with the children you teach. (From Roots and Wings (Revised Edition), by Stacey York, pp. 66, 68, 69, 70. Copyright © 2003 by Stacey York. Adapted with permission from Redleaf Press, St. Paul, Minnesota, www.redleafpress.org.)

243CHAPTER 7 Guiding Children’s Behavior

Guiding Young Children Th e overall process of guidance is a common concern of parents and teachers and can be the basis for a strong partnership as they learn together why Dominick whines or Carrie dawdles or Cleo disrupts group time.

What Is Guidance? Guidance is an ongoing system by which adults help children learn to manage their impulses, express feelings, channel frustrations, solve problems, and learn the dif- ference between acceptable and unacceptable behavior (Browne & Gordon, 2009). Th e children we meet in early childhood programs are just learning how strong their emotions can be and what impact they have on their own behavior and on others. Behavior is the unspo- ken language through which children act out feelings and thoughts. Until they learn to express themselves vo- cally, they use a variety of behaviors to communicate. Using words (for instance, a resounding “No!” when someone takes a toy away) is slowly replacing biting, hit- ting, crying, and tantrums as a way to respond to frustra- tion. Caring and respectful adults create a supportive at- mosphere to help young children explore alternative behaviors, develop social skills, and learn to solve prob- lems. Th is is called a positive approach to guidance.

Practice these examples of positive guidance:

■ Tell children what it is you want them to do. Make directions and suggestions in positive statements, not in negative forms. “Walk around the edge of the grass, Hilla, so you won’t get hit by the swing” instead of “Don’t get hit!”

■ Reinforce what children do right, what you like, and what you want to see repeated. Th is helps build the relationship on positive grounds. “Good job, Sammy. You worked hard on that puzzle.”

■ Give indirect suggestions or reminders, emphasizing what you want children to do. Help them refocus on the task without nagging or confrontation. “I know you are excited about the fi eld trip, Mickey. Looks like you are almost fi nished putting on your jacket so we can go” instead of “Hurry and button that jacket so we can go.”

■ Use positive redirection whenever possible. “Let’s get a basket for you to toss those balls in. Th at way you won’t bother other children who are playing nearby.”

■ Use encouragement appropriately, focusing on help- ing children achieve success and understanding what it is you want them to learn.

“Harry, I notice you are being careful about where you put your feet as you climb that tree. It looks to me like you are fi nding good places to stand” communicates a supportive attitude and tells the child what he is doing well. Global praise, such as “Great climbing, Harry. Good for you!” may leave children wondering what ex- actly it is they have been praised for and omits the learning they can derive from the experience.

■ Give reasons for your request. Let children know in simple, straightforward statements the reasons be- hind your request. Children are more likely to coop- erate when they can understand the reason why. “Tom, if you move those chairs, then you and Dee will have more room to dance” instead of “Move the chairs, Tom.”

Th rough daily experiences, children construct their moral and social world, and they need adult guidance. Th e concept of guide—one who leads, explains, and supports— is an important one (Gordon & Browne, 1996). A guide points out directions, answers questions, and helps you get where you want to go. Th is is what teachers do as they help children learn to balance impulse and outer controls.

A positive guidance approach requires the active par- ticipation of both child and adult in order to be success- ful. Adults help children learn appropriate behavior by serving as models of behavior. Good role models deliber- ately vary their teaching styles and strategies to accom- modate diff erent learning styles and cultural patterns.

Inductive Guidance Th ere are a number of guidance approaches woven throughout the chapter that have many similar compo- nents and fall under the defi nition of inductive guid- ance. Th e key elements of inductive guidance are:

1. Guidance is an interactive process that actively in- volves children, as well as adults.

2. Children are increasingly held responsible for their actions as they begin to understand the impact of their behavior on others.

3. Inductive guidance helps a child learn thinking and reasoning skills, which fosters self-control and the development of a conscience.

4. Children learn to refl ect on their feelings and their actions.

Th ese four elements of inductive guidance are supported when teachers provide choices for children, ask open- ended questions (“What would happen if you took her book?” “How do you think he would feel if you said you did not want to play with him?”), and communicate trust and confi dence in children’s ability to solve problems.

244 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled, “Ele- mentary Classroom Management: Basic Strate- gies.” After you study the video clip, view the arti- facts, and read the teacher interviews and text, refl ect upon the following questions:

1. Kindergarten teacher Amy spoke of building teamwork. What examples did you observe in this video case that supported teamwork as a way to promote positive behavior?

2. How do you think Amy’s attitude toward behav- ior problems affects her relationship with the children in her class?

TeachSource Video

❙ ❙

Th e inductive guidance principles are based on the theories of Erikson and Piaget but owe particular credit to Vygostsky, who placed children’s learning in the con- text of social interactions. Th e zone of proximal distance (see Chapter 4), for instance, reinforces the reciprocal relationship between adults and children implied in most inductive guidance techniques. Th omas and Chess’s (1977) “goodness of fi t,” in which the adult addresses the child’s unique temperament in choosing guidance strate- gies, is refl ected as well in inductive guidance. Family context also continues to be a priority when selecting appropriate guidance methods.

By integrating these principles into a positive guid- ance approach, teachers enlarge the child’s capacity to become increasingly self-directed and self-reliant.

What Is Discipline? Discipline is a part of the guidance strategies adults use to help children become responsible for their actions, learn self-control, and behave appropriately. Discipline stems from the word disciple, that is, a pupil, a follower, and a learner. Th is suggests two important concepts: that of fol- lowing an example versus following rules and that of posi- tive discipline. Discipline and guidance are similar in that eff ective discipline has the same foundation of thoughtful, nonpunitive methods that promote children’s empathy and moral reasoning (Browne & Gordon, 2009).

What Is Punishment? Punishment is a consequence for inappropriate behavior and a power assertive technique that relies on children’s fears rather than the use of reason and understanding.

Punishment is too often a knee-jerk reaction by an adult and may be based on negative strategies such as threats, shaming, and spanking, which are damaging to children’s self-esteem. To be eff ective, punishment should be related to the behavior and help children learn from the situation. For instance, when Georgia grabs a book from Ruthie, the teacher will want to help Georgia learn to negotiate for a turn rather than punish her with a time out. Georgia will learn new strategies for controlling her impulses. To main- tain a positive approach to guidance, always avoid:

■ Methods that will shame, frighten, or humiliate children.

■ Physical abuse; physical punishment. ■ Comparisons among children. Comparisons foster

competitiveness and aff ect self-esteem. ■ Carryovers from the incident. Once it is over, leave

it behind; do not keep reminding children about it. ■ Consequences that are too long, too punitive, or

postponed. Children benefi t most from immediate, short consequences.

■ Making promises you cannot keep. ■ Being overly helpful. Let children do as much as they

can by themselves, including solving their own confl icts. ■ Th reatening children with the loss of your aff ection.

To some, the words discipline and punishment are syn- onymous. Th ey are not as Figure 7-4 shows how these terms mean very diff erent things.

Toward Self-Discipline One of the major goals of a good guidance process is to help children achieve self-discipline. Th is happens only if adults lead in ways that support children’s developing ability to control themselves. By gradually handing over to children the opportunity to govern their own actions, adults communicate trust. For young children with their emerging initiative, this is an important step to take. With added responsibility and trust comes an added di- mension of self-respect and self-confi dence. Such chil- dren feel capable and worthwhile.

Along with self-respect, the child must taste the free- dom that comes with a lessening of adult controls. Chil- dren do not learn to handle freedom by being told what to do all the time. Only when they have an opportunity to test themselves and make some decisions on their own will they know their capabilities. Young children must learn this in safe places with adults who allow them as much freedom as they can responsibly handle.

An eff ective guidance approach is interactive. Adults and children both learn to change as they interact with one another toward a common goal. Figure 7-5 summarizes

245CHAPTER 7 Guiding Children’s Behavior

Differences Between Positive Guidance and Punishment

Positive Guidance Punishment

Emphasizes what the child should do Emphasizes what the child should not do

Is an ongoing process Is a one-time occurrence

Sets an example to follow Insists on obedience

Leads to self-control Undermines independence

Helps children change Is an adult release

Is positive Is negative

Accepts child’s need to assert self Makes children behave

Fosters child’s ability to think Thinks for the child

Bolsters self-esteem Defeats self-esteem

Shapes behavior Condemns misbehavior

FIGURE 7-4 Positive guidance encourages children’s interaction and involvement; pun- ishment is usually something that is done to a child.

Guidance: An Interactive Approach

Guidance is an interactive process in which both children and adults may learn. Everyone benefi ts from disciplinary practices that foster changes in attitudes and behaviors.

We Teach Adults Learn to Children Learn to

Values Express Internalize

Self-control Maintain own Practice

Respect Give to child Accord to others

Appropriate behavior Model Observe and imitate

Limits Be clear and consistent Accept consequences

Feelings Accept own and child’s Identify and label

Problem solving Offer meaningful choices Make decisions

Self-esteem Protect and enhance Respect and appreciate self

Rule setting Share power Participate in creating behavior controls

Taking another’s viewpoint Be sympathetic and understanding

To be empathetic

Collaboration Involve child in solutions Problem-solve cooperatively

FIGURE 7-5 Guidance is an interactive process in which both children and adults may learn. Everyone benefi ts from disciplinary practices that foster changes in attitudes and behaviors. (From Ann Gordon & Kathryn Williams Browne, Guiding Young Children in a Diverse Society. Published by Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 1996 by Pear- son Education. Reprinted with permission of the publisher.)

246 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

some of the ways children and adults can learn from a guid- ance and positive discipline philosophy.

Developmentally Appropriate Guidance Each developmental stage has shared characteristics, modifi ed, of course, by a child’s individual rate of growth. It is as typical for 4-year-olds to test limits as it is for toddlers to have a strong sense of ownership about their possessions. To have a developmentally appropriate guidance approach, teachers take this knowledge and understanding of child development principles into con- sideration as they contemplate how best to respond to a child’s behavior.

Identifying the behaviors that are typical to a spe- cifi c age group provides a context in which to under- stand the child and behavior that can be seen as normal and predictable. Guidance based on a developmental approach will help a teacher to know that fi rst and sec- ond graders have an ability to consider others’ points of view, so they will choose problem-solving methods that will ask children to think of how their behavior aff ected others.

A developmentally appropriate approach also re- quires that the teacher consider what is known about the individual child, as well as what is typical for the age group. Th is ensures that the guidance techniques will match the capabilities of the child and that adult expec- tations will remain reasonable. You foster developmen- tally appropriate guidance when you:

■ Allow plenty of time for children to respond. Give them an opportunity to decide their course of action.

■ Review limits and rules periodically. Modify them as children’s growth and maturation indicate. Change them as circumstances change; be fl exible.

■ Encourage children to talk things over. Be open to their point of view even if you cannot accept it. Let them know you are willing to listen to all sides of the confl ict.

■ Become aware of the climate in the room or yard. Anticipate the need for a change of pace or a diff er- ent activity before children become bored or trou- blesome.

■ Remember, it takes time and numerous opportuni- ties for changes in behavior to occur. By using con- sistent positive guidance techniques, you will help children practice new behavior repeatedly.

Culturally Appropriate Guidance An emerging issue, as our population becomes more and more diverse, has to do with cultural values and guidance. Teachers may be confronted by parents whose guidance practices are contrary to the school’s philosophy. Pressure may be exerted on teachers to apply some of those same techniques at school that parents use at home. Teachers want to maintain the school’s, as well as their own stan- dards without communicating to the family that their values are wrong or have children feel that something about their home and family is diminished in the teacher’s eyes. Gonzalez-Mena (2008) emphasizes the teacher’s responsibility to learn cross-cultural communication when child-rearing practices are in confl ict between home and school and suggests the following strategies:

■ Accept that both viewpoints are equally valid. ■ Work together to fi gure out a solution to the situation. ■ Resist assigning meaning and values to the behavior

of others on the basis of your own culture. ■ Remember that your behavior does not necessarily

convey your own meaning and values. ■ Educate yourself about the diff erent cultures repre-

sented in your classroom. Learn how and what is

Body height and position are important. Getting down to the child’s eye level pro- vides for greater impact and involvement.

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communicated through facial gestures, touch, eye contact, physical closeness, and time concepts.

■ Observe, ask, and talk about what the diff erences are; learn from the parents of the children in the class- room what you need to know about their culture.

■ Maintain an open attitude that promotes respect and appreciation for each other’s views.

Ethical issues involving culture-based diff erences are discussed in Chapter 5. Th e anti-bias curriculum, as de- scribed in Chapters 5 and 9, suggests some strategies as well. Also see “Child Development and Cultural Diver- sity” in Chapter 4. Th e NAEYC Code of Ethical Con- duct (Appendix A) is a useful resource for ethical con- cerns when working with families from many cultures.

The Language of Guidance and Discipline Guidance has a language all its own. As teachers gain ex- perience in handling problem behaviors, they learn to use that language. Th e result, in most cases, is interde- pendence: the more practiced teachers become in the language of guidance, the more comfortable they become in developing their own approach to guidance problems. Also, the more comfortable they are in that approach, the more eff ectively they use language to solve behavior problems.

Th e language and communication techniques in guidance are both spoken and unspoken. Teachers dis- cover how potent the voice can be—what words will work best and when. Th ey become aware of facial ex- pressions and what a touch or a look will convey to chil- dren. How they use their body refl ects a distinct attitude and approach to discipline. Th rough experience, new teachers will learn how to use these tools in ways that will work best for them and the children.

Voice Some adults feel that when they are speaking to children they must assume a diff erent voice from the one they normally use. Talk to children in the same way you talk to other people. Learn to control the volume and use good speech patterns for children to imitate. To be heard, get close enough to speak in a normal tone; get down to the child’s level. Often, lowering volume and pitch is eff ective.

DAPDAP

Words Th e fewer the words, the better. Simple, clear statements, spoken once, will have more impact. Th e child will be able to focus on the real issues involved. A brief descrip- tion of what happened, a word or two about what behav- ior is acceptable and what is not, and a suggestion for possible solutions are all that is necessary.

Choose words carefully. Th ey should convey to the child exactly what is expected. “Richy, move the block closer to the truck so Sarah will not bump into it again” tells Richy in a positive, concrete way what he can do to protect his block building. If he had been told, “Richy, watch where you are building,” he would not know what action to take to solve the problem.

Body Language When working with small children, the teacher must be aware of body height and position. Sit, squat, or kneel— but get down to their level. It is diffi cult to communicate warmth, caring, and concern from two or three feet above a child’s head, or by shouting from across the room.

Guidance is founded on a loving, caring relationship between child and adult. To help children gain control over their impulses and monitor their own behavior, teachers must establish a sense of trust and well being with children.

Th e way teachers use their body invites or rejects close relationship and familiarity. A child will fi nd teach- ers more approachable if they are seated low, with arms available, rather than standing, with arms folded.

Making full use of the senses can soften the impact of words. A fi rm grip on the hand of a child who is hit- ting out, a gentle touch on the shoulder, tells children the adult is there to protect them from themselves and oth- ers. Eye contact is essential. Teachers learn to communi- cate the seriousness of a situation through eye and facial expressions. Th ey also show reassurance, concern, sad- ness, and aff ection this way. Physical presence should convey to the child a message that the teacher is there, available, and interested.

Attitude Attitude is part of the unspoken language of guiding children. Attitudes are derived from experience. You should examine the way you were disciplined and ac- knowledge your experiences and feelings about it, par-

DAP The language of discipline may differ from culture to culture. Gender differences, which may be cultural, may emerge, encour- aging boys to “hit back” and girls to be more passive in solving confl icts.

248 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

ticularly assumptions you may have on how children be- have depending on their race, gender, or culture.

Implications for Teaching A teacher has direct and indirect infl uence on children’s behavior. Some of the ways teachers deal directly with discipline are by what they say and what they do. Indi- rectly, a teacher’s infl uence is felt just as strongly. Room arrangements and time schedules, attitudes, and behav- ior can work for or against good guidance practices. Teachers who are well grounded in the developmental process know that problem behaviors are normal and occur in every early childhood setting. Th ey realize that growing children must have a safe, secure place in which to test themselves against the world.

A Behavior Model Th e teacher as a behavior model is an important ele- ment in guidance. Children pattern their responses after adult behaviors. Th ey are aware of how teachers respond to anger, frustration, and aggression; and how they solve problems and confl icts. Adults must be sure to model the desired behavior around the children they teach. To be successful models, teachers should be aware of their emotions and feelings; they do not want to compound a problem by their own reaction. Adults who express neg- ative feelings to children must proceed carefully, stating

their position clearly, honestly, and objectively in a low, calm voice:

■ It bothers me when you call Roberto a dummy. ■ You do not need to yell at me. I can hear you from

right here. Tell me again in a quieter voice. ■ I am serious about this—no biting. ■ Sometimes I get angry when children try to hurt

each other. ■ It makes me sad to see all that food going to waste.

Please put just enough on your plate so that you will eat it all.

Remember that children are frightened by strong feel- ings; do not overwhelm them with your own behavior.

Consistency Being consistent is one of the key elements in good guid- ance practices. If adults want to develop mutual trust, the rules must be clear, fair, and enforced consistently and regularly. At the same time, children need to know what will happen if rules are not followed. Conse- quences, too, should be consistent.

Realistic Expectations Teachers should have realistic expectations for children, neither too high nor too low. Sometimes they presume children have abilities and skills they do not yet possess, and this may cause children to respond in inappropriate ways. It can be helpful to rehearse with children how they are expected to act. Practice sessions are especially useful when introducing a new topic or plan.

One teacher rehearsed the children for their fi rst bus ride to go on a fi eld trip. Th ey practiced singing, looking out the windows, having snacks, and talking with friends. A large outline of a bus was drawn with chalk on the patio fl oor. Th e children pre- tended to board the bus, walk down the narrow aisle, fi nd a seat, and remember to take big steps getting up and down the steps. When the fi eld trip day arrived, children knew several appropriate ways of behaving while on the long bus trip.

Many times children are asked to do jobs that are too complicated for them. Th e young child who is just learn- ing to put on a jacket is a good example. Children may not be able to accomplish the entire job at fi rst; it is help- ful to them if the task is broken down into smaller steps. Start out small: Let Gordie learn to zip up the jacket. Little by little, teach Gordie how to get his arms in the sleeves. Soon he will be doing the task by himself.

■ Do you think that all children will have problems, misbehave, and make mistakes?

■ Do you think that children are capable of solving their own problems, and do you involve them in the process?

■ Do you accept the child’s right to independence and actively encourage self-reliance? Do you think this is always culturally appropriate?

■ Do you think you can help children accept the responsibility for their own actions without blaming them?

■ Do you think problems can be solved and that you and the child can work them out together?

What Do

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249CHAPTER 7 Guiding Children’s Behavior

Actively Observe As active observers in their classroom, teachers can learn a great deal about the eff ects of their guidance eff orts. When teachers observe, they can time interventions or move into a situation before it becomes problematic. Observations can also be used to help children see how their actions impact others. Chapter 6 has many good observation forms for teachers to use.

Prevent Misbehavior Preventing misbehavior is another part of the teacher’s role. Eff ective guidance practices call for teachers to be alert to potential problems and situations before they re- sult in children’s inappropriate behavior. Even then, un- predictable situations occur: A child becomes tired in the middle of snack time; one of the teachers is called out of the room; rain forces an activity to move indoors; or a scheduled event gets postponed. At these trying and typical times, a teacher’s full range of abilities is called into play. Ways to help children maintain positive behav- ior patterns in these situations include:

1. Recognize and label the problem or situation. Ac- knowledge the diffi culties it presents to the children. Example: “You seem tired, Gus, and I know you had

to wait a long time for your snack. When you have fi nished your juice and cracker, put your head down on the table and rest for a minute.”

2. Ask children for their help. Get them involved in working out the solutions. Example: “Mr. Gallo had to leave for a while. How can we continue with this math project when I need to help out in the writing area too? Who has an idea? What do you think would work?”

3. Assign a job or a task to the children who are most likely to react to the crisis. Example: “Lorraine and Paul, will you carry the special drums inside, please, while I help the others put the wagons away?”

4. Always be prepared with a story to tell, songs to sing, guessing games to play, or exercises to do. Help chil- dren pass the time in an appropriate way modeled by the teacher. Give a new focus. Example: “Th e fi re truck hasn’t arrived at school yet; we’ll have to wait another fi ve minutes. While we are waiting to go and see it, show me how fi refi ghters climb ladders and slide down poles.”

5. Say what you would like to have happen. Admit what you wish you could do to correct the situa- tion. Example: “Oh, little Riko, I wish I could bring your mommy back right now but I can’t. She has to go to work, but I will hold you until your crying stops.”

Th ese guidance practices apply equally to infants and toddlers, but there are some special considerations that teachers should remember. Infants cry—sometimes a great deal. It is their only means of communication. When they cry they should not be ignored or chastised, but comforted. It is helpful to talk to the baby, no mat- ter how young, and begin to identify the steps you will take to ease the distress. “Fernando, you are crying and I don’t know what’s wrong. Let’s take a look at your dia- per; maybe a change will make you more comfortable. Perhaps you are teething; I know that can hurt. Maybe you are hungry; is it time for your bottle yet?” Th ose soothing words as a teacher changes diapers, rubs the baby’s back, or cuddles and rocks ease this time of stress.

Toddlers, too, need adults to use words to express problem situations, and the preceding examples readily apply to working with this active and lively age group. One word of caution, however: Removing infants and toddlers from the group or confi ning them to a playpen or crib is not appropriate. Very young children do not understand that kind of isolation. To be eff ective, guid- ance should be helpful, not punitive.

Effective guidance practice involves children as active participants. How would you help this child solve the problem of being excluded from play?

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250 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

The Guidance Continuum: Ten Essential Strategies How do you decide which guidance strategy is the most appropriate for the situation? Th e following guidance methods are along a continuum that starts with the least intrusive, hands-off approach and moves to those that require greater intervention. Th ey are valuable tools to help children become increasingly self-directed and self-reliant and to help teachers choose the most appropriate methods for the situation. Figure 7-6 illus- trates how guidance techniques may be used to the best advantage.

Ignoring Behavior When misbehavior is of a less serious nature—for in- stance, when a child whines constantly—it may be best to ignore it. Th is kind of behavior, although mildly an- noying, is not harmful. To use the technique success- fully, the adult chooses not to respond to the child in any way and may even become occupied elsewhere while the behavior persists. Th is method is based on the learning theory that negative reinforcement (the adult ignoring the child) will eventually cause the child to stop the undesirable behavior. At fi rst, there might be an increase in the misbehavior as the child tests to

see whether the adult will truly ignore the action. Once the child sees there is nothing to gain, the behavior disappears.

Active Listening and “I” Messages Parents and teachers can learn the art of active listening to respond to a child’s feelings as well as words. Th e adults listen carefully, trying to understand what the child is saying beyond the words being used. Th en they refl ect back in their own words what it is they think the child has said. Th e child has an opportunity to correct any misinterpretations. Further dialogue helps to clarify what the child meant. For example:

Rita: I hate school! Teacher: Sounds as if you are really disappointed you

didn’t get a turn cooking today. Rita: I really wanted to help make pancakes.

“I” messages are an adult’s way of refl ecting back to chil- dren how their actions have aff ected others.

Parent: When you scream indoors, it really hurts my ears.

Parent: I feel sad when you tell me you don’t like me.

“I” messages are honest, nonjudgmental statements that place no blame on the child but that state an observation of the behavior and its results.

The Guidance Continuum

FIGURE 7-6 Follow the Guidance Continuum from left to right for the least intrusive to the most intervening strategies. (From Ann Gordon & Kathryn Williams Browne, Guid- ing Young Children in a Diverse Society. Published by Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA. Copyright © 1996 by Pearson Education. Reprinted with permission of the publisher.)

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251CHAPTER 7 Guiding Children’s Behavior

Reinforcement In Chapters 1 and 4, you met Pavlov, Watson, Th orndike, Skinner, and Bandura, who formulated behaviorist the- ory. Behavior modifi cation is based on the premise that behavior is learned through experiences and can be changed by reinforcement. Reinforcement is the process in which a behavior is followed by a consequence that is likely to make the behavior repeated. If Jonah gets a smile from the teacher for saying, “Th ank you,” he is likely to say it again. A pleasant consequence is often called a re- ward, and unpleasant consequences are often called punishment (Berger, 2005). However, it is the eff ect of the consequence that really matters. If Angie is given an unpleasant consequence (such as being sent to her room for hitting her little brother), she may actually enjoy be- ing isolated so that she can read books or watch videos in her room. In her case, the punishment is actually a reward.

Positive reinforcement is used to teach new and dif- ferent behaviors to a child and to help the child maintain the change. Initially, the reinforcement (or reward) must be swift and consistently applied, as often as the behavior occurs. If the desired behavior is for Janie to always hang her coat on the hook, acknowledge the eff ort each time Janie hangs up her wraps. Once this is a well-established routine, the reinforcement (praise) becomes less intense.

Reinforcers, or rewards, must be individualized to meet the needs of the child and the situation. Social re- inforcers, such as smiling, interest and attention, hug- ging, touching, and talking, are powerful tools with young children. Food, tokens, and money are sometimes used as reinforcers in home and school settings. Th e goal, however, is that inner satisfaction will become its own reward regardless of the type of reinforcer one might use initially. If that does not occur, then other positive guidance measures should be explored.

Parents and teachers often take for granted the posi- tive, desirable behavior in children and may forget to ac- knowledge these behaviors frequently. Behavior modifi - cation helps to correct that oversight. Whenever adults focus on a negative aspect of a child’s behavior and make an attempt to change it, they also look at the positive qualities the child possesses and reinforce them. Th is keeps a balanced perspective while working on a problem.

Behavior modifi cation enables adults to invite chil- dren to be part of the process, giving them an active part in monitoring their own behavior. Children are capable of keeping a chart of how many times they fi nished their

plate, made the bed, or fed the dog. Th is chart serves as a natural reinforcer.

Redirecting and Distraction Sometimes the adult will want to change the activity in which the child is engaged to one that is more acceptable. If Pia and Elena are throwing books off the reading loft, the teacher will want to redirect them and may suggest throwing soft foam balls into a makeshift basket. Th is technique calls for the adult to make an accurate assess- ment of what the children really want to do. In this case, it appears they enjoy throwing from a height. Now the teacher can consider alternatives that permit the desired activity while changing the expression or form it takes: “It looks as if you two are enjoying dropping things from up there. Let’s fi gure out a way you can do that so that books will not be damaged.”

Th e substitute activity must be a valid one, acceptable to the adults and fulfi lling to the children. In most cases, children are not being deliberately malicious or destruc- tive. More than likely, they are expressing curiosity, imagination, and the need to explore. Positive redirec- tion satisfi es these needs in a way that enhances children’s self-concept and self-control.

Distraction is similar to redirection and is used when the adult wants to focus the child’s attention on an activ- ity that may or may not relate to the previous behavior. Very young children, especially infants and toddlers, can easily be distracted from undesirable actions. Consider the example at the beginning of the chapter in which Kim grabs at one of the necklaces Shawnsey has. A quick-thinking teacher could present Kim with another attractive one. Th is method calls for well-timed intervention.

Giving Children Choices Giving choices is a time-honored and popular method for helping children who are being resistant (Browne & Gordon, 2009). Choices help children practice self- reliance, self-direction, and self-discipline. “Seth, the cooking area is too crowded. It looks like there is plenty of room at the clay table or the writing table. Which one would you like to go to while you wait for a turn?”

You must give a choice only when you mean for chil- dren to make the choice and be prepared to accept the answer. “Some of the children are going in for music now. Would you like to join them?” Th is is a reasonable choice if there is another adult to supervise the outside.

252 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Suggest two choices when there is the possibility of resistance. Th is lets a child know you expect him or her to comply with the request but allows some decision making on their part. “It’s time to go home now. Would you like to get your artwork before or after you put on your jacket?”

Th e choice must be valid and acknowledge children’s growing ability to deal with responsibility and help them practice making reasonable choices. “It’s rest time for ev- eryone now. Do you want to pick out some books before or after you brush your teeth?”

Children should be aware of the consequences of the choices they are making. “If you choose the com-

puter now, you won’t have time to fi nish your rain for- est project.” Helping children make reasonable choices gives them a foundation for decision making through- out their life.

Setting Limits Limits are the boundaries we set to help children know what behavior is appropriate. Teachers generally have two reasons for setting limits: (1) to prevent children from injuring themselves or others; and (2) to prevent the destruction of property, materials, or equipment.

Limits are like fences; they are protective structures that help children feel secure. If children know where the fences are, they are free—and safe—to try out many behaviors.

Children may not like fences and may resist attempts to limit their behavior. A natural part of growing up is to stretch those limits and push those fences aside. Limits are self- protective when behavior goes out of bounds. Children are just beginning to exert that inner pressure (self-control) that will help them monitor their own actions. Until then, they need adults to help them learn when and how to apply self-restraint. Lim- its keep them from going too far.

Children can frighten themselves and others with anger, frustration, and fear. Th ey need adults to stop them from doing physical or emotional harm to them- selves or others.

Well-considered limits give the child freedom to try out, test, and explore avenues of self-expression in ways that will promote growth and protect budding autonomy.

Teachers must learn to set and maintain limits with confi dence and authority. When setting limits:

■ Set a limit appropriate to the situation. Example: “Andrew, get down from the table. You may fi nish your work either sitting in your chair or standing next to me. You may not stand on the table.”

■ Match the limit to the child’s age, history, and emo- tional development. Example: “Sheila, you have in- terrupted the story too many times today. Find a place at the puzzle table until we are fi nished. Re- member, I told you earlier that you would not be able to hear the end of the story if you yelled again.”

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“I know you want to stay and play, but it is time to go home now. Do you want to get your jacket by yourself, or do you want me to help?” Choices allow children to gain some control over a stressful situation.

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DAP We help children live more successfully and productively when we teach them to become increasingly responsible for their own actions and behavior.

253CHAPTER 7 Guiding Children’s Behavior

■ See that all adults apply limits consistently. Exam- ple: “I know you want to bat the ball again, but both teachers have said it is Jordan’s turn now.”

■ Reinforce the rules consistently. Example: “Judy, re- member everyone walks inside. You can run later when you are outside.”

■ Follow through and support your words with ac- tions. Example: “I cannot let you tear the books. Since this is the second page this morning, you will need to leave the book nook. I will walk with you while you look for another place to play.”

■ State limits simply, clearly, and directly. Example: “Roger, use your quiet voice indoors. When you are too loud, other people cannot hear one another.”

■ Respect and acknowledge the child’s feelings. Exam- ple: “I know you want your Dad to stay, Megan. He has to go to work now, but I will stay with you while you feel sad.”

■ Act with authority, purpose, and confi dence. Exam- ple: “Put the block down, Nick. I cannot let you hurt other people, and I will not let them hurt you.”

■ Maintain the limit and accept the consequences. Ex- ample: “I am sorry, Sarah. You will not be able to play here any longer because you keep calling Geneva ‘fatty’ and it hurts her feelings.”

■ Do not give in if the child threatens to fall apart or create a scene. Example: “I am sorry that makes you cry, Sarah, but I cannot let you make fun of one of your classmates. When you fi nish crying, we can talk about it some more.”

■ Involve children in creating the limits. Example: “We will be visiting our fi rst grade reading buddies today. What are some of the rules we should follow when we are in their classroom? “

Active Problem Solving Active problem solving engages children in confronting their diff erences and working together to solve their problems. Th e adult guides children toward solutions but does not solve problems for them. Posing open-ended questions, the adult helps keep the child focused so that they can suggest alternate solutions, for example:

“What could you do ? “How might she feel when ?

“What might happen if ? “How can you ?

All of the children’s suggestions must be acknowl- edged seriously, even if they seem unreasonable. Young children may start the discussion by suggesting extreme solutions. In the case of Malcolm, for instance (see the second example at the beginning of this chapter), they might initially suggest: “Do not let Malcolm come to this school anymore.” Th ese suggestions will become tem- pered as other children respond; fair and reasonable so- lutions will eventually emerge: “Anyone who knocks over somebody else’s blocks has to help them build it back up again.”

Rather than assessing blame, teachers help children think through a number of alternatives, including the consequences of their suggestions: “If we close the block area, what will happen when you want to play with your favorite trucks this afternoon?” By assisting them in anticipating the results of what they suggest, teachers can help children understand how their behav- ior infl uences and aff ects others. Th is is an early lesson in a lifelong quest to become responsible for one’s own behavior.

Confl ict resolution should become part of the child’s daily life. Teachers can help children solve dis- agreements nonviolently and explore alternative ways to reach their goals. Figure 7-7 outlines a process for active problem solving and confl ict resolution (see also Figure 7-6). It is useful for resolving diff erences through group discussion, as noted earlier, or when one or more children become embroiled in confl ict. By following such a process, children learn to respect oth- ers’ opinions, to express their own feelings in appropri- ate ways, and to learn tolerance for doing things in a diff erent way.

Th e process also suggests an important guidance principle: Th e adult role is to intervene as little as possi- ble, allowing children the opportunity to come up with an acceptable solution.

When children help create a solution, they come away with a sense of commitment to it. Th is process also gives children a sense of power and control, a sense of independence, and a feeling of self-worth. Read Sue Warford’s “Insights From the Field” article in Chapter 14 for a good example of active problem solving.

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DAP Children should regard school as a caring community that fosters respect for and understands a variety of backgrounds and experiences.

254 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Natural and Logical Consequences Natural consequences enhance children’s ability to take responsibility for themselves. As implied, this approach lets children experience the natural consequences of their actions. Designed by Rudolf Dreikurs, it empha- sizes the opportunity children have to learn from the way their environment functions:

“If you do not eat your dinner, you might be hungry later.”

“If you do not study your words, you might fail your spelling test.” “If you grab the book away from Ben, Ben may retaliate.”

Th is method allows adults to defi ne the situation for children without making judgments and lets children know what to expect. Th e consequences are a natural re- sult of the child’s own actions.

Logical consequences, on the other hand, are a func- tion of what adults impose. For the adult, this means a commitment to follow through; consequences, once

The Six-Step Approach to Problem Solving

■ Ask questions: “Who has an idea of how we could solve . . . ?”

“You could take turns.” “You could both use it together.” “You could both do something else.” “No one could use it.” ■ Common mistake: rushing to this stage; give it the

time it deserves.

Step Five: Agree on Solution ■ When both children accept a solution, rephrase it.

(“So you both say that she will be the driver?”) ■ If any solution seems unsafe or grossly unfair, you

must tell the children. (“It is too dangerous for you both to stand up and ride downhill together. What is another way you can agree?”)

Step Six: Follow Through ■ Monitor to make sure agreement is going according

to plan. If the decision involves turn taking, you may need to be a clock-watcher.

■ Tell the players and the group: “Looks as if you have solved your problem!”

■ Use the power of language to: ■ Reinforce the solvability of the problem. ■ Note the ability of the players to do so. ■ Point out the positive environment to be

successful.

Step One: Approach (Initiate Mediation) ■ Approach the confl ict, signaling your awareness and

availability. ■ Get close enough to intervene if nessesary; stop

aggressive behavior or neutralize the object of confl ict by holding it yourself.

Step Two: Make a Statement ■ Describe the scene. ■ Refl ect what the children have said. ■ Offer no judgments, values, solutions. “It looks as if you both want the wagon.” “I see you are yelling at each other.”

Step Three: Ask Questions (Gather Data, Defi ne the Problem) ■ Don’t direct questions toward pinpointing the blame. ■ Draw out details; defi ne problems. ■ Help kids communicate versus slugging it out.

“How did this happen?” “What do you want to tell her?” “How could you solve this problem?” “How could you use it without fi ghting?”

Step Four: Generate Alternative Solutions ■ Give children the job of thinking and fi guring it out. ■ Suggestions may be offered by disputants or

observers.

FIGURE 7-7 Using these guidelines to help children solve problems, teachers listen more than talk, allow children the time to make mistakes and fi gure out solutions, and point out that diversity of viewpoints is natural, normal, and workable.

Scenario: Two children run outdoors to get the available wagon. They reach it simultaneously and start pulling on the handle, yelling, “Mine!” One child starts shoving the other child out of the way.

255CHAPTER 7 Guiding Children’s Behavior

stated, must be enforced. It is important to give children an opportunity to choose their own course of action once they have some understanding of what is likely to happen. Nelson (2006) suggestions three criteria for us- ing logical consequences: It must be related to the child’s behavior; it must be respectful; and it must be reason- able. For example:

“If you bother Sally again, you will have to leave group time.” “If you take your favorite book to school, it might get lost.” “If you want dessert, you will have to eat your dinner.”

Time Out Removing a child from the play area is particularly ap- propriate when, owing to anger, hurt, or frustration, the child is out of control. Taking children away from the scene of intensity and emotion to allow them time to cool off and settle down is sometimes the only way to help them. Th e teacher is fi rm and consistent as the child is quietly removed from play. It is important that, if used, this technique be used with a positive attitude and ap- proach, not as punishment.

Used appropriately, the time-out period is very much like that used in athletic events: a brief respite and a chance to stop all activity and regroup. Th ere is no time-out chair. Th e teacher’s role is to help the child talk about the incident—the feelings involved and the need for self-control—and to give the child an oppor- tunity to gain self-control before resuming play. Chil- dren can monitor themselves and choose when they are ready to return to classroom activity. Noah, who per- sists in knocking down other children’s block struc-

tures, might be told, “You may come back to the block area when you think you are ready to play without knocking over other children’s work.” Noah can then assume some responsibility for how he will behave and when he is ready to return to play.

Too often, time out is punitive. Children are pulled from an activity, pushed into a chair, and told to “watch how the other children are playing nicely,” or “sit there until you can behave.” There is no link made between the behavior and the consequences, so the child does not learn the strategy or skills he needs to change his behavior. One study notes that classrooms that used alternatives to time out were more likely to qualify as caring communities (Howes & Ritchie, 2002).

Time out is an invasive strategy and should be used judiciously. Adults can misuse it and leave the child with a sense of rejection.

Physical Intervention There are times that a teacher must physically inter- vene to prevent children from injuring themselves, others, or property. Jude often gets out of control, and his playing becomes too rough. Today, Ramon pushed him away after telling him to stop. Jude retal- iated by punching Ramon. The teacher intervened immediately, pulling Jude off Ramon and saying, “Stop! Stop hitting Ramon!” Jude raises his arms to- ward Ramon again, and the teacher puts her arms around him to hold his arms at his side. “ I cannot let you hurt other children. Let’s go over here and talk about this.” The teacher gives Jude time to calm down before she talks with him.

Almost simultaneously, the teacher has assessed Ramon to see if he is hurt. If so, she calls another teacher over to provide comfort and assistance to him. Th ere may be times when it is appropriate to talk with both boys together or deal with each of them separately. Once the sequence of events has been sorted out, the teacher can begin the confl ict resolution process. Ideally, both boys would be able to participate in this discussion as they learn to solve problems without hitting and fi ghting.

For children who have a history of aggression, a more long-term approach is required that would include regu- lar observations and assessments of the child. Outside professional advice may be necessary if the aggression persists.

Is time out a useful strategy? Is it punishment, or can it be defi ned as guidance? Do you think children in “time out” are

thinking about their behavior? What might they be thinking? How do you think children learn to gain self-control?

What Do

YOU Think?

256 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Behavior That Is Challenging Every teacher has experienced the child who disrupts the class, throws tantrums, hurts other children, and pro- vides wear and tear on equipment, materials, and the adult’s patience. Children with a high degree of energy and stress and a short attention span who are distractible and demanding are some of the children who challenge our skills in guiding their behavior. Th ese children often do not respond to the usual guidance strategies. It takes

a skillful teacher to work with children whose behaviors are often challenging, and it takes extra eff ort, patience, and perseverance.

Th e reasons for such behavior vary, as indicated ear- lier in the chapter when fi ve factors that infl uence behav- ior were discussed. It is important to take these infl u- ences into consideration and understand the impact of children’s development, environment, individuality, emo- tional and social growth, and culture on their ability to behave appropriately. Children who tend to act out fre- quently need extra support reassurance as they learn to

Guidance: An Interactive Approach

If This Is the Behavior Try This For Example

Whining Ignore Do and say nothing while whining persists. Pay attention to child when whining stops.

Playing cooperatively Positive reinforcement “You two are sure working hard on this garden! What a good team you make.”

Refusing to cooperate Provide a choice “Reva, do you want to pick up the Legos off the fl oor or help Charlie empty the water table?”

Restlessness, inattentiveness Change the activity “This story seems long today; we’ll fi nish it later. Let’s play some music and dance now.”

Daydreaming Indirect suggestion “As soon as you get your coat, Winona, we’ll all be ready to go inside.”

Arguing over the use of a toy

Active listening “You really wanted to be the fi rst one to play with the blue truck today, didn’t you, Lief?”

Dawdling, late for snack Natural consequences “Sorry, Nate, the snacks have been put away. Maybe tomorrow you’ll remember to come inside when the other children leave the yard.”

Pushing, crowding, running inside

Change room arrangement

Create larger, more open spaces so children have greater freedom of movement and do not feel crowded together.

Unable to take turns, to wait

Review daily schedule, equipment

Buy duplicates of popular equipment. Allow enough time for free play so children won’t feel anxious about getting a turn.

Boisterous play Positive redirection “You and Sergio seem to want to wrestle. Let’s go set the mats out in the other room. If you wrestle here you disturb the children who are playing quietly.”

FIGURE 7-8 Varieties of guidance techniques. The astute teacher selects from the op- tions available and individualizes the responses.

257CHAPTER 7 Guiding Children’s Behavior

live in a group and become responsible for their actions. Th at support and guidance comes in many forms:

1. See and hear the uniqueness in each child. Look at the fi ve factors noted above, and assess their infl uence on the child who is causing disruption or behaving aggressively. What do you know about each of those infl uences on the child that challenges you? Be sure to note areas of strengths, as well as problems. Jake, for instance, tests every limit, disrupts class meet- ings and circle time, kicks the furniture, and yells at his classmates. However, Jake is a fast runner, climber, and jumper. He works puzzles that are dif- fi cult for most of his classmates and has a keen mind. So far, his teachers have been unable to create a trusting relationship with him.

2. Build caring relationships with children and their families. Respect for the individual child and family is where a relationship begins. Jake’s teachers start with that premise and build a nurturing and responsive relation- ship from there. Th ere may be a teacher on the team who is especially sensitive to children with more ex- treme behavior and off ers to work with Jake and his family. She will fi nd attributes in Jake that she likes and use them to develop his trust and to be a supportive presence to him and his family. Collaboration between home and school will foster Jake’s self-confi dence and improve his ability to change his behavior.

3. Make observations. Collect information about the indi- vidual child. When does Jake lose control? What leads up to his outburst? How long does it last? What cues does he give that he is becoming overwhelmed? Who usually intervenes and for how long? When is Jake’s behavior appropriate? How is it acknowledged and by whom? Is Jake’s behavior predictable?

4. Modify the classroom and schedule. Make legitimate opportunities for Jake to move about and use large muscles when inside. Are materials and curriculum challenging and age-appropriate? Do children select their own activities and make choices where they work and play for at least part of the day? Is there advanced warning when activities will conclude?

Challenging behaviors often occur during struc- tured activities, such as group times or class meetings. What fi ts a teacher’s agenda does not always fi t a child’s abilitites. Children lose interest and become

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restless, creating a recipe for frustration and outbursts. Does the schedule call for too many or too lengthy group meetings? How could meetings be modifi ed to be fl exibile in length and content? What behaviors or activities could be included that help children partici- pate longer? What appropriate alternatives can chil- dren suggest if they need to leave the group?

5. Teacher attention and language. Take care of any injured party fi rst; then use short, direct sentences, without judgment and without lecturing to the aggressor:

“Jake, that’s not acceptable here.” “I cannot hear you when you are screaming.”

Look at and speak to the child at eye level. Do not shame, ridicule, or use physical punishment. Give children the support they need to change rather than punish them. Talk with the child about alter- natives to their inappropriate behavior:

“Next time, Jake, tell someone you are angry in- stead of hitting.”

“What could you say to Corey instead of hitting him? “

Pay attention to disruptive, nonattentive, aggressive children when they are behaving appropriately:

“You look like you are trying to fi gure out where that puzzle piece goes. I know you are good at working puz- zles and I am sure you will fi nd it. Th ere! You did it.”

Follow through to help the child return to play, giving choices when possible. Find activities that require energy (clay, woodworking) or those that are more calming (wa- ter play, reading, painting), depending on what the child seems to need at the time.

Support the child’s choice of activity with involve- ment and relevant comments, interests, and challenges:

“You can decide where you want to play now, Jake. Th ere’s room for you at the clay table. I’ll help you get started if you like.” Later: “You look like you are having a good time with that clay, Jake. I bet you can squeeze it so hard it oozes out your fi ngers. Next time when you feel like hitting something, ask me to get the clay out.”

With patience, positive interactions, and appropriate guidance practices, teachers will fi nd creative and indi- vidual ways to help each child grow in social compen- tence and self-assurance.

DAP The most critical factor is to know each child as an individual. DAP A full and equal partnership with families is marked by shared communication, respect, and mutual problem solving. DAP A teacher who practices good observation skills may be able to prevent certain behaviors.

258

Marie doesn’t want Stephanie to go home. Josh wants the truck that Eli is playing with—right now! David doesn’t want his diaper changed, even though it stinks.

One of your jobs as a parent or teacher is to help children understand and deal with their feelings. Th ere are several things you can do. During the tantrum you can acknowledge children’s feelings and help them distinguish between feelings and behavior. Before the next tantrum, you can begin to teach children ways to deal with their feelings and the situation.

1. Acknowledge children’s feelings. You can do that by helping children develop a “feeling” vocabulary and by val- idating their feelings.

■ Label children’s feelings: “You’re disappointed that we can’t go to the park today.”

■ Share your feelings: “I feel frustrated when I spill coff ee on the fl oor.”

■ Read books that discuss feelings, such as the Let’s Talk about Feelings series.

■ Observe another’s feelings: “I’ll bet he’s proud of the tower he built.”

Validate children’s feelings. Many people have been trained to ignore or suppress their feelings. Girls are often taught that showing anger is unfeminine or not nice. Boys are taught not to cry. You can validate feelings by listening to the child and refl ecting the feelings you hear. Listen with- out judging. Remain separate. Remember, a child’s feelings belong to her or him. When you refl ect the feeling (“You are mad that Stephanie has to go home now”), you are not attempting to solve the problem. Accepting the feeling is the fi rst step toward dealing with it.

2. Help children distinguish between feelings and actions. All feelings are okay. Actions may or may not be okay de-

pending on the situation. For example, hitting a baseball is fi ne. Hitting a person is not acceptable. You can clarify the diff erence by saying, “It’s okay to be mad, but I cannot let you hit Eli.” You can also model the diff erence be- tween feelings and action. You might say, “Th is morning someone cut me off on the road. I was so mad, I wanted to crash into them. Instead I …”

3. Teach children several ways to calm themselves down. If telling children to “Use your words” worked for most kids, grown-ups would have little trouble with children’s feelings. Children need a variety of ways to respond—auditory, physical, visual, creative, and self-nurturing. First children need to practice diff erent responses when they are calm. Th en when children are familiar with diff erent ways to respond, you may ask them which they would like to try when they are upset.

For example: “You’re really angry. Do you want to feel mad right now or do you want to calm down?” If your child wants to change her feelings, you could say, “What could you do? Let’s see, you could dance a mad dance, make a card to give to Stephanie, talk about this feeling, or look at your favorite book.” After you’ve generated ideas, let the child choose what works for her.

4. Off er tools to resolve situations that are hard for them. If Josh wants the truck Eli has, teach him to ask, wait, or trade for it. If Sonja gets frustrated putting puzzles to- gether, teach her how to take breaks or to breathe deeply so she does not get upset. You can use books such as I Want It, I Can’t Wait, or I Want to Play to introduce options. Research has found that the more alternatives children have the better their social behavior.

Elizabeth Crary, M.S., teaches parent education independently and at North Seattle Community College, and has written many books and articles on guidance, including Dealing with Disappointment and Love and Limits.

Tantrums as a Teaching Tool: Ways to Help Children Learn by Elizabeth Crary, M.S.

Insights from the fi eld

SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

SUMMARY Th e early childhood educator provides opportunities for children to express their feelings in appropriate ways and to solve their social problems constructively. Young chil- dren are incapable of controlling their own impulses all the time, so caring adults are needed to guide them to- ward self-control. Teachers base their methods and guid- ance principles on an understanding of why children misbehave and what factors infl uence behavior.

Most guidance techniques begin by accepting the feelings the child expresses and verbalizing them. Th en, the adult sets limits on what form the behavior may take,

guiding the action as needed and following through to conclusion.

Th e most eff ective methods of guidance are clear, consistent, and fair rules that are enforced in consistent, humane ways. Children should be aware of the conse- quences if the rules are broken.

Good guidance practices emphasize the positive as- pects of a child’s behavior, not just the problem behaviors. Guidance measures have greater meaning to children if they are encouraged to take responsibility for their own actions and are part of the problem-solving process.

259CHAPTER 7 Guiding Children’s Behavior

KEY TERMS guidance inductive guidance discipline

punishment interdependence behavior model

active listening reinforcement positive reinforcement

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What developmental factors aff ect children’s behavior? What environmental factors? How does a child’s individ- ual style aff ect behavior? What do developmental and learning theories (see Chapter 4) add to the discussion?

2. Why is it important to understand the child’s family culture as you guide and direct behavior?

3. What is your own defi nition of discipline?

4. Why do teachers have to set limits on children’s behavior? How does setting limits help the child?

5. Discuss in small groups the appropriate uses of time out. Describe those ways in which this technique can be harmful to young children.

6. How do teachers help children who have challenging behaviors?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Your 3-year-old daughter always interrupts when you talk on the telephone. She cries for you to play with her,

hits her brothers, and crawls into cupboards. What is she doing and why? What is your reaction? How will you solve the problem?

2. List activities that channel aggressive feelings into acceptable ways to play. After each, note the emotion or feeling the specifi c activity might release. Example: Clay—anger, frustration.

3. Finish this sentence: “When I was 4 years old, the worst thing I ever did was …” How did the adults around you react? What would you do if you were the adult in charge? Discuss and compare responses with a classmate.

4. Children’s literature helps us focus on guidance and behavior problems. Select a book from the following list. Defi ne the problem behavior and the person creating the problem. Do you agree with the author’s way of han- dling the situation? Suggest alternatives. When and with whom might you use this story? Suggested books: Peter’s Chair by Ezra Jack Keats Jamaica’s Find by Juanita Havill Momma, Do You Love Me? by Barbara M. Joosse Tree of Cranes by Allen Say Shy Charles by Rosemary Wells Bread and Jam for Frances by Russell and Lillian Hoban Where the Wild Th ings Are by Maurice Sendak

5. Observe a group of young children during play. See whether you can identify an example of a child who might be described as an easy child, a diffi cult child, and a slow-to-warm-up child. What guidance techniques do the teachers use with each child? Are they the same? If they are diff erent, describe the diff erences. How successful are these techniques that are being used? What might you do diff erently?

6. How do you feel about spanking children? Were you spanked when you were a child? If so, what precipitated the spankings? Can you think of any other forms of behavior control that might have worked instead of spank- ing? Compare your thoughts and insights with those of another member of this class.

HELPFUL WEBSITES Responsive Discipline http://www.ksu.edu/wwparent/courses/rd National Network for Child Care http://www.nncc.org/Guidance Urban Programs Resource Network http://www.urbanext.uiuc.edu Empowering People, Inc http://www.empowering.com

Additional resources including the TeachSource Videos can be found on the premium website for this book. Go to http://www.cengage.com/login to register your access code.

REFERENCES American Academy of Pediatrics. (1997). A guide to

your child’s symptoms. Elk Grove Village, IL: Author. Browne, K. W., & Gordon, A. M. (2009). To teach well:

An early childhood practicum guide. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Gonzalez-Mena, J. (2008). Multicultural issues in child care. Menlo Park, CA: Mayfi eld.

Gordon, A., & Browne, K. W. (1996). Guiding young children in a diverse society. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Howes, C., & Ritchie, S. (2002). A matter of trust: Con- necting teachers and learners in the early childhood classroom. New York: Teachers College Press.

Nelsen, J. (2006). Positive discipline. New York: Ballan- tine Books.

Th omas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and de- velopment. New York: Brunner and Mazel.

260 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

C H A P T E R

Families and Teachers: Partners in Education

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

■ What is the history of the partnership between parents and schools?

■ How do families and teachers contribute to the school– home partnership?

■ What is a defi nition of family today?

■ How can the home and school create a supportive separation process?

■ What are some eff ective means of communicating with families?

NAEYC CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Th ese Core Values and sections from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct are ad- dressed in this chapter. As you read, note how the Core Values, Ideals, or Principles listed here apply to the topics in this chapter. (Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

Core Values: We appreciate and support the close ties between the child and the family.

We recognize that children are best understood and supported in the context of their family, culture, community, and society.

Section I: P-1.3 We shall involve all of those with relevant knowledge (including staff and

parents) in decisions concerning a child.

Section II: I-2.1 We shall develop relationships of mutual trust with families we serve. I-2.2 We acknowledge and build upon strengths and competencies as we support

families in their task of nurturing children. I-2.3 We respect the dignity of each family and its culture, language, customs, and

beliefs.

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262 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Th is view of a need for closer ties between teacher and families, now over 70 years old, stands today as a com- monly accepted principle.

In training, teachers were exposed to curricula that would help them appreciate and use parents as co- workers in the child’s development. By the 1960s, Head Start programs required parental involvement and set about developing parent education and parent training programs. A teacher’s commitment to children included a commitment to the families of those children.

Parent involvement and education were largely ig- nored in the education reform movement of the 1990s. Th at omission was addressed as parents became empow- ered in the creation of charter and magnet schools, a mid-1990s phenomenon that created greater parent in- volvement in public schools.

Mutual Collaboration Two particular changes, collaborating with parents and working within the family context, are signifi cant in to- day’s school programs. For much of the century just past, the early childhood “professionally driven parent educa- tion tradition” dominated the method of parent–teacher relationships, preceded by the “child-saver” approach that early childhood programs made up for defi cient home environments (Powell & Diamond, 1995).

Demographic data reinforce the need for families and teachers of preschool children to become full and equal partners and set the stage for future school–family partnerships. Today’s early childhood professional will need to be skilled in ways that will strengthen the family–school bond. Increasingly, ethnic, racial, and cul- tural diversity will aff ect relationships between families and schools. Further discussion of the parent support movement follows.

At no other level of education is the responsiveness to the needs of parents so high. Today, we are experienc- ing the change from serving only children to serving children and their families, and to deepening parent in- volvement. Th ere is general agreement among early childhood teachers that such a relationship has always been a part of the early childhood educators’ portfolio in ways that have not been understood or developed by teachers of other age groups.

Gestwicki (2007) suggests fi ve attitudes a teacher must have to form successful partnerships with families:

1. A concept of professionalism that believes in shar- ing responsibility and power with parents

2. A strong sense of self based on clarifying one’s own values

I-2.4 We respect families’ childrearing values and their right to make decisions for their children.

I-2.5 We interpret each child’s progress to parents within the framework of a developmental perspective and to help families understand and appreciate the value of de- velopmentally appropriate early childhood practices.

I-2.6 We help family members improve their understand- ing of their children and to enhance their skills as parents.

A Historical Overview Working with families can be one of the teacher’s most satisfying responsibilities, or it can be one of the most frustrating. It is usually both. Th e potential is present for a dynamic partnership between the most important adults in a child’s life. Th e common goal is obvious: nur- turing the child. Each has knowledge, skills, and a sense of caring to bring to that relationship. Each has a need for the other. Partnerships usually begin with such a need. So, families and teachers become co-workers and col- leagues in a joint eff ort to help the child develop fully.

Note: Th roughout this chapter, the terms parents and parenthood are meant to include mothers and fathers, as well as other extended family members and caretakers who have the responsibility for raising a child.

Historical Precedent Th ere is a historical precedent for the partnership be- tween families and teachers. Pestalozzi and Froebel, early 18th century educators, detailed many of their proce- dures for home use (as noted in Chapter 1). Th e involve- ment of the mother in the education of the child was considered important even then. When kindergartens were organized in the United States, classes for parents and for mothers’ clubs were also started. Th e National Congress of Mothers evolved from that movement. To- day, it is the National Parents and Teachers Association. Th is well-known organization is an integral part of most school systems and continues to promote a union be- tween school and home, teachers and parents.

Decades of Change During the 1930s, parent involvement in education was actively discouraged. Teachers were seen as experts who wanted to be left alone to do their job. In many cases, teachers felt they did little but remedy parental mistakes. Th at trend ended in the 1940s when the need for parent support and encouragement was recognized. Closer rela- tionships between teachers and parents were established.

263CHAPTER 8 Families and Teachers: Partners in Education

3. A sense of humility that allows teachers to be ap- proachable and have an open mind

4. A sense of compassion that recognizes the feelings families may have and the ability to be empathetic with them

5. A genuine respect for others so that they treat each family with dignity as they acknowledge the family’s experience and knowledge

Strengthening the Partnership

What Families Contribute Families have a unique contribution to make in the child’s schooling. Th ey have diff erent knowledge about the child from what the teacher has. Th ey know the child’s history: physical, medical, social, and intellectual. Th ey know the child as a member of a family and the role that child plays in the total family group, the ex- tended family, and the community.

Families provide the context with which the teacher can view the whole child. As the teacher will soon learn, the family already knows what makes their children happy or sad or how they react to changes in routines.

Th us, families have a wealth of intimate knowledge about their children that the teacher is only just begin- ning to discover.

How Families Benefi t One of the greatest values of a strong parent program is the opportunity for families to meet each other. Th ey fi nd that they share similar problems and frustrations and that they can support one another in fi nding solutions.

Friendships based on mutual interests and con- cerns about their children can help them forge new relationships.

Th rough close home–school relationships, parents can fi nd ways to become more eff ective as their children’s fi rst and most important teachers. Th ey benefi t from in- volvement in their children’s education in many ways:

■ Th ey can observe modeling techniques that teachers fi nd successful in dealing with children.

■ Th ey can learn what behaviors are appropriate at certain ages.

■ By observing how their children relate to other adults and children, families can come to know them better as social beings.

■ Th ey may become more aware of school and com- munity resources that are available to them and, in the person of the teacher, they now have access to a consultant who knows and understands their child and can help them when they need it.

Family members teach by word, by example, by all they do and say. Th rough closer home–school relationships, families can be helped to see that their everyday experi- ences with their children provide teachable moments, those spontaneous opportunities for educating children. Families feel supported in their roles when teachers:

■ keep them informed about each stage of the child’s development

■ show them how to encourage language and thinking skills

■ educate them to children’s social needs at any given age

■ provide lists of books and toys that encourage chil- dren’s thinking and creative abilities

■ make sure parents have copies of children’s favorite songs, recipes that are popular at school, and infor- mation, in a bilingual format as needed, on how to teach health and safety habits at home

DAPDAP

A true partnership happens when parents and teachers share their strengths with one another for the benefi t of the children they care for and love.

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264 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

10 Tips for Supporting Families

1. Prepare families for what they can expect from their child’s school experience and what is expected of them. School policies and a yearly calendar should be clearly written and reviewed with the family when the child fi rst enters school so that they will know what their responsibilities are and where the school can be of assistance to them.

2. Support all families, including those with differing opinions. Acknowledge their concerns and questions calmly. There is a greater chance to discuss differences and effect change if there are areas where teachers and families fi nd agreement, so try to fi nd some common ground. Differences of opinion should be discussed out of the child’s hearing, and teachers should do nothing that would undermine the family in the eyes of the child.

3. Respect the values of all families. Social, cultural, and religious differences, various lifestyles, family make-up, child-rearing methods, and educational philosophies are refl ected in every classroom. It is important that families feel accepted. Focus on the similarities among families and develop an anti-bias approach to teaching (see Chapters 2 and 9).

4. Keep a professional distance. The temptation to move into a social relationship with some families in your class is one that many teachers face. You are better able to maintain a more realistic, objective picture of the child if there is some detachment. The child and the family will probably benefi t the most if a close relationship is postponed until the child moves on to another class.

5. Ask, don’t tell. Collaboration begins with the concerns of the family. A teacher’s role is one of helping families clarify their own goals for their children and identifying the trouble spots, then encourage and support the family as they work together to solve the problem. Families may feel overwhelmed or inadequate if they think they must abandon their child-rearing practices. The sensitive teacher will observe the situation and help the family move toward a reasonable solution.

6. Contact families frequently. Keep the lines of communication open and fl owing between the school and the home. Know the family members by name. Take advantage of the daily contact as they bring their child to and from school. It may be brief and breezy, but it is a good way to stay in touch. Find ways to touch base with those families who do not come to school every day, by telephone, e-mail, note, or home visit.

7. Help families support each other. Any group of families represents a multitude of resources and common concerns. Each family member has accumulated experiences that might prove helpful to someone else. Introducing two families to each other with the suggestion that their children play together outside of school is a good way to start. Family meetings, work parties, and potluck dinners are methods for getting families involved with one another. The teacher’s role can be that of providing the setting, encouraging attendance, and then letting it happen.

8. Enhance the family’s perception of their children. Families want teachers who know and enjoy their child, and who are an advocate for their child. That means acknowledging the child’s strengths and those personality traits that are particularly pleasing. Help the family recognize the joys of parenthood rather than focusing on the burdens.

9. Focus on the family-child relationship. Help families learn the “how-tos” of their relationship with their child rather than the “how-tos” of academic skills. Concentrate on the nature of family–child interactions—how they get along with each other and how they interact as a family. These issues are the heart and soul of family interactions, and teachers have a role to play in enhancing the quality of those relationships.

10. Listen to families. Hear them out. Learn to listen to them with a degree of understanding; try to hear it from their point of view. Listen to families without judging them or jumping to conclusions; this is the basis for open communication.

FIGURE 8-1 Ten tips to effective interactions with families.

265CHAPTER 8 Families and Teachers: Partners in Education

Families need not teach a curriculum; they do need to use common, everyday routines and experiences to encourage children’s total growth. Th e teaching staff has a strong role to play in helping them learn how to capi- talize on those teachable moments.

A family-centered approach to school relationships supports the growth of the family as well as the child. When families have a meaningful partnership with their children’s teachers, it raises their sense of importance and diminishes some of the isolation and anxiety of child rearing. By empowering families and allowing them to participate in decisions aff ecting their children’s educa- tion, teachers can help families see themselves as part of the solution.

Guidelines for eff ective interactions and family sup- port are outlined in Figure 8-1.

Family Cultural Infl uences Families represent a wide range of cultural backgrounds, so it is important that their contributions be sought out, acknowledged, and used. All of the subtle communica- tion styles that exist within various cultures can be blocks to good family–school relationships, or they can be the basis on which teachers and families connect with each other. Th is is one of the most pressing issues in teaching eff ectively today. Bradley and Kibera (2007) ex-

plore four diff erent characteristics of family culture to consider when working with families from diverse backgrounds.

Families whose linguistic and cultural backgrounds are diff erent from the teacher need to share their perspec- tives so that issues relating to basic routines such as eating and sleeping may be understood in their cultural context. Th e same is true for a family’s expectations about their child’s experiences in the classroom. Only through forging such a partnership can families of diverse cultural back- grounds become true contributors to their children’s edu- cation and care. Chapter 10 discusses Culturally Respon- sive Teaching on pages 349 and 350.

What Teachers Contribute to the Partnership Teachers see the child in relation to normal milestones and appropriate behaviors. Th ey notice how each child plays with other children in the group—what seems to challenge Mickey and when Ramon is likely to fall apart. Unlike families, teachers see individual children from a perspective that is balanced by the numerous other chil- dren they have taught. Th ey observe how the child be- haves with a variety of adults, sensing children’s ability to

Cultural Dimensions of Families

Cultural Dimension Questions for Refl ection

Values and Beliefs How is family defi ned? What roles do adults and children play? How does the family make sense of the child’s behavioral diffi culties? How does culture inform the family’s view of appropriate and inappropriate ways of dealing with problem behavior and guidance? What is most important to the family?

Historical and Social Infl uences

What strengths and stressors does the family identify? What barriers do they experience?

Communication What is the family’s primary language? What support is required to enable communication? How are needs and wants expressed? How are unhappiness, dissatisfaction, or distress experienced or expressed?

Attitudes Toward Seeking Help

How does the family seek help and from whom? How do members view professionals, and how do professionals view them?

FIGURE 8-2 Exploring the cultural dimensions of families is part of an on-going pro- cess to develop greater cultural awareness. From “Closing the Gap: Culture and the Promotion of Inclusion in Child Care,” by J. Bradley and P. Kibera, 2007 in D. Koralek (Ed.) Spotlight on Young Children and Families. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Adapted with permission from the National Asso- ciation of Young Children.

266 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

trust other adults through interactions with them at school. When families need help for themselves or for their child, teachers become resources. Th ey work with the families to fi nd psychologists, hearing and speech specialists, or other educational programs, if warranted.

Take a look at the excerpts from NAEYC’s Code of Ethical Conduct at the beginning of this chapter to review ethical responsibilities to families. Note the ideals and principles stated in Section I, P-1.3, Section II, I-2.1 and 2.5. Th ese three passages call for building mutual trust, communicating children’s progress in developmentally ap- propriate terms, and the right of parents to participate in decisions that aff ect their child. Supporting and encourag- ing families is part of the teacher’s role. Good teachers are

sensitive to parent concerns and understand their needs, similar to those expressed by Libby Miles’s “Insights From the Field” article at the end of this chapter.

Families want to learn the best ways to raise their chil- dren and to improve their child-rearing skills. Th ere are numerous opportunities for the early childhood teacher to help families achieve these goals. Figure 8-3 cites a multi- tude of ways a school, center, or family child care home can become a family-friendly early childhood program.

What Children Gain Children reap the rewards of parent involvement. De- cades of research show the positive eff ects on achieve- ment when children’s families are involved in their edu-

A Checklist for Making Your School “Family Friendly”

Hold an orientation for familes at a convenient time.

Provide a place for families to gather.

Create a parent/family bulletin board.

Give annual family awards for involvement.

Create a family advisory committee.

Allow families to help develop school policies and procedures.

Schedule events on evenings and weekends.

Provide child care for meetings.

Establish a book or toy lending library.

Make informal calls to families, especially to share a child’s successes.

Provide transportation for families who need it.

Provide translators for families who need them.

Send appropriate duplicate mailings to noncustodial parents.

Survey families for issues of interest and need.

Develop links to health and social support services.

Provide resource and referral lists.

Publish a school newsletter on a regular basis.

Provide multilingual written communications as needed.

FIGURE 8-3 A checklist for a family-oriented approach to meeting children’s needs.

Hire teachers with a strong commitment to supporting families and parents.

Provide in-service training for teachers in working with families and parents.

Hire teachers who are respectful of social, ethnic, and religious backgrounds of families.

Hire staff that is refl ective of the cultural background of students and families.

Encourage regularly scheduled conferences between parents/family and teachers.

Offer a variety of family support programs.

Provide many opportunities for family members to volunteer.

Provide frequent opportunities for parents/ families to air their concerns.

Encourage parents/families to ask questions, to visit, and to call.

Encourage families to know what goes on in the classroom.

Encourage families to report back on what works well.

Encourage families to attend social events.

Encourage teachers to make home visits.

267CHAPTER 8 Families and Teachers: Partners in Education

cation. Th e family is the primary source from which the child develops and grows and is needed to reinforce the learning, attitudes, and motivation if children are to suc- ceed. Family visibility is especially important for low in- come and minority children; their family’s presence can heighten a sense of belonging. Children gain when fami- lies are able to monitor their children’s progress and re- inforce the educational goals at home.

Families come to an early childhood program looking for teachers who know about children and who will help them in raising their own children. Children benefi t when teachers respond to family concerns with caring and encouragement.

Becoming Full and Equal Partners Families and schools are natural allies; together they claim the primary responsibility in educating and social- izing children. Th ey can and should be equal partners in that eff ort.

Family-Centered Support Early childhood educators have long recognized the im- portance of providing families with child-rearing informa- tion and support to strengthen families to meet the chal- lenges of parenting in the years ahead. Th e early childhood program is often the fi rst time a family has the opportu- nity to collaborate in their child’s education, so it is impor- tant that the experience be meaningful and eff ective.

Factors that support the need of a more family- centered approach are: increase in the divorce rate, the growing number of single-parent families, families in which both parents work, and increasing numbers of immigrant families. (See the following section, “ Today’s Families,” and Chapter 15 for examples and discussion.) Powell (1998) notes that this family-centered approach serves as a modern-day version of the traditional extended family.

Long-held school perceptions of what constitutes a family may no longer correspond to the reality of today’s defi nition of a family. Family support takes on new meaning when the diff erences in family styles are ac- knowledged and supported.

Powell (1989) has defi ned four components of a high quality family-centered program that promote the fami- ly’s contribution to the child’s education and growth as well as a more equal and consistent partnership. A good family-centered program is a collaborative eff ort and:

1. has goals, methods, and content that are responsive to family needs. Th ese needs are refl ected in the number, type, and kinds of opportunities it provides for families.

2. does not overshadow the needs of the child when strengthening social services and community sup- port networks for the family. Th e common goal of the program is always what is in the best interest of the children.

3. must be tailored to the needs and characteristics of the specifi c family population, responding to cultural characteristics and values of ethnic populations.

4. allow for frequent discussion groups in which fami- lies are free to share their experiences and insights with one another. Th ese conversations give families the freedom to accept what is useful and reject what they do not want to adopt for themselves.

Empowering parents to be change agents in their children’s educational process creates greater commit- ment and involvement on the part of the families. DAPDAP

A parent’s participation in his or her child’s school life can heighten the child’s sense of belonging.

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268 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled, “Com- municating with Families: Best Practices in an Early Childhood Setting.” After you study the video clip, view the artifacts, and read the teacher interviews and text, refl ect upon the following questions:

1. A family-centered program acknowledges the critical infl uence of the family unit on the child’s growth and development. What examples does teacher Mona Sanon talk about and model that strengthen the family-center relationship?

2. What lessons can be learned from the discussion Mona had with a father about his son’s block building skills?

TeachSource Video

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Public Recognition A growing awareness of the need for a family-centered approach to parent education has been recognized by several government agencies. From its beginning in 1965, Head Start mandated parent involvement as nec- essary for the health and welfare of many young chil- dren. Th e Education of the Handicapped Amendments (P.L. 99-457) in 1986 required early intervention ser- vices aimed at the family, not just the child. P.L. 99-457 includes parents as members of a team of professionals who develop an individualized plan related to the child and family’s needs. Two states, Minnesota and Missouri, have developed comprehensive, family-centered early childhood programs funded through local school districts.

Reggio Emilia: An Exemplary Partnership One of the best examples of school–family partnerships that bears witness to Powell’s criteria for high quality programs and a successful partnership are the schools of Reggio Emilia, Italy (see discussions in Chapters 1 and 10). Th ere is strong and active family involvement at ev- ery level of school functioning. Th is is not surprising, since the schools were originally founded as parent coop- eratives; part of the guiding philosophy continues to up- hold a model of equal and extended partnership. Malaguzzi (Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 1993) refers to this balanced responsibility of teachers, parents, and children as a “triad at the center of education,” who, in

turn, count on the rest of the community to provide a cultural context for children’s learning.

School-based management in the schools of Reggio Emilia fosters meaningful participation of all families since the discussions and decisions are made by the teachers and parents within each school setting. No area seems the exclusive property of either parents or teach- ers. Curriculum planning, for instance, depends on the family’s involvement, interest, and contribution.

Parents are the core of the individual school boards and on the city-wide school board as an integral part of the decision making. Frequent meetings inform family’s of the school’s program and bring them up to date on what their children are doing. Smaller groups of parents meet throughout the year with the teachers to talk about their children and the program; individual parent– teacher conferences, which either can request, are held to deal with specifi c concerns.

Th ere are opportunities to be actively involved in the daily life of the school. Family members, teachers, and town residents build furnishings and maintain materials for the classrooms and the schoolyard and rearrange the space to accommodate program needs. In sessions with teachers and pedagogistas, parents learn various educa- tional techniques necessary to the program, such as pho- tography and puppet making, and they use these new skills in the classroom with their children. Using the whole town as a backdrop, families participate in many of the fi eld trips to city landmarks or as small groups visiting a child’s home. Recording and transcribing chil- dren’s activities and projects are often a parent’s respon- sibility (see Chapter 10).

Th e meaning of family is communicated to the chil- dren of Reggio Emilia throughout their school environ- ment. In classroom dramatic play areas and in the school’s own kitchen, there are displays of foods, materi- als, and utensils common to the region and found in the children’s homes. Children are encouraged to bring spe- cial objects from home, and these are accorded special and beautifully arranged display space. Photographs of children and families abound. Th ese elements are the vehicles used to ensure a rich fl ow of communication be- tween the school and the homes of the children of Reg- gio Emilia.

Th e schools of Reggio Emilia seem to have a unique reciprocal relationship with the families they serve. Fam- ilies have infl uence and help aff ect change; in turn, the schools infl uence and change families. Each becomes a stronger voice for what is in the best interest of the child.

269CHAPTER 8 Families and Teachers: Partners in Education

Today’s Families Th ere is little preparation for the job of a parent, and many parents feel inadequate in their role. Many families do not live around the corner from grandparents or other family members, so there is often no extended family to teach some of the traditional, time-honored child-rearing skills. Th ere are few with whom parents can share their worries, frustrations, and concerns. Men, infl uenced by changing values and attitudes toward tra- ditional sex roles, are taking an active part in raising their families. Fathers seem aware of the critical role they play in the child’s life and are making appropriate changes to see that they have the time to be with their children.

What Is a Family? Th e defi nition of today’s families refl ects the cultural changes in the United States over the last 50 years. Th e nuclear family, made up of a father, mother, and two chil- dren, has become blended, mixed, and extended. Look

around your neighborhood to see the variety of family units. Parents today may or may not be married to one an- other, may have the same sexual orientation, and may in- clude foster parents and adoptive parents. Grandparents, aunts and uncles, and/or siblings may be the parental fi g- ures in a household. Two people can be defi ned as a family. So can those that include half- and step-siblings, close friends, and gays and lesbians (Browne & Gordon, 2009).

Th e term “parent” usually means a mother, father, or someone who is a legal guardian. Th at defi nition, too, has been stretched to accommodate the complexities of today’s lifestyles. Browne & Gordon (2009) defi ne par- ents as those individuals who are raising their own bio- logical children, foster children, adopted children, and children of other family members and/or friends.

Understanding Parenthood Th e role of a parent is ever-changing. Parents grow and de- velop along with their children. Parents have to adapt to the size of their family and the ages and stages of the each child. Every family has its own unique systems and patterns for raising their children. Two of them are worth exploring as you focus on working with parents and families.

Patterns of Child Rearing Baumrind (1972) defi ned three types of parental styles: authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive. Th ese styles diff er in the ways parents accept the child and are in- volved in the child’s life, their control of the child, and how much autonomy they grant (Berk, 2009). Th e most successful approach is authoritative parents who foster the highest levels of self-esteem, self-reliance, indepen- dence, and curiosity in children. Th ey provide a warm, loving atmosphere with clear limits and high expecta- tions. Authoritative parents are consistent in reinforcing rules and allow their children to make reasonable deci- sions appropriate to their age and experience.

In contrast, authoritarian child-rearing patterns re- fl ect high control and demands combined with relatively low communication and nurturance. Th ey rarely listen to the child’s point of view. Authoritarian parents are strict; they expect and demand obedience and may lack warmth, and aff ection. Th ey exert control through belittling, threats and criticisms and may resort to force. With per- missive parents there is a high level of overindulgence or inattentiveness, warmth, and aff ection but little control. Clear standards and rules are not set, nor are they rein- forced consistently. Permissive parents allow children to make decisions that are not appropriate for their age.

Because half of the women with children younger than age six work outside the home, fathers often bring chil- dren to child care.

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Th e positive eff ects of the authoritative parent model demonstrates that using reason over power, maintaining appropriate limits yet supporting appropriate autonomy, and encouraging give-and-take, create more successful children.

What makes a healthy and successful family? In Fig- ure 8-4, Gonzalez-Mena (2002) lists some characteris- tics that promote strong families.

Stages of Parent Development Just as children have various stages of development, par- ents, too, grow and change throughout the course of rais- ing their children. Th e parent of one child has diff erent knowledge and feelings than does a parent with three children. Older fi rst-time parents’ experiences diff er from those of teenage parents. Galinsky (1987) defi ned six dis- tinct phases that parents go through. (1) During preg- nancy, they fantasize about their role as parents. (2) Dur- ing the fi rst two years of a child’s life attachment is a key issue. Th ey also reconcile their child-rearing fantasies with their actual experience. (3) Parents establish their author- ity style and family rules, (4) Th e values, knowledge, and skills they want for their children are the concerns for this stage. (5) Rules and authority are renegotiated during the teenage years as parents and children create new relation- ships with one another. (6) Another redefi nition of roles occurs when children leave home and parents refl ect on their relationships with their children. Th e role of the par- ent changes and adapts as they and their children grow.

As you work with families, it is helpful to look at what stage or stages through which parents might be go- ing. Depending on the size of the family, they may be going through several stages at once. In some cases, boundaries are being readjusted, relationships are in fl ux, and issues of autonomy are being questioned all within the same time period. Each family will have diff erent needs, concerns, and experiences depending upon the age of their children and their own stage of parent devel- opment. Th e early childhood professional’s role is to support and understand the various forces within the family that aff ect their journey of parenthood.

Families with Diverse Needs Parents are parents the world over and have mutual problems and pleasures as they go about bringing up their young. Th eir shared experiences create an auto- matic bond whenever they meet. Th ere are some families who face additional challenges in child rearing and who may need added teacher support. Th ese are:

■ families of children with developmental delays and disabilities

■ single-parent families ■ adoptive and foster families ■ parents who both work outside the home ■ divorced families ■ gay/lesbian families

Characteristics of Successful Families

1. There is a healthy attachment and involvement with each other. Family members have a deep sense of commitment to one another and give time and attention to the family.

2. There is mutual nurturing that supports appropriate independence and healthy interdependence on one another. All family members get their needs met.

3. Self-esteem is important for all family members. It is cultivated in all interactions.

4. Effective communication allows family members to express and respond to feelings, resolve confl icts, and problem-solve together. They have the coping skills to deal with daily stress.

5. A secure, safe environment protects all family members, allowing them to connect with the rest of society in healthy ways.

6. The importance of passing on the culture, values, and goals of the family is accomplished through modeling, discussion, teaching, problem solving, and communication.

FIGURE 8-4 Enhancing healthy and successful families creates a supportive atmo- sphere for children. (Gonzalez-Mena, J. (2002). The child in the family and the commu- nity. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.)

271CHAPTER 8 Families and Teachers: Partners in Education

■ homeless families ■ teenage parent families ■ grandparents raising grandchildren ■ families who are raising children in a culture diff er-

ent from their own; families who do not speak En- glish and whose child is in a setting in which En- glish is not the predominant language

■ multiracial families ■ fi rst-time older parents

Many of these family characteristics place parents in sit- uations in which they do not have access to an extended family support system. Any one or combination of these situations can create added challenges to the family. For the most part, teachers can help these families by focus- ing on the many interests and concerns they share with other families. In some cases, additional support for the family is needed, such as:

■ Help them locate community resources to address their needs.

■ Connect them with other families who have similar circumstances.

■ Assist them in exploring school settings for the future. ■ See that they are included in all school functions. ■ Learn about their special needs. ■ Seek their help and advice. ■ Help them establish contact with other families

who may be willing to assist in translating, trans- porting, babysitting, and sharing friendship.

Supporting Single Parent Families

■ 26 percent of all children live in families with only one parent

■ 84 percent of single parents are women ■ 16 percent of single parents are men

(U.S. Census Bureau, 2007)

Faced with the economic necessity to work, single par- ents must cope not only with raising children alone, but also with child care arrangements and costs. Particu- larly hard hit are women who head single-parent house- holds. Th ey are more likely than men to live below the poverty level, to never have married, not to have fi n- ished high school, and to be members of a minority population.

Single-parent families need the early childhood professional to be part of a support system for them and their children. Early childhood educators must be sensitive to the unique aspects of raising children alone. Th is means reexamining school policies and at- titudes that ignore the needs of single parents. Over- burdened child care professionals, some of whom are single parents themselves, need to be fl exible in explor- ing new avenues of home–school collaboration. Th ey need to ask:

■ What kind of involvement in a child’s classroom is possible for a working single parent?

■ How can I help families feel connected even if they are unable to be at the center?

■ What is appropriate support for single parents? ■ Am I judgmental about single parents? About single

mothers? ■ How do I help parents and children deal with the

absent parent? ■ What are some of the best strategies for helping

children cope with the transitions when visiting one parent or the other?

Th ese and other similar questions must become an agenda of staff meetings, in-services for teachers, and parent/family-group meetings.

Challenges of Immigrant Families In 1970, 4.8% of the U.S. population was born outside of the United States.

In 2006, 13% of the U.S. population was born outside of the United States. Th ese immigrants come from:

Latin America 54 percent Asia 27 percent Europe 13 percent Other regions 6 percent

These data from the U.S. Census Bureau (2007) highlight the extensive changes in immigration over a nearly 40-year period. This has affected school popu- lations across the country. A comparison of school

Do you think all families are comfortable and welcome in the setting in which you work or observe? Are there families

who have unique needs? Do you think those needs are being met? What are some stumbling blocks families might experience in this setting? What would you change?

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272 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

populations tells another story in the following chart:

In 1972, 22 percent of public school students were part of racial or ethnic minority groups:

6 percent were Hispanic 15 percent were black 1 percent were other minority groups.

In 2006, 43 percent of public school students were part of racial or ethnic minority groups:

20 percent were Hispanic 16 percent were Black 3.8 percent were Asian 7 percent were other minority groups (Planty et al, 2008). Th ese statistics aff ect our teaching as the future of

school population in this century will be defi ned by the lack of minority or majority groups. Th e percentage of children who are Hispanic has increased faster than that of any other racial or ethnic group, increasing from 9 percent in 1980 to 21 percent in 2007. Th e largest growth will continue to occur among Hispanics, who are ex- pected to reach 25 percent of the school-age population by 2020 (U. S. Census Bureau, 2008). Th ese data, added to existing ethnic populations already present in the United States, challenge the early childhood teacher to a multicultural sensitivity not yet realized.

Th ese data also challenge the profession to aggres- sively recruit and train early childhood professionals within these cultures. A willingness to learn various cul- tural norms and a knowledge of languages will be helpful for teachers to communicate with children and parents whose primary language is not English. Some studies suggest those teachers’ stereotypes of social and racial subgroups infl uence their attitudes about a parent’s abil- ity and competence. Teachers will want to examine their own biases. See the appropriate sections in Chapters 5, 9, and 10 for discussion of teacher bias, anti-bias curri- cula, and anti-bias environments.

Miscommunication may be a problem when teaching a classroom of diverse children. When cultural perspec- tives of the family and the school diff er markedly, teach- ers can easily misread a child’s attitude and abilities be- cause of diff erent styles of languages and behaviors. Teachers may also use classroom practices that may be at odds with a child’s cultural norms. For example, in some preschool settings, children are encouraged to call their teachers by the teacher’s fi rst name. Th is informal style of addressing authority fi gures may make some parents uncomfortable. How adults and children interact with

children, the language they use, and the strategies they use to guide children’s behavior are areas in which immi- grant parents can help teachers learn some of the impor- tant cultural diff erences.

Valuing All Families with Diverse Needs One of the most important things teachers can do when working with non-traditional families and families from cultures diff erent from their own is to recognize that they share many of the same values and aspirations as other families and that there are commonalities among them. All parents want their children in environments that value and accept their family.

Depending on the family’s situation, communication may be diffi cult. In many instances, non-traditional fami- lies and families from some other cultures may not want to divulge personal information. Th ey may be infl uenced by previous negative experiences when they have talked about their lifestyle, values, or culture. In these cases, the early childhood educator must work hard to assure these fami- lies of confi dentiality, stressing the concept that when we know more about a child’s family situation, we are in a bet- ter position to support and help the child and the family.

Families will sense whether or not an early childhood environment is truly inclusive and supports and cele- brates all varieties of families. Th e inclusive environment is explored further in Chapter 9. In Chapter 10, curricu- lum is viewed from an inclusive and culturally appropri- ate point of view. Dealing with attitudes and biases among staff members is discussed in Chapter 5 and Chapter 9. Th ese are all important considerations for working with families with sensitive issues as we help their children achieve their potential. Eisenbud (2002) suggests some ways to create an environment that sup- ports family diversity:

■ Ask family members what names the child has for their caregivers, and use these names with the child.

■ Create enrollment forms that allow for diverse an- swers other than “mother” or “father,” that indicate the person who is legally responsible for the child and child custody arrangements.

■ Find out what the child has been taught about his or her family situation and discuss with the family how you can support their position.

■ If one or the other parent is absent, fi nd out if and how that parent(s) is involved with the child’s life.

■ Be aware of any drug use/addiction related to the child’s health and welfare.

273CHAPTER 8 Families and Teachers: Partners in Education

■ Treat all adults who care for the child, such as grandparents, guardians, caregivers, or adoptive par- ents, as the child’s parents.

■ Review the curriculum, books, and physical envi- ronment on a regular basis to ensure that all types of families are represented in the classroom.

■ Adapt your conversations with children to refl ect the diversity of families; for instance, “two mom- mies, step-brother, foster dad,” etc.

Look around at the classroom where you are teaching and add other suggestions to strengthen all family units, no matter their make-up.

Francis Wardle’s “Insights from the Field” column in Chapter 3 off ers more specifi c ideas, especially for chil- dren of mixed heritage.

Separation: The Beginning of Trust Each year, as school begins, a child enters a classroom and says good-bye to a loved one.

Th is is a new experience for that child, no matter how long he or she might have been enrolled in school. Even children returning to the same class- room will fi nd some changes. Th ere may be a new room, new teachers, and new children along with some familiar faces, or the school, teacher, and chil- dren may all be strangers. Some children will have had previous group experience to draw on; others will never before have been a part of a group.

Each child will react diff erently, and it is diffi cult to predict how a child will respond: Paul clings to his dad’s leg; Sherry bounces in and runs off to play, leaving her mother standing alone; Taryn clutches a stuff ed dog as she enters with her grandmother, and the teacher inter- acts with Taryn for a few minutes before Taryn can let go of her grandmother’s hand and say good-bye. Every child has a natural way of dealing with the anxieties of coming to school. Th eir behavior will be as varied as they are themselves.

Th e transition from home to school or child care set- ting is an important time for children and their families. Leaving familiar adults and learning to trust other adults is a major milestone in a child’s life.

DAPDAP

Helping Parents and Children Separate Th e separation process is often as hard on the parent or family member as it may be on the child. Emotions run high as the time comes to say good-bye. Feelings of guilt, sadness, anger, and unhappiness may emerge among everyone as the parent/family member and child deal with the pain of sepa- ration. Adjustment is a gradual process; families need en- couragement and guidance as their child moves toward in- dependence. When families are reassured their child is acting normally and their own anxieties are common, they relax and begin to help the child feel more comfortable.

Listen carefully to their concerns and assess the kind of support that will be most reassuring to them. Assure the family that you are available by telephone, e-mail, or fax to help them through this transition. Th e key to the separation process is a trusting and respectful relation- ship between the teacher and the family.

Working Together Parents and teachers must be especially clear with one another during the separation transition. Written school policies and procedures are helpful so that the teacher and family can go over the process step by step on an in- dividual basis as each child enrolls or at a general parent meeting held before the opening of school.

In some settings, teachers arrange to make a home visit to each child enrolled in the class before school be- gins. Th is helps the teacher know more about students before they enter school and gives children a chance to become acquainted with a teacher on their home ground. Many early childhood programs off er an orientation pe- riod in which the child visits the school for a short time before the fi rst day of school. Others schedule half of the class for an hour and the other half joins them later. Creating a smaller group size allows the teachers to have more individual time with a child and observe his or her interactions with others. Th is process may continue throughout the fi rst week during which many separa- tions are made. While this is a good model to follow, there are times and situations when family members do not have the time to help the child make the adjustment readily. Separations are particularly had on working par- ents who have a short period of time to leave the child at school and then get to work.

DAP It is important to support the family members as they leave their child in the care of someone else. This transition is the begin- ning of the trusting relationship that needs to be built between the family and the teachers.

274 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Th e teacher’s role is to help the family and child be prepared for the fi rst day and the fi rst few weeks, encour- aging the child to move out from the family member as they become more comfortable. Together, they assess the child’s progress and make the decisions regarding the time of actual separation. Th e parent and teacher pre- pare children and tell them when it is time. Th e teacher supports the family member’s exit and stands by the child, ready to give comfort, if needed. Th is is a time when a teacher needs to act with conviction. Families appreciate fi rmness and confi dence at a time when their own feelings may be ambiguous. Teachers whose atti- tudes express a belief in what they are doing reassure children.

In Chapter 4, Figure 4-5 may be helpful as a re- minder of how patterns of attachment aff ect the separa- tion process. For most children, the separation process is a struggle between their natural desire to explore the world and their equally natural resistance to leaving what is “safe.” It is during these years that children are learning to move about under their own power and to trust them-

selves. Coming to school can provide each child with the opportunity to grow, starting with the separation from their family. Th rough careful planning, close communi- cation, and sensitivity to one another, families and teach- ers will assure the child mastery of this task.

Communicating with Families Families can be an invaluable source of information, sup- port, and affi rmation to the teacher and to the school. Th ere are many ways to meet the needs of both the parents and children with clear and sensitive communications.

Parent/Family Education and Involvement Almost any contact between the teacher and the parent can be perceived as parent/family education. Teachers in- terpret children’s behavior to their family, suggest alterna- tive ways for dealing with problems, show them toys and games that are appropriate, hold workshops on parenting skills, mention books and articles of interest, and rein- force family interest and attention to their children’s edu- cation. All of these activities are considered parent/family education. Some are planned; some are spontaneous.

The separation process will be successful if the parents and children know that teachers will be there when chil- dren need comfort and support.

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DAP Families are most comfortable when there are a variety of family involvement and options.

Young children become intensely involved when parents participate in classroom activities.

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meetings, guest speakers, community resources, child care, babysitting, clothing and furniture ex- changes, and library story hours. Information re- garding health programs, automobile and toy safety, and immunization clinics is also publicized. Post in- formation on cultural events appropriate to the eth- nic makeup of the school community.

3. A Parent/Family Place. Providing an area or room at the school set aside for family use can be an im- portant step in letting families know they are wanted and needed. Some schools provide space for a parent/family lounge, complete with a library of resource books on child rearing. If there is no avail- able space, set up a coff ee bar in the offi ce or hall. Th e smallest amount of space—even a countertop with magazines—is a start.

4. Informal Contacts. Th ese are the easiest and most useful lines of communication with families. All it takes is a phone call, a note, an e-mail, or a brief talk on a daily basis. For families who have diffi culty at- tending meetings or who do not accompany their child to and from school, teachers can send home a

The Importance of a Classroom Newsletter

Why What

To Keep Families Informed

Next Thursday is our fi rst nature walk around the school and the neighborhood. Make sure your child wears boots or waterproof shoes to keep feet dry while we explore. Join us on our walk, if you can.

For Insights into Learning The nature walk is part of our science curriculum. We want the children to explore the out-of-doors to stimulate their natural curiosity and delight in their discoveries. Firsthand experiences with the texture of tree bark or birds’ nests help a child create a base of knowledge on which to build their understanding of the natural world around them.

To Bring Learning Home You might want to try this at home with the whole family. Walk around your neighborhood and look at what is growing. Take a bag or basket to collect leaves and other natural materials. The children can make a collage out of them when you return home. Comment as the children make discoveries: “I wonder what makes the leaves so green.” “What do you think happens to that fl ower when it snows?” Open-ended questions such as these help children clarify their own thinking and learning.

To Keep Communication Flowing

Several questions about our guidance philosophy came up at the last family meeting. We are putting together an insert for next month’s newsletter and we would like your help on one of the topics. How do you deal with bedtime issues (delaying tactics, such as one more story, another glass of water, etc.) in your home? What works for you? Talk with Mrs. Olga or Miss Leona if you want to participate.

FIGURE 8-5 Classroom newsletters enlarge a family’s understanding of what their child is experiencing and extends the learning between home and school.

Parent/family education happens frequently, whether in a meeting that focuses on positive discipline or in an informal chat about car seat safety. Many early child- hood settings off er family support programs based on the needs of families and their children. Again, the Code of Ethical Conduct in Appendix A can be useful, espe- cially the sections that outline the teacher’s professional role to families.

Keeping in Touch Five of the most common ways teachers can involve and inform families are:

1. Classroom Newsletters. provide a general idea of what the children are doing in class, any special events taking place, personal information about new babies, vacations, or other important events in the lives of the children. Be sure the newsletter is writ- ten in the language of the families in the class. See Figure 8-5 for an example.

2. Bulletin Boards. Posted where families can see them, these boards contain notices about parent/family

276 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

note along with a sample of artwork, or a story the child has dictated, or a photograph of the child with friends.

5. Home Visits. Depending on its purpose, a home visit can be used to enhance communications. Th e visit might be set up to focus only on the relation- ship between the teacher and the child. Or the visit might have a purely social function—a way for teachers to meet the whole family and for them to get acquainted with the teachers. In any event, the teacher can use this as a bridge to build a pleasant, casual beginning with this family.

Parent/Family–Teacher Conferences Parent/family–teacher conferences are the backbone of any good family–school relationship. A conference is a mutually supportive link between the adults who are most concerned about a child and should be a regular part of the communication process in all early childhood programs.

Conferences are held for many reasons. Th e initial conference, when the child fi rst enrolls in school, may focus on the child’s development, daily habits, and inter- ests, as well as the family’s hopes and expectations. Fur- ther into the school year, the teacher will share observa- tions and assessments of the child and work with the family to develop mutual goals that will be reinforced at home and at school. Individual conferences may be called at any time by the family or the teacher to express con- cerns, resolve confl icts, and problem-solve together.

Every occasion when families and teachers get to- gether to talk about a child is a step toward building trusting relationships between home and school. A suc- cessful conference is the result of good planning and clear communications, such as:

■ Be prepared and organized and have a clear pur- pose. Use a written format to maintain focus. Ask for other staff input and up-to-date examples. Ask parents to help set the agenda.

■ Put the family at ease with a warm welcome and thanks for their time. Help them relax by stating

some of their child’s strengths, citing examples. Compliment them on something you have noticed, either with their own child or when in the class- room with other children. Be sensitive to any cul- tural diff erences that may arise.

■ Ask—don’t tell. Begin with open-ended questions (“How is that new bedtime schedule working out?” or “Can you tell me more?”). Learn how to listen carefully to what is being said.

■ Keep the focus on the child. Keep the conversation based on mutual concerns and how to help each other. Make a plan of action together and discuss ways to follow through and stay in touch.

■ Write a brief report after the conference. Make a special note of the important issues that were dis- cussed, solutions that were agreed on, and dates for checking progress. Many of the child assessment forms used in early education programs require teachers to keep these records along with informa- tion about child progress.

■ Student and beginning teachers should fi nd a good role model in a more experienced teacher who will act as a mentor. Ask that person to sit in on a con- ference with you and afterwards have them refl ect on it with you. Learn from your experiences.

Maintaining Privacy and Confi dentiality Th e more involved families are in the workings of the school, the more important it is to establish guidelines for protecting the privacy of all the families enrolled. Family members who volunteer in the offi ce, the class- room, or on a fi eld trip must understand they cannot carry tales out of school about any of the children, the teachers, the administration, or other parents. Th e school must be clear about its expectations for ensuring such privacy and communicate policies to families. Family members who work on advisory boards, planning com- mittees, or other activities that allow them access to the school offi ce should be sensitive to the confi dentiality is- sue and respect the privacy of every family enrolled in the school.

Early childhood practitioners shine in their relationships with the children, and this is as it should be—your work with the children is the heart of what you do. Likewise, most students in a course like this one know how to build good working relationships with their own teachers. Chances are, you are as comfortable in your relationships with children as you are with your professors. But where do parents fi t in? Relations among students and parents are rarely well defi ned and can be tricky territory to navigate. Nonetheless, it is worth it to try. All it takes to get started are a few stories.

I have been fortunate as a parent to have experienced won- derful caregivers in three diff erent types of settings:

1. As an infant, my daughter spent several days a week with a family child care provider.

2. As a toddler, my daughter was enrolled in a child care center owned and run by a national chain.

3. Now, as a full-fl edged preschooler, Abra attends the lab school at the university where I teach.

In all three settings, I have been confi dent she was in good hands, that she was treated with respect and an aff ection for who she was at that stage of her life. In all three settings, I have learned—and admired—how sensitive caregivers connected with me as a parent. For you, as students of the fi eld, I off er examples of some best practices culled from my three diff erent child care experiences. Wonderful caregivers:

■ Tell parents descriptive—not judgmental—stories about their children. I hunger for stories about my daughter; I want to know what she does and who she becomes during those hours we are apart. I can’t get enough stories and appreci- ate those teachers (or the students learning to be teachers) who begin by telling me something Abra did that day. For example, she ate her own banana one day as an infant. She made up new lyrics to “ Twinkle, Twinkle” as a toddler. Th e next day, she enjoyed painting a “bear cave.” (It looked like a large brown blob to me.) At preschool, she laboriously lined up every peg during a manipulative activity, even though it took her 25 minutes to do so. Last week, she worked with friends to construct an enormous rainbow from colored paper. Each story helps me fi ll in the ever- changing picture of who my child is and helps me under- stand who my child might become.

■ Exude an energetic aff ection for the children. Th e best care- givers really like the children with whom they work. Th ey appreciate each for his or her strengths and challenges, and

cheer through his or her struggles and successes. Th eir af- fection for the kids carries over into conversations with parents, often in the stories they choose to tell or the way they choose to tell them. I watch my daughter connect with the teachers who are open for hugs, with those who make their laps available for reading and cuddling, and with those who sparkle while she tells her elaborately thought-out plans.

■ Ask me my name. As much as I love being “Abra’s mom,” I am always impressed with the college students who make a point to ask me my name. For some reason, I feel less like someone who impedes or undermines their work and more like I’m working with them. As a result, I tend to feel more comfortable with those students and often follow up with stories of my own.

■ Make connections with other parts of our lives. Th ey may say they saw us playing at the park or at a community concert. Th ey may honk as they drive by us on campus or on the way to the grocery store. And, most importantly, they ask my daughter about everyday activities and listen attentively to her version of an event. Th ey elicit her stories as well.

■ Problem-solve with parents. Bolstered by a rich bank of sto- ries, a strong sense of aff ection for the child, and an under- standing that there are real constraints outside the child care setting, the best teachers engage me in helping my daughter through her current struggles, whether it is where and when to use the toilet or how to encourage her to rest quietly, or supporting her to stand up for herself when an- other child convinces her she is frequently wrong. With a solid foundation, we can work on these challenges together.

As I look back now, I see it all starts with the stories. Ev- erything builds from there. Teachers (and students learning to be teachers) who take the time to tell me stories about my daughter stand out from the crowd. Teachers who illustrate for me where my daughter is in her social, emotional, cogni- tive, and physical development enable me to make better choices about what we can do at home. Th ese teachers watch her, like her, interact with her, and translate their insights into stories for me since I can’t be there to do it myself. Th en, when she and I are together, their stories infuse what we do, how we do it, and who we are together. Th ose teachers and their sto- ries have given us quite a gift.

Libby Miles, M.A., Ph.D., is a professor of writing and rhetoric at the Univer- sity of Rhode Island. A working mom, she has been enriched by her daugh- ter’s committed and thoughtful caregivers.

It All Starts with the Stories by Libby Miles, M.A., Ph.D.

277CHAPTER 8 Families and Teachers: Partners in Education

Insights from the fi eld

278 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

SUMMARY Th e partnership in education between families and teacher has a long and varied history, with each partner recognizing the unique part he or she plays in the child’s life. Th e value of sharing the information they have about the child highlights the separate but important functions of the family and the teachers. Th e defi nition of today’s family is broad to include all of the people who care for and nurture young children in their homes. To- day’s teacher needs sensitivity to and understanding of the many ways children are being raised so that they provide sensitive and appropriate support to all.

Th e current practice is a family-centered approach. An equal partnership, based on mutual respect for the

strengths that both families and teachers bring to the relationship, this approach requires a deepening of fam- ily involvement, particularly in the decision-making process.

One of the fi rst and most intensive ways families and teachers work together is through the separation process that takes place when the child enters school. Th ere are other basic skills teachers must have to work successfully with an increasingly diverse family population. Frequent and open communication, comfort with diversity, and planning for varied family education activities are but a few. Conferencing is a critical part of the parent/family– teacher partnership.

KEY TERMS precedent charter school magnet school

pedagogista separation process

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Describe the infl uence of early 18th century educators on the creation of school and family partnerships. How has parent and family involvement changed over the last century?

2. Describe three ways you would strengthen family–school partnerships. Cite the advantages for the (a) children, (b) family, and (c) teacher. Are there any disadvantages?

3. What is the defi nition of “family”?

4. What are some of the key elements in a successful parent–child separation? What is the role of the teacher?

5. What are fi ve of the most eff ective ways to communicate with families?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Discuss the following in small groups, and then share your responses with the rest of your classmates. Finish the

sentences:

“For me, the most diffi cult part of being a parent today is or would be … .”

“When I have children, I plan to (work/stay at home/do both) because … .”

“As a single parent, I would … .”

“When I have children, I will raise them ( just as my parents raised me/the opposite of the way I was raised) because … .”

279CHAPTER 8 Families and Teachers: Partners in Education

2. Look at the Patterns of Child-Rearing on page 269. Discuss the following with a classmate: Which style are you using or will you use with your own children? Why? Do you see these diff erent styles in the parents and families in your classroom? Does it aff ect your relationship with the parents? If so, how?

3. Question on Stages of Parenthood: What are the six stages that parents go through as they raise their children? What are some of the factors that make each stage diff erent?

4. Are there immigrant families in your school setting? How are these families supported or not supported by school practices and policies? What changes would you make?

5. Th e last step in conducting a successful parent/family conference suggests that you fi nd a good role model. Look around at the teachers you know and select one. Discuss with her your own concerns and/or experiences with parent/family conferences.

6. As a teacher, how does the Code of Ethical Conduct in Appendix A infl uence your decision to report another teacher who uses harsh methods of behavior control and who yells at children when she is angry with them?

HELPFUL WEBSITES National Association for the Education of Young Children http://www.naeyc.org Center for Immigration Studies http://www.cis.org Center for Social Organization of Schools http://www.csos.jhu.edu Especially for Parents http://www.ed.gov/parents National Coalition for Parent Involvement in Education http://www.ncpie.org Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services http://www.clas.uiuc.edu Zero to Th ree http://www.zerotothree.org Canadian Childcare Federation http://www.cfc.efc.ca Family Communications, Inc. http://www.misterrogers.org KidSource Online http://www.kidsource.com

REFERENCES

Additional resources including the TeachSource Videos can be found on the premium website for this book. Go to http://www.cengage.com/login to register your access code.

Baumrind, D. (1972). Socialization and instrumental competence in young children. In W. W. Hartrup (Ed.), Th e young child: Review of research (Vol. 2). Washington, DC: National Association for the Edu- cation of Young Children.

Berk, L. (2009). Child development. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Bradley, J., & Kibera, P. (2007). Closing the gap: Cul- ture and the promotion of inclusion in child care. In D. Koralek (Ed.) Spotlight on young children and fam- ilies. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Chidren, 38-43.

Browne, K. W., & Gordon, A. M. (2009). To teach well: An early childhood practicum guide. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Galinsky, E. (1987). Between generations. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Gestwicki, C. (2007). Home, school, and community rela- tions. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Gonzalez-Mena, J. (2002). Th e child in the family and the community. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Ed- ucation.

Eisenbud, L. (2002, March). Working with non- traditional families. Child Care Information Exchange, 16-20.

Planty, M., Hussar, W., Snyder, T., Provasnik, S., Kena, G., Dinkes, R., KewalRamani, A., & Kemp, J. (2008). Th e condition of education 2008 (NCES 2008-031). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U. S. Department of Education, Washington, DC.

Powell, D. R. (1989). Families and early childhood pro- grams. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Powell, D. R., & Diamond, K. E. (1995). Approaches to parent-teacher relationship in U.S. early child-

hood programs during the twentieth century. Journal of Education 177, 71-94.

U. S. Bureau of the Census (2008). Population estimates and projections (2008).Washington, DC.

U.S. Bureau of the Census (2007). Custodial mothers and fathers and their child support: 2005. Washing- ton, DC.

U.S. Bureau of the Census (2007). American Commu- nity Survey: Percent of people who are foreign born: 2007. American Fact Finder. Washington, DC.

U.S. Department of Labor (2005). Working in the 21st century. Washington, DC: Bureau of Labor Statistics.

280 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

C H A P T E R

Creating Environments

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

■ What does the term environment mean in early child- hood education?

■ What is a developmentally appropriate learning envi- ronment?

■ What is involved in planning environments?

■ How do teachers create a complete environment?

NAEYC CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Th ese Core Values and sections from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct are ad- dressed in this chapter. As you read, note how the Core Values, Ideals, or Principles listed here apply to the topics in this chapter. (Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

Section I: I-1.5. To create and maintain safe and healthy settings that foster children’s social,

emotional, intellectual, and physical development and that respect their dig- nity and their contributions.

P-1.4. For every child, we shall implement adaptations in teaching strategies, learn- ing environment, and curriculum, consult with the family, and seek recom- mendations from appropriate specialists to maximize the potential of the child to benefi t from the program.

Section III: P-3C.2. We shall provide staff members with safe and supportive working conditions

that permit them to carry out their responsibilities.

9

© Cengage Learning

282 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

What Is the Environment? What does it mean to create an environment appropriate for young children? What makes up the environment? Th e environment is the stage on which children play out the themes of childhood: their interests, triumphs, prob- lems, and concerns. An environment for children, there- fore, includes all of the conditions that aff ect their sur- roundings and the people in it.

Each environment is unique. Th ere is no such thing as a single model or ideal setting for all children. Each program has goals that refl ect the values and priorities of its teachers, families, and communities. When growth goals and the setting mesh, the atmosphere encourages enthusiasm and engagement.

Defi nition Th e environment is the sum total of the physical and human qualities that combine to create a space in which children and adults work and play together. Environ- ment is the content teachers arrange; it is an atmosphere they create; it is a feeling they communicate. Environ- ment is the total picture—from the traffi c fl ow to the daily schedule, from the numbers of chairs at a table to the placement of the guinea pig cage. It is a means to an end. Th e choices teachers make concerning the physical environment (the equipment and materials, the room arrangement, the playground and the facilities available), the temporal environment (timing for transitions, rou- tines, activities), and the interpersonal environment

(number and nature of teachers, ages and numbers of children, types and style of interactions among them) combine to support the program goals.

Th e environment speaks volumes to children, and their development is strongly infl uenced by settings and materials. Our ideas about the environment have been infl uenced by educators such as Montessori, Vygotsky, and Malaguzzi (see Chapters 1 and 4). As Wurm (2009) notes:

Each of these educators has left their own infl uence: from child-sized furnishings, to the creation of so- cial spaces for language development, and the im- portance of a stage for storytelling. Th ese details, when woven together, have shown us both in theory and practice that schools for young children are spaces that attend to social interaction, problem solving, dramatic play, storytelling, fantasy, confl ict and its resolution, and communication as a few of the vehicles for children to build their repertoire and further their understanding of the world.

Teachers arrange the environment to promote what they feel is best in children. Whether the environment is an adapted church basement, an elementary school class- room, or a space made especially for young children, it will be a powerful force in their lives. Beyond the families and staff , it is the child’s third teacher. “Th e environ- ment,” say Dodge, Colker, and Heroman (2002), “is the curriculum’s textbook.” It is the canvas on which children and teachers create their work.

Characteristics of the Environment All settings for the care and education of young children have similar basic environmental components and goals—meeting the needs of children—despite the fact that programs vary widely in the size of the group, age of children, length of day, program focus, and number of staff . Although physical environments vary on the sur- face, all high quality environments:

■ convey a welcoming feeling ■ give clear cues about what can be done in each area ■ provide varied spaces that let children concentrate, as

well as letting them experience lively group interac- tions and vigorous physical activity (Hyson, 2008)

Such variation on this common educational theme is one of the reasons why our fi eld is so diverse and inter-

The environment includes not only physical space and materials but also aspects of time and interpersonal rela- tionships such as who plays together and how much time they need to engage deeply in the play.

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283CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

esting. Caution must be exercised, however, to ensure a quality experience for all children. For instance, size does matter. Research conducted over 35 years ago (Prescott, Jones, & Kritschevsky, 1972) and corroborated more recently (Fowler, 1992) found that when a center gets too large, rules and routine guidance are emphasized, outdoor areas often have little variety, and children are often less enthusiastically involved and more often wandering. On the other extreme, too many of us know the problems associated with crowding and cramped conditions, little rooms that become institutions that dehumanize.

Group size is recognized as one of the most impor- tant indicators of quality child care (Howes, Phillips, & Whitebook, 1992; Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). Th e National Association for the Education of Young Chil- dren (NAEYC) continues its work with program ac- creditation of programs and developmentally appropri- ate practices (DAP); Figure 9-1 gives recommended standards for group size and adult–child ratios. Al- though there are endless variations in planning for chil- dren, certain common elements must be considered and principles used to create developmentally appropriate learning environments for young children.

Physical Plant Before creating an environment for children, the early childhood teacher must analyze the physical plant. Th e building that is inviting and beautiful beckons children to enter; a space with color and light encourages children to play with both. Many settings use space designed for other purposes, such as a family home, a church base- ment, or an empty elementary school classroom. Th e size and shape of the designated space determine how to plan for safe and appropriate use.

To rescale the space, teachers shift from an adult per- spective to a child’s scale. Getting on one’s knees provides a glimpse of the environment from the child’s point of view; child space is measured from the fl oor and play- ground up. A child’s stature determines what is available to and noticed by that child. For crawling infants, space consists primarily of the fl oor, whereas school-aged chil- dren can use and learn from the space up to about fi ve feet, roughly their own height. It is this perspective that teachers must remember as they plan the physical space for children.

DAPDAP

Resources In planning the environment, the teacher must know what kinds of resources are available. Rarely do teachers have unlimited dollars: “Th is year we can only aff ord …” determines many of the decisions made about the envi- ronment. Priority is usually given to teachers’ salaries and benefi ts, equipment and materials for the school, and other related services (maintenance, offi ce help, bus service). Despite budget constraints, teachers must be- ware of operating on too low of a materials budget. Lack of necessary materials can create increasingly passive, angry, and unhappy children out of sheer boredom. Only by knowing the extent of the fi scal boundaries and bud- get limits can a teacher plan a complete environment.

Th ere are ways to stretch that budget, however. Good environmental principles do not depend on numerous or expensive equipment, materials, or buildings. A creative child-centered environment can happen in any setting, re- gardless of the lack of fi nancial resources. Some equipment can be made, borrowed, or purchased secondhand. In church-based schools, annual rummage sales at the church provide a wealth of dress-up clothes, books, toys, and some appliances. Resource books are fi lled with ideas for recy- cling materials into usable equipment for young children. Parents and others can provide computer paper, wood scraps, or offi ce supplies for dramatic play kits. Commu- nity sources, such as the public library storyteller or a se- nior citizens group, may be available for extended experi- ences for the children. Eff ective fund raising provides an added source of revenue in many schools and centers.

Th e human resources must also be identifi ed. Adults do their best with children when their abilities, experi- ence, and availability are matched with what is expected of them. Volunteers, for instance, will feel satisfi ed if their time is organized and spent in ways meaningful to them. A fi rst-year teacher’s resources are best expended in the classroom rather than on administrative projects. A master teacher is ready to be challenged in other ways, such as orienting parents or evaluating curriculum mate- rials. When the entire community values its children, as in the case of Reggio Emilia, the school is a showcase, sending a strong message of how important children are in the life of its citizens. Just as we try to match children’s developing skills to the tasks at hand, so, too, should we consider individual people as part of an environment’s resources.

DAP Teachers arrange fi rsthand, meaningful experiences that are intellectually and creatively stimulating, invite exploration and in- vestigation, and engage children’s active, sustained involvement. They do this by providing a rich variety of materials, chal- lenges, and ideas that are worthy of children’s attention.

284 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Program Goals Th e goals and objectives of the program are expressed directly in the arrangement of the environment. Harms (2005) names three general goals in designing environ- ments: to plan soft and responsive settings that avoid behavior problems, to set up predictable environments that encourage independence, and to create a stimulating space for active learning. Th e physical space and materi-

als should tell the children exactly what is going to hap- pen and how they are to go about their work. In every program, consideration of what children are to accom- plish puts goals and environments together.

Th e goals of an early childhood program will vary widely because early childhood settings contain such a wide range of age and experience. Some programs are housed in large centers, others in homes; children may

Teachera–Child Ratios within Group Size

Age Group Group Size

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Infants

Birth to 15 monthsb 1:3 1:4

Toddlers/Twos (12–36 months)b

12 to 28 months 1:3 1:4 1:4c 1:4

21 to 36 months 1:4 1:5 1:6

Preschoolb

2.5–3s (30–48 months) 1:6 1:7 1:8 1:9

4-year-olds 1:8 1:9 1:10

5-year-olds 1:8 1:9 1:10

Kindergarten 1:10 1:11 1:12

FIGURE 9-1 Group size and staff–child ratio are two aspects of the environment that affect the quality of children’s experience. (NAEYC Early Childhood Program Standards and Accreditation Criteria: The Mark of Quality in Early Childhood Education, Table 2, p. 83. Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

NOTES: In a mixed-age preschool class of 2.5-year-olds to 5-year-olds, no more than two children between the ages of 30 months and 36 months may be enrolled. The ratios within group size for the predominant age group apply. If infants and toddlers are in a mixed-age group, the ratio for the youngest child applies.

Ratios are to be lowered when one or more children in the group need additional adult assistance to fully participate in the program (a) be- cause of ability, language fl uency, developmental age or stage, or other factors or (b) to meet other requirements of NAEYC Accreditation.

A group or classroom refers to the number of children who are assigned for most of the day to a teacher or a team of teaching staff and who occupy an individual classroom or well-defi ned space that prevents intermingling of children from different groups within a larger room or area.

Group sizes as stated are ceilings, regardless of the number of staff. Ratios and group sizes are always assessed during on-site visits for NAEYC Accreditation. They are not a required criterion. However, experi-

ence suggests that programs that exceed the recommended number of children for each teaching staff member and total group sizes will fi nd it much more diffi cult to meet each standard and achieve NAEYC Accreditation. The more these numbers are exceeded, the more diffi cult it will be to meet each standard. a Includes teachers, assistant teachers, and teacher aides b These age ranges purposely overlap. Programs may identify the age group being used for on-site assessment purposes for groups of children whose ages are included in multiple age groups. c Group sizes for this age group would require an additional adult.

285CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

attend all day or for part of the day and for educational, recreational, or even custodial reasons. Th e important point is that good environments for children must refl ect clear and reasonable program goals. Once we know what we wish to do and why we want to do it, we can create space, timing, and an atmosphere in which to meet those goals.

Goals into Action Creative teachers plan a program directed toward goals for each dimension (physical, temporal, and interper- sonal) of the environment:

1. Th e room and yard are arranged to give maximum exposure to the materials and equipment they want children to use.

2. Th ey take care to arrange the daily schedule in ways that provide the time blocks needed to teach con- tent when and how they want to teach it.

3. Th ey see that a warm relationship exists among the teachers and in their interactions with children.

With a clear idea of their program goals before ar- ranging the environment, teachers make room/yard blueprints, daily schedules, and personal styles match what they believe. For example, if a program develops cognitive and fi ne motor skills, a space with games using prereading and writing materials should be prominent. Puzzles and table toys should have a central place in the classroom. Enough tables and chairs should be provided to accommodate all the children. Larger amounts of time should be made available for children to work on these activities every day, and teachers should be available to reinforce and encourage children as they play. Research shows that teachers who emphasize “learning goals” are more likely to have children who approach situations with mastery and goals in mind (Midgley, 2002).

When children walk into a center, the environment should communicate how they are to live and work in that setting. Children should receive clear messages about what they can and cannot do there as well as cues that tell them:

■ where they are free to move to and where they can- not go.

■ how they will be treated. ■ who will be there with them. ■ what materials and equipment they can use. ■ how long they have to play. ■ that they are safe there. ■ what is expected of them.

Teachers communicate these messages in many ways. Figure 9-2 describes how teachers use the environment to tell children what is important there. For instance, when it is time to go outside, the doors are opened. If children need to stay off a piece of equipment, it is marked by dividers or a fl ag, and a teacher stationed nearby explains the instruction. Children know that they matter when they are welcomed each day, and they know their time is valued when teachers tell them how long they have to complete a project or play sequence and when that time is nearly up.

Th e teacher is the key element in creating the envi- ronment. It is not the facility alone that counts, as much as it is the teacher’s understanding of all the environmen- tal factors and how they are related to one another. Indi- cators of program quality, such as the adult–child ratio; the stability, education, and experience of the caregiver; and group size all contribute to an environment that meets its goals for children. Chapter 2 details these indi- cators, and Chapter 5 describes their place in teacher evaluation.

A room is just a room and a yard is just a yard until a teacher makes them environments for learning. Th e teachers themselves are the most responsive part of the environment; it is they who converse, hug, appreciate, give information, and see the individuality of each child. Th ey are the ones who create the space, the time, and the atmosphere that will engage children’s curiosity and in- volvement. Figure 9-2 summarizes these environmental goals.

Principles for Developing Appropriate Learning Environments Because children live in the world of the senses, actions, and feelings, they are greatly infl uenced by their immedi- ate surroundings. Th erefore, we must pay attention to what is in their environment and what happens during their stay there. Th e following are 15 elements of devel- opmentally appropriate learning environments:

1. Create high-activity, low-stress, and brain- compatible environments. Positive neurological changes occur when a child is engaged in a learning experience and the brain can shut down when a threat is perceived ( Jensen, 1998). Th e environment calls into use many of children’s senses, choices and some auton- omy, and cooperative learning and so determines, to

286 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

some degree, the functioning ability of children’s brains (Rushton, 2001). Allowing small groups to form and focus on an activity stimulates learning without pressure or stress to perform or wait. “A de- velopmentally appropriate learning environment is designed for individual children to be messy, noisy and quiet, alone and social, and active and still,” says Greenman (2000). “It is designed to accommodate

much stuff —loose parts—the raw materials of dis- covery for active hands and minds.”

Th e Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture is working to identify classroom design elements that encourage learning and describe design fl aws that can cause or exacerbate problems. For example, “students with language or learning problems have more diffi culty learning in rooms with excessive re-

Messages from the Environment

Be treated as individuals, with unique strengths and developmental goals.

See themselves and their family culture represented positively and be exposed to cultural diversity in meaningful ways.

Make choices and independent learning.

Learn to be part of a group.

Become responsible for the setting.

Be aware of the behavioral limits.

Be with adults who will supervise and facilitate play and encourage learning throughout the day.

FIGURE 9-2 The goals of the program are mirrored in the environment.

Have low teacher–child ratio for one-to-one interactions. Provide private as well as public spaces for group and solitary play. Place teachers and materials for ready access. Be staffed by teachers who set goals for each child based on observation and

assessment. Have materials that match the developmental level of the group. Provide a balance of quiet and active times.

Include pictures, books, dolls, dramatic play materials, activities, and people that refl ect many cultures and life experiences.

Have teachers who understand and value home cultures and diverse family practices.

Provide opportunities for various cultural habits, activities, and celebrations to occur.

Be arranged with clearly marked available choices. Offer a variety of activity centers for exploration. Allow large blocks of time for child-initiated choices Provide an adequate number of trained teachers to support self-discovery.

Be set up for group play—several chairs around tables, easels next to each other, more than one telephone and wagon.

Regularly schedule small and large group times and encourage participation. Include trained staff who can create engaging group activities. Allow children to use each other as resources. Provide activities that emphasize cooperation and social interaction.

Schedule cleanup times as part of the daily routine. Include teachers and children working together to restore order. Allow time for children to be instructed in the proper use of materials and

care.

Ensure that teachers and the daily schedule refl ect important rules of behavior.

Have teachers who deal with behavior problems in a fair and consistent way. Allow plenty of time during transitions that reduces stress during changes. Be arranged to avoid runways and dead ends.

Be set up before children arrive so teachers are free to greet them. Encourage teacher–child interactions through the use of small groups. Create a daily schedule that allows time for in-depth interactions.

Children Need to ... So the Environment Should...

287CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

verberation and noise. Lighting is also critical be- cause it plays a role in alertness” (Nieer, 2006). Phys- ical attributes such as acoustics, light, colors, and other stimuli may aff ect the brain.

2. Build culturally responsive environments. First and foremost, it is important that the environment re- fl ects the cultures of the children in the classroom. Th e Euro-American cultural value of independence will be expressed in aspects of a self-help environ- ment (later in this section). Values of group har- mony and interdependence should also be included. If the teachers do not look like the children, and their spaces do not look like home, it is critical that the interpersonal and temporal aspects of their en- vironment complement their home culture. (See Figure 9-3 and the Anti-Bias section of this chapter).

3. Consider children’s developmental levels. Recognize that there are many things young children will not be able to do on their own, but allow them the chance to do all they can. Be developmentally aware—know what children in the class are capable of, at what point they are now in their development, and what the next step should be. Th ree-year-old Sophie can only zip her jacket now, so having dress- ing frames helps her put the zipper in the housing. “Kindergarten children thrive when they can work independently and cooperatively with a small group of peers” (Heroman & Copple, 2006). “Using cen- ters to organize and manage the learning environ- ment is a strategy attuned to who kindergarten chil- dren are and how they learn.” (See Inclusive section of this chapter.)

4. Give families ways to identify their children’s space. Label cubbies, storage bins, or baskets with names, a photo, or a familiar picture so that children can see where to put jackets, artwork, and other personal belongings.

5. Provide access to enough toys and materials. Help children imagine and live in alternative worlds, com- munities, and homes where things are diff erent. Make sure that supplies are stored in such a way that adults do not have to hand them to children each time they will be used. Equipment placed at a child’s height on open, low shelving permits children to proceed at their own pace and to select materials without depending on adults to serve them.

6. Give opportunities for making choices. Both indoors and out, children should be given an abundance of materials and a range of activities from which to

choose so that they may decide how they will spend their time. Choosing to play with the hamster rather than in the block corner helps a child practice self-direction. Children should also be able to de- cide with whom they would like to play and with which teachers they would like to establish close re- lationships most of the time.

7. See that children are responsible for caring for the envi- ronment. Have a clean-up time in the daily schedule and allow children time to help restore the room and yard. Label shelves and cupboards with pictures or symbols of what is stored there so that children can readily fi nd and return things. Outlining the specifi c shapes of the blocks that are stored on each shelf will help develop children’s self-help skills. Outdoors, a clearly marked “parking lot” for wheel toys or bins for sand toys helps independence. An accessible drying rack with large clothespins tells children that they are expected to care for their own artwork.

8. Involve children in planning and setting up the envi- ronment. Let the children help decide what they want to learn. For instance, if a Sarita’s cat has kit- tens, encourage a visit and then send a newsletter asking for other pets, arranging a fi eld trip to a pet store, and organizing a dramatic play corner as a pet hospital or pet shop. Make the yard more interest- ing by encouraging the children to rearrange climb- ing boards and assist them in moving the pieces themselves. Th e class feast is made more exciting when the children themselves move all the tables to- gether and plan the menu!

9. Provide children with enough time. One of the ways children learn is to repeat an activity over and over again. Th ey explore, manipulate, experiment, and come to master puzzle, to shape a lump of clay, or how to brush their teeth. Large blocks of time in the daily schedule—especially for routines—let children proceed to learn at an unhurried pace. (See section on Temporal Environment further in the chapter.)

10. Make expectations clear and consistent. Both in the environment and in words, let them know what you want them to do. Putting on a clean-up song that lasts several minutes tells them in both verbal and nonverbal ways that the group knows they can do a job without pressure. Give clues that indicate how to proceed. For example, Isaac usually has someone dress him at home. In the toddler class, he sees the poster of a child dressing himself, and plays a

288 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Culturally Responsive Environment

2. Are the pictures and the props representative of a diversity of cultures?

3. Are the dolls representative of a broad variety of racial groups? *Are they just white dolls with changed skin color?

Blocks 1. Are the accessories representative of various

cultural groups and family confi gurations?

2. Are the people block accessories stereotypic in terms of sex roles?

Language Arts 1. Does the classroom have a wide variety of age-

appropriate and culturally diverse books and language-arts materials?

2. Are there stories about a variety of people from each of the following groups in the book corner? _____ Native-American cultures _____ Asian-American cultures _____ Black cultures _____ White ethnic cultures _____ Spanish-speaking cultures _____ Biracial or multiracial people _____ Family confi gurations, including biracial and

multiracial families and gay and lesbian families

3. Are there any books that speak of people of diverse cultures in stereotypical or derogatory terms (e.g., describing Latinos as “lazy” or Japanese as always taking photographs)?

Cooking 1. Do the cooking experiences in the classroom

encourage the children to experiment with foods other than those with which they are familiar?

2. Are the cooking experiences designed to give young children a general notion of the connections between cultural heritage and the process of preparing, cooking, and eating food?

Overall Environment 1. In general, is the classroom hospitable?

2. What is on the walls? * If there is work done by children, does it all look alike? For example, are there teacher-made shapes that the children colored, or is the art genuinely done by the children?

* Are all of the pictures for children and the art hung at children’s eye level?

* Are the pictures of people hanging on walls or bulletin boards representative of a multicultural community?

* Even if pictures do represent a diverse population, are they stereotypic in any way? For example, is there an alphabet chart that uses “Indian” to symbolize the letter “I”?

3. Is there evidence of families in the environment?

Social Studies 1. Does the curriculum as a whole help the children

increase their understanding and acceptance of attitudes, values, and lifestyles that are unfamiliar to them?

2. Are materials and games racially or sex-role stereotypic—for example, black people shooting dice or boys playing war games? Are women depicted only as caregivers while men do lots of exciting jobs?

Music and Games 1. Do the music experiences in the curriculum

reinforce the children’s affi rmation of cultural diversity?

2. Are fi ngerplays, games, and songs from various cultural groups used in the classroom?

3. Are there many varieties of musical instruments, including ones made by children?

Dramatic Play 1. Is there a wide variety of clothes, including

garments from various cultural groups?

FIGURE 9-3 A multicultural environment checklist provides questions for teachers to evaluate and monitor progress toward an anti-bias environment for children. (Adapted from Frances E. Kendall, Diversity in the Classroom: New Approaches to the Education of Young Children. New York: Teachers College Press. Copyright © 1995 by Teachers College Press, Columbia University. Reprinted with permission.)

289CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

dressing game in circle time: when the teacher prompts him—“If you pull up your underpants fi rst, it will be easier to get your pants up”—and then gives feedback on what is working—“Good. You’ve got the back up. Now reach around the front.”—he hears the teacher’s confi dence in his ability to fi nish the task.

Be sure staff expectations are consistent. Th e teaching team should set common goals for each child and reinforce them consistently. For instance, Janice will become confused if one teacher tells her to get her cot ready for nap and another teacher does it for her.

11. Let children teach one another. Encourage children to share the skills they have mastered with their peers. Actively seek out each child’s way of doing things; support a diversity of approaches. Th ose who can tie shoes enjoy helping their friends with stubborn laces or slippery knots. Whether reading or telling stories to one another, or showing a friend a fast way to put on a jacket, children benefi t from helping each other.

12. Allow children to solve their own problems whenever possible. In solving social or mechanical problems, young children can begin to fi nd out for themselves what is or is not successful. See how far a child can go in discovering how to manipulate a pin so that it will close, or to work out with another child who will use the red paint fi rst. A good teacher tries not to intervene too early and can let a child struggle suffi ciently with a problem before stepping in to help.

13. Accept children’s eff orts. To support children in their quest for independence, the adult must be satisfi ed with children’s eff orts. Be ready to accept the way that Tom made his sandwich or that Shelley put her boots on the wrong feet.

14. Make it safe to make a mistake. Children learn from their own actions and their own experiences. Let them know it is perfectly acceptable, indeed inevita- ble, that they will at times make mistakes. Help them deal with the consequences of their mistakes. When Chelo spills her juice, she is encouraged to fi nd a sponge and clean up the table. Th e teacher re- inforces Chelo’s eff orts by commenting on her scrubbing ability and swift action.

15. Give credit where it is due. Provide feedback so that children will know when they have been successful. Compliment Chaz on the length of time he took sorting through the nails to fi nd the one he wanted.

Tell Ellen she worked hard at opening her own juice box. Let children take pride in their own accom- plishments. A well-planned environment opens up infi nite possi-

bilities for children to achieve a feeling of self-satisfaction while they explore the boundaries of their own beings. Adults who work with children should remember to in- teract with children in ways that will help them grow to- ward independence. To perceive children as helpless is to rob them of the satisfaction of achievement (see Self- Help section of this chapter).

A fi nal note: Include beauty in your planning. Th e en- vironment in which children grow and learn should also be visually appealing and relaxing. Th ere are so many as- saults on our visual senses in schools: concrete, barred windows, heavy doors, tiny windows, clutter and chalk- boards, to name a few. People become numbed to bal- ance, shape, form, line, and color. While resources are limited, beauty does not need to be ignored. Th e envi- ronment is one of the few things that teachers can con- trol and use to everyone’s advantage.

The Anti-Bias Environment Among the core values (see Code of Ethics in Appendix A) in any good early childhood program is the recogni- tion of each child as unique, as deserving of respect, and as a part of a family. Each child has the right to achieve full potential and to develop a positive self-esteem. Each family deserves support for the unique role it plays. Part of the commitment of the early childhood teacher is to help children learn to value one another’s uniqueness, the diff erences as well as the similarities. Teachers do this, in part, by expressing such inclusive attitudes. Early learning standards (Gronlund, 2006; NAEYC, 2002) should be fl exible enough to encourage teachers to embed culturally relevant experiences in the curriculum. Adaptations to standards will then promote success for all.

Th e anti-bias curriculum, developed at Pacifi c Oaks College, encourages children and adults to:

■ Explore the diff erences and similarities that make up our individual and group identities.

■ Develop skills for identifying and countering the hurtful impact of bias on themselves and their peers. (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010)

Th e physical and interpersonal environment can be used to help children see that culture consists of the various ways people do similar activities. Th is approach is diff er- ent from the “tourist curriculum,” which provides only

290 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

superfi cial information that is often detached from the child’s own life. It is also diff erent from an approach that is based only on the interests of the class and gender, ra- cial, and cultural groups represented therein. Th e anti- bias environment incorporates the positive aspects of a multicultural curriculum and uses some of the activities that highlight other cultures, but it provides a more in- clusive, ongoing approach. Th is approach avoids patron- izing or emphasizing trivial, isolated, exotic diff erences. Th ere is an inherent feeling of fairness to self and others in the anti-bias approach, as children explore the many ways people do the basic human tasks of everyday life. Th ink of the diverse cultures expressed in how babies and things are carried from place to place in diff erent parts of the world. How many ways do people eat? Cook? Shop for food?

A value common to all early childhood programs is expressed in this anti-bias curriculum: that every person matters, so diversity is valuable and peaceful, and just co- operation among all is possible. If unity is the completed puzzle, then diversity is the pieces of the puzzle. In this curriculum, the environment and the activities are de- rived from three sources: the children and their activities, the teachers’ awareness of the developmental needs and learning styles of the group, and societal events. Teachers, of course, make general selections of what children are to learn and arrange the environment for learning to begin. Th en, the environment, which includes the children themselves, begins to change. If children are especially in- terested in making things, perhaps the theme “All people live in homes” emerges, with activities that focus on how people build things, what they use the buildings for, and how they work to get something built.

Lessons about children’s identity and budding atti- tudes concerning race, gender, disability, and age are learned early in life. With the prevalence of stereotyping in society, and the impact of bias on children’s development (Cross, 1985; Gutierrez, 1982; Kutner, 1984), early child- hood educators have a responsibility to fi nd ways to pre- vent, even counter, the damage done by such stereotyping. Teachers do this by arranging an anti-bias physical envi- ronment, as well as creating an atmosphere of problem solving and learning in the day-to-day confl icts and inter- actions that arise naturally. Th ink about how teachers provide the materials and encourage an atmosphere of trust and time for confl ict resolution in these examples:

A kindergarten teacher shows the children a maga- zine picture entitled “Brides of America.” All of the women pictured are Caucasian. She asks, “What do you think of this picture?” Sophia responds, “Th at’s

a silly picture. My mom was a bride, and she’s Mexi- can.” (Derman-Sparks & Edwards, 2010)

A toddler teacher sets up the water play table for washing babies. Choosing dolls that represent several racial and ethnic groups, she invites the chil- dren to soap and rinse them. One 2-year-old begins to wash the teacher’s arm, then scrubs it hard. “Do you wonder if my color will wash off ?” the teacher asks. Th e child nods, and several others look up. “Does it? Go ahead and try… See, a person’s color is her own and stays with her. Try yours, too. Th at’s one way people look diff erent: we all have skin, and yet we each have our own color.” (Gutierrez, personal communication, 1987) Th e anti-bias approach to creating environment has

its roots in the theories of Maslow, Piaget, and Erikson (see Chapter 4). Research data reveal that children be- gin to notice and construct classifi cations and evalua- tive categories very early; indeed, 2-year-olds begin to notice gender and racial diff erences and may even no- tice physical disabilities (Froschl, Rubin, & Sprung, 1984; Honig, 1983). Early childhood programs must develop a child’s basic sense of trust and mastery so that children can learn to understand themselves and become tolerant and compassionate toward others (see Figure 9-3).

A Place at the Table Th e anti-bias approach takes a broad view of a class- room, as a kind of “mini-society” in which children and adults work together to form a just world. Th ere is a place for everyone at the table, no one is left out, and confl icts and problems are solved.

Further, injustices from the outside world are sometimes addressed. For instance, in one “anti-bias” video, a teacher helps children ticket parents’ cars who improperly park in the class-made handicapped park- ing space (Derman-Sparks, 1989). An anti-bias class- room fosters:

■ Positive self-concept. Curiosity and creativity stem from being able to aff ect the environment and what is in it. When Jamal says his baby’s hair is fuzzy like his, his smile tells how good he feels about the similarity.

■ Awareness. All people have interests and feelings, both about themselves and about others. Yoko no- tices that her classmate Julie runs and throws her arms around her dad, but she prefers a less demon- strative greeting.

291CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

■ Respect for diversity. Th is stems from the ability to classify similarities and diff erences and then to appre- ciate both. For example, when the children create self- portraits for their class books, some choose diff erent colors of paper for drawing faces, but all of them use the same markers to draw in their features.

■ Skills in communication and problem-solving. Learn- ing how to express thoughts and feelings includes being able to hear others and fi nding peaceful ways to resolve confl icts. Jim and LaNell are quick to tell Eben he cannot play, but they fi nd out that telling him he is “too little” does not work. He does not ac- cept that simply being 3 years old is enough reason to leave him out, so they must either try to include him or make a claim for privacy.

As Elizabeth Jones (personal notes, 1984) states:

Th e pluralistic view assumes that (1) people are dif- ferent from each other and (2) diff erences are valu- able; they add to the richness of everyone’s experi- ences. Th e task of the worker with children, then, is to acknowledge and appreciate diff erences. Th e de- velopmental view assumes that growth and learning are spontaneously motivated. Th e task of the teacher is to provide a supportive environment that frees each individual to grow and learn—to em- power children so that they will assert their needs and develop thoughtful strategies for meeting them.

Self-Help Environment A self-help environment has as one of its fundamental goals the development of children’s own skills—fostering their mastery of basic abilities that will allow them to be- come responsible for their own personal care, their own learning, their own emotional controls, their own prob- lem solving, and their own choices and decisions. A self- help environment gives children the feeling that they are capable, competent, and successful. It allows children to do for themselves, to meet the challenge of growing up. A self-help environment refl ects the belief that autonomy and independence are the birthright of every child.

I Can Do It Myself Nothing renders people more helpless than not being able to maintain their own needs or to take care of them- selves in basic ways. Children are still in the process of learning about what they can and cannot do. Th ey need many diff erent kinds of experiences to help them learn the extent of their capabilities. Most of all, they need adults who understand their tremendous drive to be- come self-reliant, adults who will not only encourage their abilities and provide the time for them to practice skills, but adults who understand that it is the nature of the child to develop this way.

Self-concept is based on what we know about our- selves, which includes the ability to take care of our own

The anti-bias environment encourages girls and boys to play together, respecting differ- ences and including others in new ways.

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needs. To care for oneself, to feel capable of learning, to solve problems, are all related to feelings of self-esteem. Self-esteem is the value we place on ourselves; how much we like or dislike who we are. Helping children achieve a positive self-concept and self-esteem is the most impor- tant part of teaching. Th e development of a strong sense of self-esteem is a lifelong process; its origins are in the early years.

A program designed to promote self-help skills uses every aspect of the environment, from the room arrange- ment to the attitudes of the teachers. Each activity is de- signed to foster self-reliance, thereby building self- esteem. A supermarket is a real-world example of an environ- ment created for maximum self-reliance. Shelves are ac- cessible and the products are clearly marked and attrac- tively displayed.

Th at kind of thoughtful preparation can create spaces that say to children, “Do me. Master me. You are capable.” Teachers want to communicate to children that they value self-help skills as much as they appreciate an art project or science experiment. Th e ultimate goal is for children to see self-reliance as valuable. If Claudia feels that learning to tie her shoes is worth doing just because of the pleasure it gives her to manipulate the strings, weave them through the holes, and bring them together in a knot, then that becomes her reward. She becomes capable of reinforcing herself.

The Inclusive Environment In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (P.L. 94-142) called for an end to segregation for dis- abled students from kindergarten through high school. Th is policy fi ltered down to preschools and child care centers, and in 1986, an amendment made to this bill (P.L. 99-457) mandated that preschoolers with special needs be placed in the least restrictive environment. Th e practice of placing children with disabilities in the same classroom as children without disabilities is called mainstreaming. A more comprehensive method is known as full inclusion, in which both typically develop- ing children and children with diverse abilities are taught together by a teaching staff with expertise in both normal child development and special education (see Chapter 3). Th e Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 prohibits child care centers from denying admission to a child sim- ply because the child has a disability. Together, these fed- eral laws form part of the rationale for early childhood centers to become more inclusive environments.

Children with diverse abilities need the same things in their environment as their more typically-developing

peers. Th ey need an environment that is safe, secure, and predictable and one that provides a balance of the famil- iar and novel, so that there are materials and activities that provide for their development. “When a child with disabilities has diff erent developmental needs than other children of the same age, adaptations must be made” (Youcha & Wood, 1997). Th ese may require either add- ing something to the environment that is not already there or using something in the environment in a diff er- ent way. Our Code of Ethical Conduct supports the right of each child to play and learn in an inclusive envi- ronment that meets the needs of children with and with- out disabilities.

Environmental adaptations are changes that make the environment fi t the child better, so they will vary with the children. Children with motor disabilities need diff er- ent adaptations than those with hearing or language dis- abilities or with visual impairments. Physical changes may be necessary, modifi cations in the schedule may be recommended, or individualizing activities may be best. Parents will be the best source of information about the child; other readings or specialists can be further guides. Th ree key concepts are helpful to remember—access, us- ability, and maximizing learning:

1. Can the child get where s/he needs to be in the classroom to learn something?

2. Once the child is in that location, can s/he use the materials and equipment and participate in the activity as independently as possible to learn something?

3. Are the learning activities arranged and scheduled to meet the individual learning needs of the chil- dren, including the child with disabilities?

Figure 9-4 is an abbreviated checklist for adaptations to create an inclusive environment.

Come Together for a Child Consider Andrew (Rogers, 1994), who at 5 years of age had a motor/muscle disability with some speech diffi cul- ties. His cognitive skills were very strong and his social skills very weak. Andrew’s mother talked to everyone during class about Andrew’s needs and fears. If he fell down, he had a hard time righting himself. He needed help sitting and standing. He was afraid of getting bumped because he could not catch himself before fall- ing very hard and then could not get up. Th e children all agreed to be careful about roughhousing around him. Th e setting for success was being created.

Because Andrew did not have much control of his fi ne motor skills, the teachers provided him with painting

293CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

Checklist for an Inclusive Environment

Visual Environment

Questions to think about: • How do different children use their vision for

learning? • How can we enhance the visual environment for a

child with low or no vision? • How can we capitalize on the visual environment

for children who learn by seeing?

Accessing the environment safely: ❒ Are contrasting colors used on edges and when

surfaces change (e.g., tile to carpet, beginning of stairs, etc.)?

❒ Can windows be shaded to avoid high glare? • Also consider darker nonglossy fl oors and

tabletops. • Some children’s behavior and learning may

improve dramatically once a strong glare is eliminated.

❒ Is visual clutter avoided on walls, shelves, etc.? • Visual clutter can interfere with learning,

predictability, and safety. ❒ Is “spot lighting” (e.g., swing arm lamp) in a

dimmer room available? • Spot lamps help some children pay attention and

work better on table tasks. ❒ Orientation and mobility specialists help children

with visual impairments learn to navigate the environment.

Learning through the environment: ❒ Are large-print materials, textured materials, and

auditory materials available (e.g., big books, sandpaper letters, books on tape)?

Physical Environment:

Questions to think about: • How can we enhance or adapt the physical

environment for children who have diffi culty moving (or who move too much)?

• How do different children use their bodies or the space around them for learning?

• How can we capitalize on the physical environment for children who learn by moving?

Accessing the environment safely: ❒ Are doorway widths in compliance with local

building codes? ❒ Ramps in addition to or instead of stairs? ❒ Low, wide stairs where possible (including

playground equipment)? ❒ Hand rails on both sides of stairs? ❒ Easy handles on doors, drawers, etc.? ❒ Kids’ chairs with armrests, “cubes” or footrest and/

or seat strap? *When adapting seating, mobility, and/or motor activities for a specifi c child with physical disabilities, consult a physical therapist.

Learning through the environment: ❒ Are toys and equipment physically accessible?

• Glue magnets to backs of puzzle pieces and attribute blocks and use on a steel cookie tray.

• Attach large knobs or levers to toys with lids, movable parts.

• Attach tabs to book pages for easier turning. ☛ An occupational therapist can provide specifi c

suggestions for adapting materials and activities.

FIGURE 9-4 When designing an inclusive environment, keep in mind that the environ- ment needs to be safe and to help everyone participate, learn, and communicate. (Adapted from Haugen, K. [1997, March].)

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294 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Accessing the environment safely: ❒ Is there a way to eliminate or dampen background

noise (using carpeting, closing windows and doors, etc.)? • Some kids are unable to do the automatic

fi ltering out of background noises. ❒ Is “auditory competition” avoided?

• Raising one’s voice to compete with a roomful of noisy children is rarely as effective as using a “silent signal,” for example, holding up a peace sign and encouraging children who notice to do the same until the room is full of quiet children holding up peace signs!

❒ Are nonauditory signals needed to alert a child with a hearing impairment? • Turning the lights on and off is a common

strategy.

Learning through the environment: ❒ Are auditory messages paired with visual ones

(e.g., simple sign language, fl annel boards, picture schedules)?

❒ Are children with hearing impairments seated so they can see others’ faces and actions? • Ask the child’s parents what strategies are used

at home and about the use of sign language.

Social Environment

Questions to think about: • How do different children use social cues for

learning? • How can we adapt the social environment for

children with impulsive behavior, attention defi cits, or other behavior problems?

❒ Is the daily schedule represented in words and pictures? • A Velcro schedule that allows children to post the

schedule and then remove items as activities are completed can help children to stay focused and make the transition more easily from one activity to the next.

❒ Are children with low vision seated close to the center of activity and away from high glare? *Consult family about the need for “running commentary” for blink or low-vision child.

Auditory Environment

Questions to think about: • How do different children use their hearing for

learning? • How can we enhance the auditory environment for

a child who is deaf, hearing impaired, or has poor auditory discrimination skills?

• How can we capitalize on the auditory environment for auditory learners?

FIGURE 9-4 (continued)

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295CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

and play-dough. Th ey set up a crafts table; soon he was gluing pictures on paper, with or without order, and was very proud of his accomplishments. He even started us- ing scissors on simple patterns. Th e physical environment was responding to his needs.

He was a wonderful puzzle builder, and the other children asked for his help often when they were stuck. It was wonderful to watch how they included him in many things. Th ey accepted his diff erences right from the beginning and treated him just like all the rest— except they were careful when running and playing around him. His fear was apparent, and they respected it. Th us, the interpersonal environment was emerging.

Th ere was a regular P.E. time each day in the big room where the group jumped rope, played “Simon Says,” played “Red Light, Green Light,” and ran obstacle courses. At fi rst, Andrew sat on the sidelines and watched. He cheered and looked interested, so one teacher started asking him if he’d be my partner because she was a little afraid. At fi rst he refused and told her to use someone else. Th e teacher kept asking but would drop it as soon as he gave his answer; then one day he said, “OK.” Th e two of them ran and jumped over the snake (rope), and all the kids laughed. Th ey hugged and that was the be- ginning. When given the time that is needed (the temporal environment), the child triumphs.

Planning for the Environment Who Is in the Environment? Many people live and work in the early childhood envi- ronment. Cooks, bus drivers, offi ce personnel, and yard and building maintenance people are but a few. Each person has special demands on the environment to do the job they are hired to do.

Children, teachers, and families have the greatest in- fl uence on the early childhood environment; their needs are outlined in this section.

Children Children’s needs are met through the environment. Th e physical, social, emotional, and intellectual requirements of children suggest the type of building, the size of the furniture, the choice of equipment, the size and age range of the group, the number of teachers who lead and su- pervise, and the budget allocations. Guided by child de- velopment principles, teachers match the setting to the children who will learn and play there. Th e individuality of a particular group of children, of a school, and of its philosophy is expressed by the arrangement of the envi-

❒ Does the schedule include opportunities for a variety of groupings (pairs, small groups, whole class) as well as quiet time or time alone?

❒ Does the schedule provide both structured and open activity times? • Children who have diffi culty with a particular

type of activity may need extra support at those times.

☛ School psychologists and behavior specialists can help analyze misbehavior and modify the environment or schedule.

• How can we capitalize on the social environment for children who learn by relating to others?

Accessing the environment safely: ❒ Is the schedule predictable? Are children informed

of schedule changes? ❒ Does the schedule provide a range of activity levels

(e.g., adequate opportunities for physical activity)?

Learning through the environment: ❒ Does the environment have a positive impact on

self-esteem? • Allows all children to feel safe, invites

participation, allows for independence? ❒ Do learning materials and toys include

representations of all kinds of people, including children and adults with disabilities? • People with disabilities should be represented in

active and leadership roles, not just as passive observers.

FIGURE 9-4 (continued)

296 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

ronmental factors. First and foremost, though, are the questions: Who are the children who will use this space? What are their needs? How can those needs be met in this particular setting?

Teachers What has been done to meet the needs of the teachers? Do they have an offi ce? A teachers’ room? A place to hold conferences? Where do they keep their personal belong- ings or the materials they bring to use at school? Do they have a place to park? All teachers need room to create curriculum materials, to evaluate their programs, to re- view other educational materials, and to meet with their peers. Research (Whitebook, 1996) indicates that the working environment of caregivers (including the gen- eral context of the setting, opportunities for professional development, status, and wages) are important predic- tors of the quality of care children receive. How well teachers are provided for helps to determine the atmo- sphere they will establish in their classrooms. Adult space indoors is described in more detail later in the chapter.

Families Th e needs of parents and other adults in children’s fami- lies will diff er, depending on whom the program serves. Adults who bring their children to child care or school need adequate and safe parking facilities. In settings in which adults are free to stay, a reading room, resource li- brary, or a comfortable place to talk with others is desir-

able. Th ose who participate in the class are welcomed by a teacher, shown a place to put their belongings, and given a name tag and appropriate directions.

Th ere are many reasons families may need to contact the school or center. Are there ways to reach teachers and children in emergencies? How welcoming is the environ- ment as they enter the building? Th e offi ce? Th e class- room? What does the environment say about family in- volvement and interest?

Th e teacher can make the environment accessible and welcoming in several ways. Posting telephone num- bers at which school authorities and teachers can be reached when the school is closed assures families that teachers are available whenever needed. A bulletin board for community notices and for family use can be put up along with mail pockets. Written communication can go between parents and teachers and among families. Work- ing with families is vital to creating both an anti-bias and a self-help focus in children’s education and care. Teach- ing from these perspectives is more likely to create posi- tive changes in children’s lives when families are included in the process. Th e center that off ers parents both an au- thoritative teacher and other useful resources helps them feel that their children are important.

Health and Safety in the Environment Regardless of how many children are in the setting and for how long, the fi rst priority is to provide for their health and safety. Health, safety, and nutrition are closely related because the quality of one aff ects the quality of the others (Marotz, 2009). Th erefore, programs for chil- dren must establish policies that provide for the protec- tion, service, and education of child health and safety at all times. Government regulations and professional rec- ommendations vary, but all establish some kind of stan- dards to ensure good health and safety practices. Key documents are noted in the reference section of this chapter.

Keeping Children Healthy Sanitation. When groups of people live in close quar- ters, proper sanitary conditions are imperative to prevent the spread of disease. For an early childhood center, the physical plant must have adequate washing and toileting facilities for both children and adults. Th e number and size of toilets and wash basins are usually prescribed by local health or other regulatory agencies. Children do not realize their role in spreading germs, especially as

Children develop a sense of self when they have their own space, labeled with a photo or other visual clue so that they can easily identify it as their own.

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their moist and warm hands touch and handle every- thing. Th rough gentle reminders and role modeling, teachers help children learn the habit of washing their hands at important times such as before snack and mealtimes.

Sanitation depends on frequent, systematic cleaning. Th e classrooms require daily cleaning, and equipment that is used regularly should be sanitized on a periodic basis. Nontoxic paint must be used in all circumstances, including on outdoor equipment, cribs, and for art activi- ties with children. Classroom dress-up clothing, pillows, nap blankets, and cuddle toys all need regular launder- ing, either at school or at home.

Th e nature of preventive health care in educational settings has expanded in the last decade. Knowledge of how disease is spread and concern over infectious dis- eases such as hepatitis B and infection by the human im- munodefi ciency virus (HIV) have increased awareness of the kinds of practices teachers must engage in on a daily basis. Th ese include hand washing (the number- one way to prevent unnecessary spread of germs) and an approach known as universal infection control precau- tions. All teachers should receive training in using uni- versal health precautions with all children.

Because we cannot be guaranteed of the infectious state of an individual, it is very important to always fol- low universal safety procedures with all children. Th e steps that keep a barrier between persons and blood can apply to more than blood-borne infections. All programs should be equipped with sets of latex gloves and plastic bags to properly handle and dispose of anything with

blood or fecal material. Because intact skin is a natural barrier against disease, it may not always be necessary or possible to use gloves, but it is essential that hands be washed immediately after any toileting activity. All areas for eating, diapering, and toileting must be cleaned and sanitized, using a water-diluted bleach solution after cleaning away visible soiling.

Temperature, Ventilation, and Lighting. Heating and ventilation should be comfortable for the activity level of the children and should change when weather conditions do. Adequate, nonglare lighting is a necessity. Studies indicate that uniform, fl uorescent lighting may not be the best environment for children; therefore, a mixture of lighting, such as is in homes, is preferable (Alexander, 1995). Rooms should have some means of controlling light (shades, blinds). Cross-ventilation is necessary in all rooms where children eat, sleep, or play. Proper heating and insulation are important.

Communicable Disease. Th is is an important issue when dealing with young children in group care. Some people question the advisability of early group care on the grounds that it exposes children to too much illness. Others claim that such exposure at an early age helps children build up resistance and that they are actually stronger and healthier by the time they enter primary grades. In the largest U.S. study to date on children’s health, the Environmental Protection Agency and Cen- ters for Disease Control and Prevention concluded that, although infants and toddlers face a higher risk of colds

On the left, towels are color coded in easily recognizable shapes in a Russian child care center. On the right, toothbrushes and towels are accessible so that children in the Reggio Emilia centers in Italy can help themselves.

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and viruses, day care was not seen as increasing children’s illnesses at older ages and not a risk overall (CDC, 1997).

Families should be notifi ed when normal childhood diseases (such as chicken pox) or common problems (such as head lice) occur in the classroom. Infections of special concern to adults include chicken pox, hepatitis A, and cytomegalovirus (CMV). A handout that describes symptoms, dates of exposure, and incubation is helpful to families who can then help prevent the spread of in- fectious disease.

In group care, children can contract a fair number of colds and viruses, especially when they are eating and sleeping close to each other. Figure 9-5 summarizes the 10 most common health problems in school, with tips for dealing with them. Th e school and its staff have re- sponsibility to ensure that good health standards are in- stituted and maintained to keep illness to a minimum.

Health Assessment and School Policies. Every early childhood center should establish clear health policies and make them known to families. A daily inspection of each child will help adults spot nasal discharge, infl amed eyes, and throat and skin conditions of a questionable nature. Th is daily check will screen out more serious cases of children too ill to remain at school and may be done by a teacher, nurse, or administrator. Educating families about the warning signs of illness will encourage sick children to be cared for at home.

It is very important for the school to inform families about what happens when children are refused admit- tance or become ill during the school day. Every school should provide a place for sick children where they can be isolated from others, kept under supervision, and be made comfortable until they are picked up. For their part, parents must arrange to have sick children cared for elsewhere if they are unable to take them home. School

Tips for Common Children’s Health Problems

Condition Tips

1. Allergies and asthma Post a list of all children with chronic conditions; check ingredient lists on foods; watch what triggers reactions.

2. Scrapes and cuts Reassure and sympathize with child; supervise child’s washing with soaped pad and caring comments; use packs of ice or frozen peas in towel for swelling.

3. Bumps on the head Notify parents of any loss of conciousness and watch for signs for two to three days.

4. Sand in eyes Remind child “Do not rub!,” have child wash hands and cover eyes with tissue; normal eye tearing will bring sand to inside corner of eye; remove with clean tissue.

5. Splinters Clean area with alcohol and remove with tweezers or cover with adhesive strip and let parent remove.

6. Conjunctivitis “Pinkeye” is highly contagious; watch for excess eye rubbing and red eyes; have child wash hands; isolate with washable toys until parent takes child home and gets treatment.

7. Head lice Distressing but not dangerous; wash shared clothing, stuffed animals, bedding; vacuum rugs and furniture; remove hats, combs, and brushes from dramatic-play area; send notices home and inspect children’s hair for two to three weeks.

8. Chicken pox Isolate child until parents pick up; alert all parents about contagious period; watch for signs on all children for three weeks after exposure.

9. Strep throat Send home notices; wash all equipment that might carry germs.

10. Lingering coughs At onset, send child home until evaluated; frequent drinks will soothe; coughs may last up to two weeks; if longer, may suggest infection or allergy.

FIGURE 9-5 Tips for common children’s health problems. (Adapted from Needlman, R., & Needlman, G. [1995].)

299CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

policies on these issues must be explicit and upheld con- sistently and compassionately for the sake of all the children.

Teachers must be sensitive to families’ feelings and situations when sending a sick child home. Th is situation often produces guilt feelings in parents and work-related stress. Working families may need school assistance in locating alternatives for care of a sick child.

Most schools require, under state or local laws, a doctor’s examination and permission to participate in an early childhood education program before a child can enter the program. Th is includes a record of immuniza- tions and the child’s general health. Parents, too, should submit a history of the child, highlighting eating, sleep- ing, and elimination habits. It is critical to note any di- etary restrictions or allergies and then post them in the classrooms for a reminder.

Nutrition. What children eat is also important for proper health. Places where food is prepared and stored must be kept especially clean. Th e child who has regular, nutritious meals and snacks will likely be healthier and less susceptible to disease. Many children do not have the benefi ts of healthy meals and snacks. Some do not receive adequate food at home; others are used to sugar- laden treats and fast foods. Education about child nutri- tion is needed for families and teachers in all programs, regardless of social or economic status. Some centers establish food regulations in an attempt to ensure that nutritionally sound meals are served to children. Most schools attempt to provide a relaxed atmosphere at meal and snack time. Children are asked to sit and eat, sharing conversation as well as food. Because lifelong eating pat- terns are established early in life, teachers of young chil- dren have a responsibility to understand the critical role nutrition plays in the child’s total development.

Clothing. Th e health and safety of children are aff ected by the clothing they wear. A simple way to be sure chil- dren stay healthy is to encourage them to dress properly for play and for varying weather conditions. Children need clothing in which they can be active—clothing that is not binding and is easy to remove and easy to clean. To promote a self-help environment, parents and teachers should provide clothes the children can manage them- selves (elastic waistbands, Velcro™ ties, large zippers). Pants are a good choice for both boys and girls; long dresses can become a hazard when climbing, running, or going up and down stairs. Th e safest shoes for active play should have composition or rubber soles. Whenever pos- sible, it helps to keep changes of clothes at school.

Health of the Staff. A responsible early childhood center is one that supports and maintains a healthy staff . Teachers should be in good physical and mental health to be at their best with children. It is wise to check the health regulations and benefi ts of the individual center when employed there. Many states require annual chest X-rays and tuberculosis clearance as a condition of em- ployment. Sick leave policies should be clearly stated in print. Early childhood education is an intense job involv- ing close interpersonal contact. Most teachers work long hours, often with low wages and few health benefi ts, and with clients in various stages of health. Such working conditions produce fatigue and stress, which can lead to illness or other stress-related problems.

Guarding Children’s Safety Beyond the continual supervision of indoor and outdoor space, everything is planned with the children’s safety in mind. Creating a hazard-free environment that still al- lows for risk and challenge for children takes careful ob- servation and attention to detail. A quick walk around the room and yard will reveal potential problems. Sharp corners, loose rug edges, and gated stairwells are sample indoor items; fences and broken equipment in the play- ground, use of scissors/hammers, and appliances every- where are just some of the examples. Figure 9-6 is a safety checklist for a typical early childhood setting.

Most importantly, there must be safety rules that are explained to children and upheld by adults. Outdoors is especially important because children are physically active. Approximately 200,000 children are sent to an emergency room every year as a result of a playground accident (Con- sumer Product Safety Commission, 2009). With an esti- mated 27 to 30 million children between 5 and 14 years of

Children need clothing in which they can be active, play- ful, and messy!

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age participating in organized sports each year, safety is- sues are paramount for school-aged children. Th e adults serve as the link between children and sports and are the chief means of prevention of injuries and accidents. Figure 11-6 shows how to make playgrounds safe.

First Aid. Every school should establish procedures for dealing with children who are injured on the property. First aid and CPR training should be required of all teachers and made available as part of their in-service training. Teachers should know how to handle a child who is not breathing as well as treat bumps and bruises, minor cuts and abrasions, bleeding, splinters, bites and stings, seizures, sprains, broken bones, and minor burns. Each classroom should be equipped with two fi rst aid kits. One is for use in the classroom and yard; the other should be suitable for taking on fi eld trips. Each kit

should be readily available to adults, but out of children’s reach, and supplies should be replenished regularly.

Emergency numbers to be posted near the telephone in each room include those of the ambulance squad, fi re department, police, health department, nearest hospital, and a consulting physician (if any). All families enrolled at the school should be aware of center policy regarding injuries at school and should provide emergency informa- tion for each child: the name of their physician, how to locate the family, and who else might be responsible for the injured child if the parents cannot be reached. Th e school, in turn, must make sure they notify parents of any injuries the child has incurred during the school day.

Natural Disaster. Most adults are familiar with the most common disaster preparation: the fi re drill. Most local fi re regulations require that fi re extinguishers are in

Safety List for Indoor Environments

_______ Person monitoring children (at entrances, indoors, outdoors)

_______ First aid and emergency

_____ Materials readily available to adults, out of children’s reach, and regularly stocked and updated

_____ Adults trained in fi rst aid and CPR regularly and familiar with emergency routines

_______ Safety plugs on all outlets

_______ Cords

_____ Electrical cords out of children’s reach; avoid using extension cords

_____ Curtain and window cords, window pulls and poles out of children’s reach

_______ Floormat and carpet tacked down to avoid slippage

_______ Doors

_____ Made to open and close slowly

_____ All clear access, marked exits, and not blocked

_______ Cubbies and storage cabinets

_____ Bolted to walls (or back-to-back together)

_____ Any dangerous materials in locked area

FIGURE 9-6 Children’s safety is of primary importance to teachers and caregivers. Careful evaluation and regular safety checks eliminate dangerous materials and condi- tions in children’s spaces.

_______ Toys

_____ In good repair; no splinters or sharp, broken edges

_____ Check for size with younger children (purchase safety-sizing gadget or estimate to keep at the size of a child’s fi st)

_____ Check for peeling paint

_______ Plants and animals

_____ Nonpoisonous plants only

_____ Check animal cages regularly

_____ Supervise animal handling carefully

_____ Store animal food away from children’s reach

_______ Adult materials

_____ Keep adult purses, bags, and so on, away from children

_____ Avoid having hot beverages around children

_____ No smoking in children’s areas

_______ Kitchen and storage

_____ Children allowed in only with adult supervision

_____ Poisonous or hazardous materials stored in a locked area

301CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

working order and placed in all classrooms and the kitchen area. Fire exits, fi re alarms, and fi re escapes should be well-marked and functioning properly. Chil- dren and teachers should participate in fi re drills regu- larly. Other natural disasters vary by geographical loca- tion; helping children prepare for earthquakes, tornadoes, hurricanes, fl oods, and snowstorms will include partici- pating in drills for those disasters. Proper preparedness will include eliminating potential hazards (e.g., bolting down bookcases), establishing a coordinated response plan (a “Code Blue!” emergency plan should involve chil- dren, parents, all staff , and local emergency agencies), and, in some areas of the country, conducting regular earthquake and tornado drills. Th ese experiences can reinforce in parents the need for establishing similar procedures at home.

Automobile Safety. Automobile safety is a related concern when considering potential hazards for pre- school children. Th e use of approved car seats and re- straints for children riding in automobiles has received national attention in recent years. Some states have passed legislation requiring the use of specifi c devices to ensure safer travel for young children. Whether or not they walk to school, children should also be aware of basic rules for crossing streets. Th e school parking lot can be a source of danger unless the school articulates policies to parents regarding the safety needs of children. Th ere are potential risks when cars and children occupy the same space. Children should not be left unattended in parking lots.

Maintaining Children’s Well-Being Th e overall environment for children takes into consid- eration many factors. To provide for children’s health and safety, teachers look at the physical environment carefully—its materials, the equipment, and their ar- rangement. Another factor in children’s care and educa- tion is their well-being. Young children are growing up in a world threatened by violence abroad and at home, drug abuse, unresolved confl icts among adults, and constant bombardment of television and other media.

Since young children do not easily separate the home and school parts of their lives, early childhood educators learn about children’s lives and family details readily. Th ey are often at a loss as to what to do, either with information that a child shares or with the child’s behavior in the pro- gram. Yet, a situation does not need to be a crisis to aff ect a child’s well-being. As a rule of thumb, when you feel the child’s physical or emotional development is in jeopardy, you have a responsibility to take further action.

Children’s well-being can be threatened by a diffi cult situation at school, such as being bitten, left out, or ridi- culed. Th ey are also at risk for the myriad of crises from home—problems with family members, separation or divorce, violence, or substance abuse. Although much of our response will be with adults—families, community resources, professional supports—we are also responsi- ble for trying to provide a psychologically safe and posi- tive environment. By design (physical and temporal) and by responsiveness (interpersonal), teachers provide an environment that soothes and cares for young children.

Creating the Environment

The Physical Environment Every educational setting is organized fundamentally around physical space. Th e building itself may be new and designed specifi cally for young children. In Reggio Emilia, for example, it is the environment that creates an atmosphere of discovery. As founder Louis Malaguzzi explains (Edwards et al., 1993):

Th ere is an entrance hall, which informs and docu- ments, and which anticipates the form and organi- zation of the school. Th is leads into the dining hall, with the kitchen well in view. Th e entrance hall leads into the central space, or piazza, the place of encounters, friendships, games, and other activities that complete those of the classrooms. Th e class- rooms and utility rooms are placed at a distance from but connected with the center area. Each class- room is divided into two contiguous rooms…to al- low children either to be with teachers or stay alone. … In addition to the classrooms, we have estab- lished the atelier, the school studio and laboratory, as a place for manipulating or experimenting.

More than likely, however, the space is a converted house or store, a parish hall, or an elementary classroom. Sometimes a program will share space with another group so that mobile furniture is moved daily or weekly. Family child care programs are housed in a private home; therefore, adaptations are made in the space both for the children and the family that lives there. Th ere may be a large yard or none at all. Some playgrounds are on the roof of the building, or a park across the street may serve as the only available playground. (See the section on playgrounds in Chapter 11.)

302 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Constraints also come in the form of weather conditions. Outside play—and therefore large-muscle equipment—may be unavailable during the winter, so room for active, vigorous play is needed inside during that time. Hot summer months can make some types of play diffi cult if there is little or no shade outdoors. Weather conditions must be considered when planning programs for children.

Early childhood programs have specifi c needs that must be met by the buildings they occupy. Although the choice of building is generally determined by what is available, at a minimum the setting should provide facili- ties for:

playing/working food preparation eating washing/toileting sleeping/resting clothing and wraps storage offi ce/work space

Ideally, the setting should have enough space to house these various activities separately. In practice, however, rooms are multipurpose, and more than one event takes place in the same space. A playroom doubles as an eating area because both require the use of tables and chairs. When a school room serves many functions (playing, eating, sleeping), convenient and adequate storage space is a necessity.

General Requirements Ground fl oor classrooms are preferable for young chil- dren to ensure that they can enter and leave with relative ease and safety. For noise reduction, the walls and ceil- ings should be soundproofed. Carpeting, draperies, and other fi reproof fabrics in the room will help absorb sound. Floors must be durable, sanitary, and easily cleaned. Th ey should be free from drafts. Rugs should be vacuumed each day. Room size should be suffi cient to allow for freedom of movement and the opportunity to play without interference. Some licensing agencies may suggest minimum room and yard size standards.

Many local and state agencies have regulations regard- ing the use of space for children in group care settings. Th e fi re marshal, health department, and similar agencies must be consulted and their regulations observed. It is wise to consider their requirements when arranging space.

Th e National Academy of Early Childhood Pro- grams (NAEYC, 2005) has developed guidelines for in- door and outdoor facilities that promote optimal growth. Besides fl oor and play space (minimum 35 [and recom- mended 50] square feet indoors and 75 square feet out-

doors), the guidelines suggest how to arrange activity ar- eas to accommodate children and what kinds of activities and materials are safe, clean, and attractive. Th is docu- ment, along with Designs for Living and Learning (Carter & Curtis, 2003), Th e Creative Curriculum (Dodge, Colker, & Heroman, 2002) and the Environmental Rat- ing Scales from Harms and others (2005) are used ex- tensively to develop this material. Th ere are several key dimensions to any environment that are helpful to con- sider. If we are to off er children both balance and variety, these criteria need to be included in developing space both indoors and out. Figure 9-7 outlines these dimen- sions in detail.

Indoors Interest Areas/Learning Centers. “An activity area has fi ve defi ning attributes. Physical location, with visible boundaries indicating where it begins and ends, within which are placed work and sitting surfaces, and the storage and display of materials used to execute the activities for which the area is intended. An area, like a room, has a mood or personality distinguishing it from contiguous spaces” (Olds, 1989). Deciding what interest centers you want, refl ective of program philosophy and children’s interests, and what kind of space you will need is good preparation to making a basic fl oor plan and sketching in the interest centers.

As you consider transforming your early childhood environment, start with an assessment of the way your space is designed now. “First draw a simple fl oor plan of the room you are currently working in, one you are fa- miliar with, or one you imagine using in a new job. As you sketch out the arrangements of the room, do not in- clude a lot of detail… Put yourself in the shoes of the children who spend their days in your space” (Carter & Curtis, 2003).

You will consider their ages and needs of the group, and make a list of “I can” and “I like to” statements as if you are those children. Now check your fl oor plan; if you had trouble fi nding any of the compo- nents in your room, make some changes.

Most programs will include basic areas for small group play, for fl exibility, and for engagement. Learning centers are areas of the environment focused on diff erent activities for diff erent developmental experiences. For infants and toddlers, areas for movement and for sensory experiences will dominate; preschoolers will want more creative and manipulative choices; school-age children might include areas for academic stimulation or practice.

303CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

Th e teacher plays an important role in implementing the use of learning centers. Th ey must be interesting, ac- curately refl ect the goals for children, and take into con- sideration space, traffi c fl ow, the number of people, and availability of equipment and materials. Th e teacher uses environmental cues to communicate to children what may happen there, and makes good use of the learning centers as places for observation and assessment (see Figure 9-8). Creating learning centers is a standard early childhood practice that has tremendous potential in school-age and primary settings.

Bathrooms. Bathrooms should be adjacent to the play and sleeping areas and easily reached from out- doors. Child-sized toilets and wash basins are prefer- able, but if unavailable, a step or platform may be built. In most settings for children under 5, the bath- rooms are without doors, for ease of supervision. Toileting facilities for children should be light, airy, attractive, and large enough to serve several children at a time. An exhaust fan is desirable. Paper towel holders should be at child height and wastebaskets placed nearby.

Key Environmental Dimensions

1. Softness/Hardness Soft: rugs, pillows, play-dough, fi nger paints, grass, sand, swings

Hard: tile fl oor, wooden furniture, asphalt, cement

2. Open/Closed Open (no one right way to use it): sand and water, dress-up, collage materials, painting

Closed (manipulated only one way to come out right): puzzles, many board games, most Montessori equipment

In between: many manipulatives such as Legos®, Tinkertoys®, blocks, balls

3. Simple/Complex “Play equipment can differ in its holding power; i.e., the capacity to sustain attention . . . A simple unit has one manipulable aspect; a complex unit has two different kinds of materials combined; and a super unit has three different kinds of materials that go together.”

Simple: swings, climbers, sand pile with no toys

Complex: dramatic play with only a kitchen

Super: climbers with slides and ropes, playhouse with kitchen, dress-up clothes, dolls, and/or play-dough; sand area with equipment and/or water

As you add more features to a unit, you increase its complexity and the children’s interest in it. To simple play-dough, add cookie cutters; then add toothpicks or a garlic press and it becomes a super unit.

4. Intrusion/Seclusion Intrusion: places where children can enter or go through easily; blocks, housekeeping, even the entire environment are often highly intrusive areas

Seclusion: places where children can be alone or with only one child or adult; cubbies, a fort, or under a table become secret places

5. High Mobility/Low Mobility High: whole-body places and activities, outdoors, climbers, trike lanes, gym mats

Low: sitting-still places and activities; puzzles and games, story and group times, nap time

In-between: dramatic play, block corner, woodworking

FIGURE 9-7 Key dimensions when considering an early childhood environment. (Adapted from Exchange Magazine, E. Prescott, 1994.)

304 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

If diapering is part of the program, areas for this purpose should be clearly defi ned and close to hand washing facilities. Hand washing regulations for the staff should be posted, and an area should be provided for re- cording children’s toileting and elimination patterns. Closed cans and germicidal spray must be used, and dia- pering materials should be plentiful and handy.

Room to Rest. Programs that provide nap and sleep- ing facilities require adequate storage space for cots and bedding. Movable screens, low enough for teacher super- vision, allow for privacy and help reduce the noise level. Cots or cribs should be labeled with children’s names and washed regularly. Th ey should be placed consistently and in such a way that children feel familiar, cozy, and private—not in the center of the room or in rows. Teach- ers can develop a “nap map” that places children so they can get the rest or sleep they need while still feeling part of the group.

Food Service. “Good nutrition aff ects the health and well-being of individuals of all ages,” states Marotz (2009). “Small children need nutrients for growth and energy…regardless of the guideline selected, the com- mon factor necessary for good nutrition is the inclusion of a wide variety of foods.” As early childhood class- rooms have become more diverse and multicultural, routines and choices around food must take into consid- eration families’ cultural practices and preferences.

Feeding young children and teaching toddlers and older children about good food choices can be a chal- lenge throughout the early childhood span. In an infant program, storing formula and milk is a necessity. As tod- dlers assert their independence, they begin to make their preferences known. Care must be taken to off er a variety of foods at regular times, but avoid a battle of wills over what the child will eat. Preschoolers are infl uenced by a teacher who sets a good example of eating with balance and variety. School-aged children can understand nutri-

Early childhood programs provide for children to play and work alone and together, with friends and teachers, indoors and out.

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tional concepts better but are more infl uenced by what their peers are eating.

Whether involved in a light snack or full meal pro- gram, the center must adhere to the most rigid standards of health protection and safety provisions. Every precau- tion must be taken to ensure maximum hygienic food service. Daily cleaning of equipment, counters, fl oors, and appliances is a necessity. Proper disinfecting of high chairs and tables requires 1/2 cup of bleach to one gallon of water; bottles of this solution can be stored away from children’s reach yet handy for teachers.

Local school districts, Coordinated Community Child Care (4Cs), or affi liates of the NAEYC may be consulted for guidelines on serving nutritional foods and may even off er fi nancial subsidies. For infant and toddler programs, space for recording feeding information must be designated, and enough high chairs or low tables must be provided to prevent an unreasonable wait for eating.

Each age has its unique food-service needs. Infants will need to be held or seated near an adult. Toddlers should not be fed popcorn, nuts, or raw carrots because of the hazard of choking. All children must be served food on disposable dishes or on dishes cleaned in a dish- washer with a sanitation cycle. Lunches brought from home by school-age and full-day children must be checked for spoilage. Information about eating patterns, proportions, and nutritional needs should be regularly shared with parents.

Adult Space. “Oh, for a real ‘teacher’s desk,” the early childhood caregiver moans. “I’m lucky if I can fi nd a place to stash my bag in the morning!” A common issue for ECE programs is to donate nearly all the available space to child use and materials storage. Yet, the personal and professional needs of adults deserve environmental support. Early education programs sometimes have an

Environmental Components of the ECE Curriculum Framework

FIGURE 9-8 Environmental features in the environment are set in a framework that helps build appropriate experiences for children in the early years. Components for Preschool. (From The Creative Curriculum® for Preschool (p. xiv), by D. T. Dodge, L. J. Colker, & C. Heroman, 2002, Washington, DC, Teaching Strategies, Inc. Copyright 2002 by Teaching Strategies, Inc. Reprinted with permission.)

Blocks Dramatic Play

Toys and Games Art

Library Discovery

Sand and Water Music and Movement

Cooking Computers Outdoors W

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Theory and Research

Infants, Toddlers & Twos

Routines

Hello/goodbye, diapering/ toileting, eating

Sleeping/napping, getting dressed

Experiences Playing with toys, imitating/ pretending

Enjoying stories, connecting with music

Creating with art, tasting food, exploring

Sand and water, going outdoors

Partnering with Families Plenty of display space

School-Agers

Being with Friends

Quiet area for just talking, tables for being in groups, large area for whole group

Completing Homework

Place with lighting, computer access, teacher availability, away from noise

A Place for Everyone

Special place for either older [10�] or younger [K only]

306 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

adult space in the director’s area. An adult bathroom is also common. Elementary classrooms include a desk and a bookshelf for the teachers and a workroom or lounge for staff in the school offi ce. However, in programs for children under age 5, even a desk can seem a hazard, tak- ing up precious space for children.

Still, early childhood professionals deserve environ- mental support for their work. A safe place for their be- longings, space for fi rst aid/emergency materials and in- formation for families, and an area for a special adult project goes a long way in respecting the teachers’ lives in the classroom. We show our priorities by the space and time we give them.

Outside “Children’s access to outdoor play has evaporated like water in sunshine. It has happened so fast, along with everything else in this speed-ridden century, that we have not coped with it… Some of our deepest childhood joys—those of fi eld and stream, rocks and vacant lots; of privacy, secrecy, and tiny things that creep across or poke out of the earth’s surface” (Rivkin, 1995)—can be expe- rienced out of doors, and nowhere else. Free and fresh air and open space to move about at will are often children’s favorite spots in a program. Indeed, many a preschooler has been able to say goodbye easier when the great out- doors beckons.

Th e traditional playgrounds—typically on a fl at, barren area with steel structures such as swings, climb- ers, a slide, perhaps a merry-go-round or seesaws, fi xed in concrete and arranged—are poor places for children’s play from both safety and developmental perspectives. Children as young as toddlers and through the primary years much prefer the adventure or creative playground, spaces that have a variety of fi xed and movable equip- ment. Raw materials, such as sand, water, tires, spools, sawhorses, bowls, or pans, in combination with larger superstructures or open-air “houses” with some fl exible parts, stimulate a wide variety of both social and cogni- tive play (including constructive, dramatic, and games play).

A wide porch or covered patio is ideal for rainy days or days when the sun is too severe. Many activities can be extended to the outside area with this type of protection. Th e physical plant should include adequate playground space adjacent to the building. A variety of playground surfaces makes for more interesting play and provides suitable covering for outdoor activities. Tanbark can be used in the swing area, cement for wheel toys, and grass for under climbers. Sand is used for play in a large area

and also in a sensory table. No matter what the surface, the yard should be constructed with a good drainage sys- tem. Trees, bushes, and other plantings will allow for both sunshine and shade. Fences are mandatory. Th ey must be durable, an appropriate height, with no opportu- nity for a child to gain a foothold. Because there are no mandatory standards for the manufacture of play equip- ment, adults who work with children must assume re- sponsibility for playground design. Teachers can familiar- ize themselves with the literature, visit high quality playgrounds, and consult with child development special- ists when selecting equipment. Given the importance that young children attach to the outdoors, teachers are well advised to concentrate their eff orts in a similar fashion. Chapter 11 discusses playgrounds and safety in detail.

Materials and Equipment Selection of materials and equipment is based on a num- ber of criteria. Most program budgets limit the amount of money available for such purchases. To make every dollar count, teachers select materials that:

■ are age and developmentally appropriate. ■ are related to program philosophy and curriculum. ■ refl ect quality design and workmanship. ■ are durable. ■ off er fl exibility and versatility in their uses. ■ have safety features (e.g., nontoxic paints, rounded

corners). ■ are aesthetically attractive and appealing to children

(and adults). ■ are easy to maintain and repair. ■ refl ect the cultural makeup of the group and the di-

versity of the culture overall. ■ are nonsexist, nonstereotypical, and anti-bias.

Close your eyes. Think back to the places you like to play when you were a child. Was it outdoors? Was it a cozy spot near a

loving adult? Did it involve other children? Sketch one of these places, adding a side column of sounds and smells. Can you help the children in your care have these delightful places?

What Do

YOU Think?

307CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

Materials should be appropriate for a wide range of skills because children within the same age group develop at in- dividual rates. “What makes good playthings? Simplicity of detail, versatile in use” (Community Products, 2008). Selecting equipment and toys to support development is important; because young children typically will try to play with everything in their environment, the selection of play materials involves many decisions. Many of the mate- rials can be open-ended; that is, they can be used in their most basic form or they can be developed in a variety of ways. As with the environment (Figure 9-7), a key dimen- sion is the simple/complex elements; unit blocks, clay, and Legos® are examples of materials that children can use in a simple fashion and, as skills develop, these materials can be manipulated in a more complex manner.

Toys and materials need to refl ect the diversity of the class, the families, and the community:

■ From a DAP perspective, materials need to appeal to individual interests and also respond to children’s cultural and linguistic strengths. “Th e nature of the classroom atmosphere contributes greatly to chil- dren’s success in learning English as a second lan- guage” (Elgas et al., 2002). Home-made materials and a variety of cultural artifacts help the environ- ment feel familiar.

■ From a self-help viewpoint, dressing frames and plenty of workable doll clothes will help children learn those self-care tasks.

■ Children’s books that demonstrate social values and attitudes that expand gender roles and family life- styles show a value for an anti-bias environment.

■ An inclusive viewpoint might include materials to highlight tactile, auditory, and olfactory experiences for children with visual impairments.

■ Educational philosophy might determine materials, such as this Waldorf classroom kindergarten (Waldorf, 1995):

Th e feeling of warmth and security is largely cre- ated by using only natural materials—woods, cot- ton, wool—in the construction of the decor and toys. Th e curtains transmit a warm glow in the room. Ideally, the walls and fl oor of the room are of natural wood. In this warm environment are placed toys which the children can use to imitate and transform the activities that belong to every- day adult life. In one corner stands a wooden scale and baskets for children to pretend they are gro- cery shopping; a pile of timber stands ready to be constructed into a playhouse, a boat, or a train; a

rocking horse invites a child to become a rider; homemade dolls lie in wooden cradles surrounded by wooden frames and cloths the children can use to create a pretend family and play house. Pine- cones and fl owers are artistically dispersed. Lovely watercolors adorn the walls. Th e eff ect of this beautiful arrangement of decorations and toys is the feeling of stepping out of the business and clutter of modern life into a sanctuary where one can breathe easily, relax, and play according to the impulses of one’s heart.

Figure 9-9 is a list of basic materials that are then en- hanced by individual and program interests.

Try to avoid toys that have limited play value. Th e organization “ Teachers Resisting Unhealthy Children’s Entertainment” (TRUCE, 2002) suggests that we steer away from toys that:

■ make electronic technology the focus of play. ■ lure girls into focusing on appearance. ■ model violent and sexualized language or behavior. ■ are linked to commercial products and

advertisements.

Children are active learners, and their materials should provide them with ways to explore, manipulate, and become involved. Young children learn through all their senses, so the materials should be appealing to many of the senses. All children need opportunities for quiet, private time and space as well, with materials that parallel the balance of key environmental dimensions (Figure 9-10).

Organizing Space Th ere are many diff erent ways to arrange and organize space in an early childhood setting; the fi nal result ex- presses the diversity of the program. Most early child- hood centers are arranged by interest areas, learning centers, or activity areas. Th e amount of space devoted to any one activity says a great deal about its value to the staff . For example, teachers at a child care center noticed the high interest in sociodramatic play with several new babies in children’s families. Th ey built up the housekeeping area, making sure there were at least six baby dolls, four telephones, and three doll buggies, and countless bottles, tippy cups and pretend baby food. As interests change, so do the room and yard— someone brings in a hamster and the discovery area blossoms, or family camping brings out tents around the grassy outdoor areas.

308 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Room arrangement and choice of materials. Room arrangement and choice of materials play such an impor- tant role in children’s educational experience. A develop- mentally appropriate room will invite children in and wel- come them at their level, as seen in these four examples: 1. Toddler Program. Simplicity is a watchword in a toddler

room. Notice how room arrangement changes with children’s age ranges (Lowman & Ruhmann, 1998):

■ A large-motor zone is essential in a toddler room. ■ Th e dramatic-play zone is particularly conducive

to pretend play.

■ Th e messy zone is that area of the room where children are encouraged to “mess around” with a variety of fl uid materials.

Every toddler room needs a haven where children can unwind, kick back, chill out, sink in, and just re- lax. Th e quiet zone provides such a spot.

2. Family Child Care. Having a program in a home presents special challenges, both in the space and the mixed age ranges of children. Weinberger (2000) suggests that creating retreats, such as allow- ing children into a cabinet or behind the couch,

Basic Materials for ECE Environments

Infant-toddler: Limit materials and reduce number of interest areas; offer fewer choices in each area; substitute soft blocks and push/pull toys; have knobbed puzzles and stacking toys

School-age: Increase game area, vary units, add self- help in art and chapter books in library

Basic Materials for Outdoor Playgrounds/ Yards Grounds: Various surfaces (grass, asphalt, gravel/sand, tanbark), as much natural habitat as possible

Areas: Climbing place, sand/water space, wheel toy/ riding place, games & dramatic play spot, building space, pet/garden area

Equipment: Climbing apparatus with ramps, slide, pole, ladder; swings (various types); house/quiet area; ramps and supports to build; tires, “loose parts”

Sand and water toys

Various wheel toys

Large building blocks

Dramatic-play props

Balls and game materials

Workbench and woodworking/clay materials

Infant-toddler: Have plenty of simple riding toys, eliminate woodworking, have apparatus correct size and simplicity and/or foam wedges

School-age: Increase game area, may eliminate number or kinds of wheel toys; substitute a stage, mural, boat, creek; increase “loose parts” for child- created forts

Basic Materials for Indoor Environments Floors and Seating: Various surfaces (carpet, linoleum or tile, wood fl oor) kept clean and draft-free, comfortable seating (chairs at tables, rocking chair or sofa, carpet squares)

Areas: Art, blocks, dramatic play, toys and games, library, discovery/science, music and movement, cooking, media

Equipment: Art: Easels, paints, watercolors; playdough, clay; pens, pencils, brushes; scissors, hole punch; glue, paste; collage materials; assorted paper

Blocks: Unit, hollow blocks; props (people & animal fi gures); accessories (signage, doll furniture)

Dramatic play: Mirrors; furniture; clothing; dolls, cooking utensils, pretend food items; purses and backpacks; expanded materials beyond house as needed

Toys and games: Puzzles, constructions toys, math toys, Montessori materials, cooperative games

Library/book nook: Picture books; fl annel board and items; photos; writing center materials; listening post items

Discovery/science: Nature materials; pets; sensory materials; water/sand table; magnifying glasses and scales, etc.; textured materials or other ‘theme/ interest’ related displays

Music and movement: CD/tape player and items; instruments, dancing scarves (may also be used in circletime)

Cooking: Food preparation materials (may also be used in discovery or art areas)

Media: Computers, tape/cd deck; TV

FIGURE 9-9 Basic Materials in an Early Childhood Program.

309CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

allows moderate privacy while still insuring supervision.

3. Preschool and Kindergarten. Harms and others (2005) recommend these environmental areas for preschool and kindergarten:

■ space and furnishings ■ personal care routines ■ language-reasoning

■ activities (motor, cognitive, creative) ■ interaction (social, emotional) ■ program structure (schedules) ■ parents and staff (personal and professional needs) 4. School-Age Programs. After-School programs for chil-

dren from kindergarten through third and sometimes fi fth or sixth grade have special requirements, as those environments have an extensive range of physi-

DRAMATIC PLAY

TABLE TOYS

C o

m p

u te

rs LITERACY/BOOKS

Rug

Listening Post

Storage

Manipulatives

Parent Board

Manipulatives

BATHROOM

Closet

Musical Instruments

ADULT SPACE P

e t

P la

n ts

To yard

Entrance

Sand/Water Table

DISCOVERY

To ys

Teacher Desk

Shelves; Storage

Sink

Books

ART

H o

ll o

w B

lo ck

s

U n

it B

o x

Accessories Fridge

Dolls and Beds

hooks

Sink

dress-up Mirror

Shoe Rack

Carpet

P u

zz le

s

BLOCKS

Art MaterialsCubbies

Cupboard

FIGURE 9-10 A preschool child care center needs clearly defi ned boundaries and obvi- ous pathways so children can use the space independently.

310 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

cal size, interests, and developmental needs. Th e Na- tional School-Age Standards for Quality School-Age Care (NAA, 1998) recommends tables for projects and experiments, homework tables in a quiet corner, a place for snack and club meetings, art, blocks, house corner, and large group activity area.

Th e placement of the interest centers is important. Balance the number of noisy and quiet activities, both indoors and out. Some activities are noisier than others, so place the noisier centers together and cluster the qui- eter ones together. Quieter activities, such as puzzles, language games, and storytelling, take place in areas away from blocks, water play, or dramatic play, because the last three tend to kindle animated, active, and sometimes noisy behavior. Some programs create a kind of layered room—entry, quiet, messy, noisy.

Adult needs also should be met through proper orga- nization. How can the teachers supervise all areas while ensuring cozy spots for children’s privacy? Are the teach- ers deployed evenly throughout all the space? Is storage integrated so that equipment is located near the place where it will be used? Is the space arranged for coopera- tion and communication among the adults as well as the children? In other words, is this a workplace that is ac- cepting, inviting, and challenging to all?

Figures 9-10 through 9-12 show sample indoor envi- ronments for the three major age groupings.

Playground Designs Environments must be arranged so that there are enough play spaces for the number of children in the group. When the number of play opportunities in school settings—both indoors and out—is analyzed, areas and activities can be assigned a value (Prescott, Jones, & Kritschevsky, 1972). A simple area (swings, climbers) counts as one play space, a complex area (housekeeping/ dramatic play) counts as four play spaces, and a super area (sand and water play combined) counts as eight play spaces. Th e value assigned an area generally coincides with the number of children who might be accommo- dated in that space. When the total for the space is fi g- ured, it is matched against the actual number of children in the group to see if there is a place for everyone to play.

Clearly defi ned boundaries and obvious pathways make it easy for children to live and work in the space. Th ere should be enough space for larger groups to gather together as well as small groups. Figure 9-13 shows a playground suitable for 4- to 8-year-olds. See Chapter 11 for more information about outdoor play spaces.

In summary, the physical environment should be or- ganized for children according to these criteria:

■ Availability. Open, low shelving with visual cues for placement of toys, equipment aids in clean up and room set up.

■ Consistency in organization. Neat, systematic, in logi- cal order.

■ Compatibility. Noisy activities are grouped away from quiet ones; art needs natural light when possi- ble; water play near a bathroom or kitchen; messy projects done on washable fl oors.

■ Defi nition. Clearly defi ned boundaries indicating available space and what is to take place; obvious pathways outlined in class and yard; ways to get in and out of an area without disrupting activity in progress; no dead ends or runways.

■ Spacing. Interest areas with enough space to hold the children who will play there; one third to one half of the surface should remain uncovered; mate- rials stored near space where they are used; storage and activity spaces have visual cues.

■ Communicability. Tells children what to do instead of relying on adult to monitor activities; communi- cates to children what behavior is expected; ar- rangement suggests numbers of children, levels of activity.

The Temporal Environment Th e second dimension of the environment to consider is the time and timing of a program. What happens, when it occurs, and how long it takes all aff ect both individual children and group functioning.

Daily Schedule: Time to Learn Th e daily schedule defi nes the structure of each pro- gram. It creates the format for how children will experi- ence the events of the day—in what order and for what length of time. DAPDAP

DAP Teachers organize the daily and weekly schedule to provide children with extended blocks of time in which to engage in sus- tained play, investigation, exploration, and interaction (with adults and peers).

311CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

Entrance

To yard

Small Couch

B o

o ks

BATHROOM

Sand/water table

GROSS MOTOR EQUIPMENT

S in

k

Sink

Art Supplies

Changing Table Pet

BLOCKS

To y s,

P u

zz le

s

HOUSE Play

dough

To nap room

C u b b i e s

ART

BOOKS/ TABLE TOYS

FIGURE 9-11 A toddler environment has safety and accessibility in mind so children can be maximally involved with a minimum of distraction from others.

No two schedules are alike because each refl ects the program it represents. Th e amount of time devoted to specifi c activities communicates clearly what value the school places on them. Th e amount of time given to cer- tain aspects of the curriculum, the variety of events, and the level of fl exibility tell children and adults what is im- portant in this particular setting. Figure 9-14 and Chap- ter 10 expand on this issue of time.

In developing a schedule by which to function on a daily basis, teachers fi rst decide what is important for children to learn, how that learning should take

place, and how much time to allow in the daily pro- gram. If small group work and individual attention are program goals, enough time will have to be set aside to ensure their success. More time is needed to allow children several curriculum choices than if they had only one or two activities from which to select. Th ree-year-olds need more time for toileting activities than do 5-year-olds, who are considerably more self-suffi cient.

Th e golden rule for child care is to treat children as we want them to treat us. Th e children in child care to-

312 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

day are the adults of tomorrow who will be taking care of us in our old age. Remembering that, it helps to think of how often children are asked to do and fi nish their tasks on others’ schedules, to ask permission to do what they wish, or to participate in activities of someone else’s choice. A children’s program must be for children, on

their timetable as much as possible. Stonehouse (1990) off ers fi ve recommendations for scheduling: 1. Suitable choices are built in as much of the

time as possible, avoiding the expectation that everyone should do the same thing at the same time. Flexibility makes for a more humane environment.

SCIENCE/ SNACK BAR

LOFT/ PLAYHOUSE

Dramatic play materials

Blocks + Accessories

Blocks

Homework table

B la

ck b

o a rd

Computers

To yard

Art Materials

S in

k

Carpet

Pet

Entrance

To bathroom

C u b b i e s

S o f a

Rug

ART Math/ table toys

BLOCKS

FIGURE 9-12 A school-age center has learning centers to allow children to engage in peer connections and homework constructively.

313CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

2. Th e need for a sensitive and fl exible settling-in pe- riod is taken into account. Th is starts with respect for the client and the client’s family and the recogni- tion that diff erent people cope with change and new experiences in diff erent ways.

3. Meaningless and sometimes mindless activities that simply “fi ll up the day,” “help pass the time,” or that have no intrinsic value are avoided.

4. A healthy balance between an individual’s need for autonomy, freedom, and independence on the one hand, and the need for rules that help us get along together on the other, is desired.

5. Staff balances the need for a routine, for the com- fort and reassurance of the familiar, with the need for variety and novelty for change.

Grass

Cement

Bo at

Toys

Sand

Play Structure

To y s

Tr e e s

a n

d s

h ru

b s

Tire swing

Swings

Garden

Storage

Animals

Hideaway Clubhouse

Fence

Fence

Grassy Knoll

Moveable table,

woodworking art, snack

Easels

Sand/water table

Patio Overhang

Large Blocks Shed with

Balls, Wheel Toys

To c

la ss

ro o

m

R o

lle r

sk at

e,

sc oo

ter b ike

Sli de

Outdoor stage

FIGURE 9-13 A playground/yard, suitable for ages four and older, will give children a sense of security and adventure, contact with nature, opportunities for social play, and freedom for active physical play. (Adapted from Themes, 1999.)

314 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Daily Schedules

12:45 Get ready: toileting, handwashing, toothbrushing, prepare beds

1:15 Bedtime story

1:30 Rest time

2:30 Outdoors for those awake

3:30 Cleanup outdoors and singing time

4:00 Snacktime

4:15 Learning centers; some outdoor/indoor choices, fi eld trips, story teller

5:30 Cleanup and read books until going home

Half-Day Kindergarten Plan 8:15–8:30 Arrival Getting ready to start • checking in library books, lunch

money, etc.

8:30 Newstelling • “anything you want to tell for news” • newsletter written weekly

9:00 Work assignment • write a story about your news or • make a page in your book (topic

assigned) or • work in math lab

9:30–10:15 Choice of indoors (paints, blocks, computer, table toys) or second-grade tutors read books to children

• when fi nished, play in loft or read books until recess

10:15 Snack

10:30 Recess

10:45 Language: chapter in novel read or other language activity

11:15 Dance or game or visitor

11:45 Ending: getting ready to leave • check out library books • gather art and other projects

12:00–1:30 For part of group each day Lunch, then:

• fi eld trips • writing lesson • math or science lab

Half-Day Toddler Program 9:00–9:30 Greet children Inside activities • playdough and art/easel • home living • blocks and manipulatives • books

9:30 Door to outdoors opens

9:45–10:20 Outdoor play • large motor • social play

10:20 Music/movement outdoors

10:30 Snack/”Here We Are Together” song • washing hands • eating/pouring/cleanup

10:45–11:45 Outside

11:15 “Time to Put Our Toys Away” song • all encouraged to participate in

cleanup

11:20 Closure (indoors) • parent–child together • story or fl annel board

Full-Day Program for Preschoolers 7:00 Arrival, breakfast

7:30 Inside free play • arts/easels • table toys/games/blocks • dramatic-play center; house, grocery

store, etc.

9:00 Cleanup

9:15 Group time: songs/fi ngerplays and small group choices

9:30 Choice time/small groups • discovery/math lab/science activity • cooking for morning or afternoon

snack • language art/prereading choice

10:00 Snack (at outside tables/cloths on warm days) or snack center during free play

10:15 Outside free play • climbing, swinging; sand and water,

wheel toys, group games

12:00 Handwash and lunch

FIGURE 9-14 Daily schedules refl ect the children’s needs and ages; the time and tim- ing of the day show in the program’s values and priorities.

315CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

Th e physical plant itself may dictate a portion of the daily schedule. If toilet facilities are not located adjacent to the classroom, then more time must be scheduled to travel to and from the bathrooms. If the building or space is shared with other groups, some portion of the program may be modifi ed. For example, a program housed in church buildings may schedule fi eld trips dur- ing the annual church rummage sale to free up the space for the church’s use.

Th e daily schedule is important for everyone in the setting. Two important aspects of a schedule are routines and transitions.

Routines Th e regular or habitual performance of an established procedure is a routine. Routines provide an important framework to a program. Each day, some events are re- peated, providing continuity and a sense of order to the schedule. Routines are the pegs on which to hang the daily calendar. When should children eat? Sleep? Play? Be alone? Be together? Th ese questions are answered by the placement of routines. Th e rest of the curriculum— art activities, fi eld trips, woodworking—works around them. Routines in an early childhood environment set- ting include:

■ self-care (eating, rest/sleeping, dressing, toileting) ■ transitions between activities ■ group times ■ beginning and ending the day or session ■ making choices ■ task completion ■ room clean up and yard restoration

Most routines are very personal and individual ritu- als in children’s daily lives. Children bring to school a history fi rmly established around routines, one that is deeply embedded in their family and culture. Routines are reassuring to children, and they take pride in master- ing them; they are also a highly emotional issue for some.

Th e self-care tasks—eating, sleeping, dressing, and toileting—can be diffi cult issues between adult and child, virtually from the moment of birth. Everyone can recall vivid memories associated with at least one rou- tine. Th ey seem to become battlegrounds on which chil- dren and adults often struggle. Many times this is where children choose to take their fi rst stand on the road to independence.

Th e early childhood teacher must be able to deal with the issue of self-care routines in sensitive and un- derstanding ways. Children adjust to routines when they

are regularly scheduled in the daily program and when there are clear expectations.

Routines are an integral part of creating a good envi- ronment for children. All three environmental factors are infl uenced by routines:

1. Physical. Child-sized bathroom and eating facilities; storage of cots, blankets, and sleeping accessories; equipment for food storage and preparation.

2. Temporal. Amount of time in daily schedule for eat- ing, resting, toileting, clean up.

3. Interpersonal. Attitudes toward body functions; willingness to plan for self-care tasks; interactions during activities and transitions; expectations of staff , parents, and children.

As teachers plan for children’s basic needs, they are aware of the learning potential of ordinary, everyday routines. Figure 9-15 illustrates how self-care routines teach the young child important skills and habits. In the four curriculum chapters of this book (Chapters 11–14), there is specifi c planning for routines, transi- tions, and group times. It is these times that provide a sense of security for children. Beyond the planning for indoor and outdoor activities, careful teachers realize that helping children with the routines of daily living provides a solid underpinning so other learning can take place.

When the time sequence is clear to all, then every- one can go about the business of learning and teaching. Children are more secure in a place that has a consis- tent schedule; they can begin to anticipate the regular- ity of what comes next and count on it. In that way, they are then free to move, explore, and learn without hesitation. Children can freely involve themselves with- out fear of interruption. Adults, too, enjoy the predict- ability of a daily schedule. By knowing the sequence of events, they are then free to fl ex the timing when un- foreseen circumstances arise.

It is the unforeseen that often does happen. Amidst the noise of children at work, the play is likely to be interrupted by a number of things that can aff ect the “ best laid plans” of all teachers. For instance, Chad un- expectedly decides that he does not want Dad to go— just as the teacher was helping Shana onto the toilet for the fi rst time. Or an argument breaks out in the block corner—at the moment a teacher was leaving with a group of children for the kitchen with several cookie sheets full of carefully constructed gingerbread people. Or a visitor comes in the door with a special group time activity—just as two children collide and bump heads.

316 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Routines: Learning Opportunities in Self-Care

• Resting/Sleeping Teaches:

Health: Personal care skills; relaxation habits; internal balance; change of pace; alternating activity to allow body to rest

• Dressing Teaches:

Independence Skills: Self-awareness, how to get one’s own area ready—blanket, cuddly, book

Respect for Individual Differences: Comparisons between clothes for girls and boys, younger and older, larger and smaller children, and children in and out of diapers or training pants

Self-esteem: Caring for one’s own body; choosing one’s own clothes

• Eating Teaches:

Health: Introduction to new and different foods, good nutritional habits

Social Skills: How to manage in a group eating situation, how to focus on eating and conversing; what is acceptable mealtime behavior and manners

Fine-Motor Skills: Pouring; handling spoons, forks; serving self, drinking, eating without spilling

Independence Skills: Finding and setting one’s place, serving self, making choices, cleaning up at snack and lunch

Respect for Individual Differences: Likes and dislikes; choices of food; pace of eating

• Toothbrushing Teaches:

Health: How to keep teeth and tongue clean Independence Skills: Self-awareness, perceptual-

motor to use toothbrush in mouth.

FIGURE 9-15 Every routine can be used as a vehicle for learning within the environment.

(continues)

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317CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

Transitions Humans are known as a species for their adaptability. And yet we are resistant to change. For young children, too, change is diffi cult. Teachers and caregivers can make the necessary changes easier for children if they focus their attention on those times. Rather than trying to rush through quickly to get to the next event, provide enough transition time. Helping children anticipate, fi g- ure out, work through, and successfully manage the changes in their day guides them to maturity. Figure 9-16 off ers some strategies that will make transition eas- ier to handle and positive learning opportunities.

Good teachers prepare children for upcoming tran- sitions, using a song or strumming of an instrument and the words, “Get ready to clean up soon.” Th ey are also prepared for children’s perceptions of time, imme- diacy, and closure to collide with the schedule. Recall the unexpected chaos in the previous section on Rou- tines. If Chad does not want his dad to go, perhaps getting Shana on the toilet will have to wait; or Dad can read him another story until Shana’s “All done now!” has taken place. Th e gingerbread sheets can be held up momentarily so the quarrel can be resolved, or some of the “fi ghters” could be invited to be door-

openers and help to march the group to the kitchen. Perhaps another teacher could help the visitor begin with the rest of the class on the rug while you get ice for the bumped heads.

Th ese examples all illustrate the common clash of “adult timetables and children’s quest for engagement” (Ambery, 1997). Programs need to be designed to al- low for both consistency and fl exibility. Consistency brings security and closure, allowing for teacher au- thority and expertise to assert themselves; fl exibility invites sensitivity to individuals and respectful agree- ments to be reached. As teachers work with schedules, they continually balance the needs of individuals with those of the group.

Developmentally Appropriate Schedules Just as the arrangement of space should refl ect the group of children within, so does the daily schedule allow for appropriate growth at the developmental level of the group. Th ere are common factors to consider for all chil- dren in the early years, as well as some developmental distinctions at the various ages.

Th ere are common elements in all schedules, whether they are designed for toddler groups or 5-year-olds,

Fine-Motor Skills: How to manage snaps, buttons, zippers; handling all garments; maneuvering in and out of a snowsuit or jacket; matching hands and feet with mittens and boots or shoes

• Toileting/Handwashing Teaches: Self-awareness: Body functions, learning the names

and physical sensations that go with body functions

Self-identity: Comparisons between girls and boys (sit versus stand)

Self-esteem: Caring for one’s own body without guilt, fear, shame

Human sexuality: In a natural setting, promotes healthy attitudes toward the body and its functions, and that adults can be accepting, open, and reassuring about the body and its care

FIGURE 9-15 (continued)

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318 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Transition Times Made Easier

Questions for Planning • Who is involved in the transition time (child, parents, teachers, other children, visitors, etc.)? • What kind of activity has preceded the transition time and what will follow? • What will the children be asked to do during transition? • What will the teachers be doing during transition? • How will the children be told or fi nd out what to do during the transition? • What do you know about child development and this particular child(ren) that can help with these questions?

Teaching Strategies Arrival

• Greet each child with a smile, and welcome child and parent with what activities are available. • Make name cards and/or an attendance sheet that child and parent can participate in as a starting point. • Plan with parents, and alert the child, a simple and clear way for them to say goodbye and for the parents to

leave (see Chapter 8 for details).

Cleanup Materials

• Give the children a fi ve-minute “warning” to alert them to upcoming changes. • Have a consistent and calm signal to start putting away toys. • Use music as background and/or sing during cleanup. • Consider having necklaces or cards of specifi c areas for children, or make teams. • Construct the environment so that it is clear where things go and children can do the majority of it

themselves. • Occasionally thank the children publicly for cleaning up, noting individual efforts and specifi c chores done

well.

Preparing Children to Attend

• Make a chart that shows the choices available. • Sing a song or familiar fi ngerplay to get everyone’s attention and participation. • Ask the children to put on “elephant ears” (rabbit, etc.) or lock their lips and put the key in their pockets.

Ready to Rest/Nap Time

• Prepare the environment ahead of time to be restful—darkened room, soft blanket/cuddlies nearby, quiet music, teachers whispering and available to walk children to their places and stay with them.

• Read a story to the group in one place before they are to lie quietly, or split larger groups into small subgroups with a teacher reading to each.

Moving to Another Place/Building

• Gather the group and tell them exactly what will be happening. • Ask for ideas of how to behave (“What will we need to remember? How can we stay safe and have fun

together?”) and reinforce with a few concrete rules. • Have the children be a train, with adults as the engine and caboose, or a dragon with head and tail. • Have the children choose a partner to stay with and hold hands. • Ask preschoolers and early primary children to remember the “B” words (“beside or behind”) in staying near

adults.

Waiting for Others to Finish

• Prepare a part of the room for children to move to, such as a book corner or listening post, having an adult in that space with more than two children.

• Make an apron or hanging with several pockets fi lled with activity cards or small manipulatives for children to use alone.

• Plan a special table with folders or large envelopes with activities. • Have a “waiting box” with special small items for these times only.

FIGURE 9-16 Transitions are a regular part of children’s routines and should be learn- ing times that are as well-planned as other parts of the day.

319CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

all-day or half-day programs. Sound child development principles provide the framework on which the daily schedule is structured. Individual programs then adapt these requirements to their own philosophy as they work out their own daily schedule. All schedules must:

■ include time for routines (to eat, rest, wash, toilet) as well as time for transitions (what happens when there is a change from one activity to another) and group times (circle time to begin the day, song time for announcements, or story time as closure).

■ alternate quiet and active play and work to help children pace themselves.

■ provide opportunities for both inside and outside play.

■ allow children to participate in structured activities as well as those of their own choosing.

■ make it possible for children to work individually, in small groups, or in larger ones.

■ gear the time to the age and developmental levels of the group.

■ provide for fl exibility so that children’s interests can be maintained and emergencies met.

■ have a beginning and an end (meet and greet to start, close and review to fi nish, anticipate tomorrow).

■ involve the adults in planning and review (include a regular meeting time for more substantial discussion of children, long-range planning, and evaluation).

■ include time for clean up and room restoration. ■ incorporate the teachers’ roles and assignments so

that they will know their area of responsibility. ■ be posted in an obvious place in the classroom for

all to see.

All schedules have a great deal in common, but cer- tain age-related diff erences can be seen. See Figure 9-14 as it illustrates several important diff erences in schedules for the various age groups:

■ More choices are available to children as they grow. Example: Two-year-olds could be over stimulated by

the selection of materials that is appropriate for school-aged children.

■ Transitions can be handled diff erently in the various age groups.

Example: Older children can move through some transitions as a group, such as changing from one activity area to another or going out with a special- ist in pairs or even in a single fi le. Th is is diffi cult for younger children, who would push or wander away. For them, the door to the yard opens quietly, allow- ing children to go out slowly.

Example: A child care class of 3- and 4-year-olds is dismissed from song time to snack by the color of people’s shirts, or the fi rst letter of their names, rather than as one whole group.

■ Th e structure of the day changes with age. Example: Th e balance of free play and teacher-

directed activities shifts from relatively few directed activities for younger children to more for pre- school. A kindergarten schedule provides more structure both in individual work projects and teacher-focused time. A fi rst grade schedule has more whole-group teacher instruction times.

■ Th e content of group activities changes with age. Example: A toddler circle time is simple, with a

short fi nger play, fl annel board or puppets story, and a goodbye song. Preschool group times include sev- eral songs, a dramatization of a favorite fi nger play, and a short story. By kindergarten, groups can last 15 to 20 minutes, with announcements and a weather board, children’s “news telling,” longer dra- mas, and even chapter stories.

Centers are very busy environments for children. So many things, so much learning, so much to do! Develop- mentally appropriate schedules will include a balance to the noise and busyness (Kielar, 1999):

■ Reserve an area of your school or center for those who want to sit quietly.

■ Make lunch time a time for peace and quiet. ■ Wake up children from naps a little sooner than is

needed to give them time to transition. ■ Don’t decorate every window with paintings. ■ Change room displays often.

Finally, try not to over schedule or make too many small time segments. Just because young children have short attention spans for adult-centered activities and “teacher talk,” they need longer periods of time to dis- cover their interests and stay focused. We show respect for children when we put the temporal environment to work for them.

The Interpersonal Environment A child responds to everything in school: the color of the room, the way the furniture is arranged, how much time there is to play, and how people treat one another. To the child, everything is a stimulus. Th e feeling in a room is as real as the blocks or the books. Th us, the interpersonal or social aspects of an early childhood setting are power- ful components of the environment.

320 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Defi ning the Tone Children are the most important people in the setting; they should feel safe and comfortable. A warm, interpersonal en- vironment invites children to participate and to learn. When children feel secure with one another and with the setting, they will be able to engage more fully in the total program.

Because it is understood that the single most impor- tant factor in determining the quality of a program is the teacher (see Chapter 5), it follows that teachers will be the key ingredient in determining the interpersonal “fl a- vor” of a class. Th e fi rst component of the National Academy’s criteria for high quality early childhood pro- grams is the interactions among the staff and children (see Chapter 10). Th e human component, the connec- tions among the people in a center or home, makes all the diff erence to young children, for they are the barometers of interpersonal tension or openness and freedom. Fami- lies matter in the life of a program, especially in the early years. Th e way people feel about each other and how they express their feelings have an impact on children. Teach- ers have to see children within their family and social context, and to do so, they must invite families into the schooling process, as in these situations:

You can’t believe it; no matter how many times you tell Kai’s grandfather that school starts at 9 a.m., he continues to bring him between 9:30 and 10 … un- til you fi nd out that in China, old people are often late and people respect their habits. Now you may need to fl ex your schedule to allow for this late ar- rival and support this family custom.

Elena’s father speaks with such an accent you can hardly understand him. You would like to just avoid talking with him, but then you would connect only when there is a problem … and you discover that, in his Central American culture, “good parents” are those that ask for teacher’s opinions. You need to overcome your own discomfort and converse more, asking him respectfully to repeat what he is saying a bit more slowly so you can understand.

Every day Maryam brings her lunch, and it is so diffi cult to manage. Th ese Iranian foods are not the same as the other children’s, and the kindergartners tease each other about what they bring in their lunch boxes. You wonder if you should simply tell her aun- tie to send her with a sandwich … only you realize that every child wants familiar foods, and letting Maryam eat what her parents send should be coupled with teaching tolerance to the other children. Now you might use the lunch time situation to help every- one become curious and interested in new foods.

Th e interpersonal connection between families and teachers cannot be overstated. Good relationships create a positive mood and can bolster what happens to the child within the classroom and can provide a smooth transition between school and home. Learning is en- hanced when parents and teachers come to communicate in supportive, nonthreatening ways.

Just how important is the interpersonal environ- ment? Although most experts agree that the relationship between teacher and child is important, extensive re- search has only recently begun to document exactly how teacher–child interactions occur and how variations in such interactions might be related to behaviors or other results in children. “Researchers demonstrate a pattern of positive relationships between children’s sensitive, in- volved interactions with teachers and children’s enhanced development. Th e impacts of these types of interactions are likely to be seen in children’s cognitive, socioemo- tional, and language development” (Kontos & Wilcox- Herzog, 1997). Such research confi rms the fi ndings of recent brain-based research and theories of Erikson, Bandura, and Vygotsky (see Chapter 4) and confi rms our belief that how teachers interact with children is at the heart of early childhood education.

Young children develop best through close, aff ection- ate relationships with people, to a great degree with adults. Although this is true for all young children, it is particu- larly important for children under 3 and those without fa- cility in the dominant language spoken in the class. “Th e interpersonal aspect of environment is the central element aff ecting the quality of toddler play, more important than elaborateness of physical setting,” declares Zeavin (1997). “ Toddlers cannot talk about what is going on inside them. It is through their play that they externalize troubling feel- ings, work out emotional confl icts, and gain control of their world…Every issue is a relationship issue.”

In a human and humane environment, people are re- spected, and the focus of the staff is on children’s strengths and capabilities; limitations are seen as needs rather than liabilities. Children model their behavior on what they see others doing, so teachers engage children in interactions that include smiling, touching, listening, asking questions, and speaking on eye level. Th e lan- guage and tone of voice used are respectful and friendly, with children treated equally across lines of race, culture, language, ability, and gender. Staff s use positive guidance rather than punitive discipline techniques (see Chapter 7) and develop warm relationships with families (see Chapter 8). What teachers do—and how they do it— determines what learning takes place in the class and how each child feels about being there.

321CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

A Quick Check Th e attitudes and behaviors of teachers aff ect children’s behaviors. Questions teachers can ask themselves as they evaluate the quality of the environment are:

■ Is there a feeling of mutual respect between children and adults?

■ Do teachers pick up on nonverbal and verbal ex- pressions of both girls and boys? Of children with varying abilities? Of children of color?

■ How do children treat one another? ■ Do teachers model cooperative behavior with other

adults and children? Do they show by example how to work through a disagreement or problem?

■ Does the physical set up allow the teacher to focus on the children?

■ Do housekeeping details keep teachers disconnected from children?

■ Do teachers encourage children to use one another as resources?

■ Do teachers take time to show children how to ac- complish a task by themselves?

■ Are girls complimented only on appearance and boys just for achievement? Are all children helped to appreciate similarities and diff erences?

■ Do teachers use reasoning and follow-through? ■ How and when do teachers interact with children? ■ What are the teacher’s posture and facial expression

when involved in a problem situation? ■ If I were a child, would I like to come to school

here?

Th e answers to these questions provide teachers with a barometer of how well they are maintaining an atmosphere of positive social interaction. Th e most im- portant thing to remember is that the way people feel about each other and how they express their feelings have an impact on children. Teachers must focus as much attention on the interpersonal part of the envi- ronment as they do on buying equipment or arranging the room. Chapter 10, on curriculum and play, and Chapter 14, on social and emotional skills, will empha- size the interpersonal aspects of the environment further.

The teacher’s posture and facial expressions show respect for children and their learning pace and style.

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Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Oral and Literacy Related Activities in an Early Child- hood Setting.” After you study the video clip, view the artifacts, and read the teacher interviews and text, refl ect upon the following questions:

1. How does preschool teacher Maranatha Falaise use the various centers in the environment to teach children the skills of anti-bias, self-help, and inclusive education described in the chapter?

2. Why are room/yard arrangement and intentional schedules important in ECE programs?

TeachSource Video

❙ ❙

I have heard Carlina Rinaldi say, “Th e best environment for children is one in which you can fi nd the highest possible quantity and quality of relationships.” Refl ecting on this idea while writing Bringing Reggio Emilia Home (1997), I wrote,

We interpret this to mean relationships between people— children, teachers, and parents; between people and mate- rials and languages—words, numbers, pens, paper, clay, paint, wood; between people and ideas; between people and experience with the world in which they live.

When I look back over the last 10 years of our work in St. Louis at Th e College School and the other two schools in the St. Louis–Reggio Collaborative, Th e St. Michael School and Clayton Schools’ Family Center, I see continual evolution in our interpretation of Carlina’s words in our work. For exam- ple, every year, every month, and in fact almost every day, we have changed our spaces in school, and they have consequently changed us. We have developed environments based on who we are as individuals, and “who we are” is inseparably con- nected to where we fi nd ourselves in space and time and what is important to us. Otherwise, we could live anywhere and we could be anybody.

Th e school environments we have created are actually made up of parts of all of us and fragments of the world in which we live. For example:

■ Children’s words and ideas ■ Teachers’ and parents’ words and ideas ■ Fabric patches from 3-year-old Sam’s baby blanket ■ My mother’s button collection ■ Papers of every kind from every family, all sorted and dis-

played for use on an accessible shelf ■ A miniature tea set from my colleague Jennifer’s childhood

I love Loris Malaguzzi’s image of thinking with children as being a little like a game of tossing a ball back and forth. A child or a group of children have an idea or are drawn to some- thing. If we are listening, we notice. Th en perhaps we want to play a game, so we “toss” them a twist, a provocation, a wide-

open question about their idea. Th ey respond with something marvelous that we did not anticipate, and the game continues. We don’t know where the next idea will come from, but the game is fun and challenging for both child and adult, and we get better at playing it in many situations and scenarios.

Th e space can be like this as well. It is actually alive or dead depending on whether we are in a living, nourishing relation- ship with it or not. We make a change, the change alters the way we do things, and then new possibilities emerge. We are inspired to make another change, and so it goes. Th is is the way of an alive environment.

A basic, underlying principle that the educators in Reggio Emilia have incorporated into their schools, classrooms, piaz- zas, and dining rooms is: School needs to be comfortable, pleasant, orderly, inviting, and homelike. As children, teachers, and parents we have the right to spend our days in school sur- rounded by spaces that will enhance our lives, support our growth, and hold us in respectful ways. Little by little, we can examine the spaces that we have and shape them into more livable and amiable rooms.

As teachers in the St. Louis–Reggio Collaborative, we strive to look at our classrooms with critical and observant eyes as often as we can. We ask ourselves, “What needs care, repair, a new coat of paint, a sparkle of light, a splash of color? What areas of the room need to be enriched? What needs to be given away in order to make room for new life, energy, and new ideas? What aspects of ongoing experiences are unclear, left unexplained, or empty of meaning?”

One rule of thumb that guides us suggests that everything be out in the open so that we can see it and use it. On the high shelves, there are Lucite boxes of fabric, ribbons, twines, and raffi as of all colors. On nearby shelves, you will fi nd collections of clear folders of sparkly paper, patterned papers, handmade papers, white and cream colored paper curls. On the low shelves, transparent jars of shells, buttons, beads, wires, tiny pine cones, dried rose petals and sequins beckon. Children know where things are and can fi nd them; so do the teachers and the parents. Th e abundance, diversity, order, and availabil- ity of materials seem to attract energy, ideas, connection, and possibility, all of which propel us in a positive direction.

Thinking about the Environment: Inspirations from the Reggio Approach by Louise Cadwell, M.E., Ph.D.

322 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

Insights from the fi eld

Along with the evolution of our spaces, a deep respect for the complexity and order of our environments has developed. Th e children here used to dump blocks in piles. Th ey used to empty little plastic boxes of sequins or mix things up to be a bit mischievous or to see what would happen. Some even used to draw on the walls or color on the tables on purpose. Now, this rarely happens. Why? Th e children know that the materi- als wait like treasures to be touched, explored, transformed, and composed. Th e children recognize the materials for their power to hold stories, inventions, and layered ideas. Now, the children teach each other to care and respect the many aspects of our complex environment.

We have established, slowly but surely, with children and parents, a culture of respect, appreciation, interaction, care, and love of the spaces in which we live. Th e way the materials

are displayed and used parallels the way ideas fl ow and circu- late, gathering energy, excitement, form, and shape whether among children or adults. Th is phenomenon generates an at- mosphere that feels electric and alive. Many elements of our life in school overlap and intersect, setting in motion a complex network of relationships of all kinds.

Louise Cadwell, M.E., Ph.D., is coordinator of curriculum and professional development at The College School in St. Louis, Missouri, studio teacher/re- searcher with all three schools in the St. Louis–Reggio Collaborative: The College School, The St. Michael School, and Clayton Schools’ Family Cen- ter. She returned to St. Louis after a one-year internship in the preschools of Reggio Emilia, Italy. She is the author of Bringing Reggio Emilia Home: An Innovative Approach to Early Childhood Education and Bringing Learning to Life: The Reggio Approach to Early Childhood Education and co-editor of In the Spirit of the Studio: Learning from the Atelier of Reggio Emilia.

323CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

324 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

SUMMARY A good environment for young children is a combination of many factors. Teachers must consider the needs of the children, teachers, and families as well as the program goals and priorities.

Th e physical environment includes the buildings and yard, the equipment and materials, and the way the space is organized and used. Th e setting is organized to sup- port the program’s goals and must meet necessary health and safety standards.

Th e temporal environment is about the time and timing of the program. Th e daily schedule outlines the timetable of events. Time blocks are arranged around the daily routines of food, rest, and toileting. Th e schedule is balanced so that children alternate indoor and outdoor play, quiet and active play, and self-selected activities with teacher-directed learning.

It is the interpersonal relationships that set the tone in each environment. Good interactions between chil- dren and staff are characterized by warmth, personal re- spect, and responsiveness. Th e size of the group, the

number of teachers per child, and the quality of relation- ships aff ect the interpersonal environment.

It is essential to have a clear idea of program goals be- fore arranging the environment. Th e environment mirrors those goals in the way the room is arranged, teachers are deployed, and the time schedule is framed. In early child- hood settings in which children’s independence and self- reliance are valued, the environment is created to enhance the child’s budding sense of autonomy. Anti-bias environ- ments value individual diff erences in race, ethnicity, ability, and gender to help children develop positive identities. In- clusive environments help children and teachers alike see every child, regardless of ability, as competent and every place as adaptable for all. All environments refl ect the goals through careful application of many factors.

Creating good environments for young children does not require great sums of money or newly designed buildings. In most settings, teachers can adapt general principles of environments to create challenging, safe, and eff ective group settings for children.

KEY TERMS environment physical environment temporal environment interpersonal environment anti-bias self-help self-concept self-esteem least restrictive environment

mainstreaming full inclusion environmental adaptation roughhousing universal infection control

precautions learning centers open-ended

interest areas daily schedules routines transition fl exibility group times

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Write a defi nition of environment in early education including the three aspects to consider when planning pro- grams for young children.

2. What are the major principles in creating developmentally appropriate learning environments?

3. Who and what is involved in planning safe and healthy environments?

4. How do teacher create a high quality environment?

325CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Hunch down on your knees and look at a classroom from the child’s perspective. Describe what you see in terms

of the principles of successful environments. 2. Examine a daily schedule from an early childhood center. What do you think are the program goals of the

school? How can you tell? Compare this with a daily schedule of a family day care home. How are they alike? How are they diff erent?

3. Th e following list names some common problems that can be remedied by changing the environment. List at least one solution for each problem.

a. too many children crowding into one area b. overcrowded shelves c. grabbing or arguments over the same toy d. hoarding of materials e. lack of cooperation during clean up f. wheel toy collisions g. children crying when others’ parents leave 4. Discuss three school health and safety policies that help keep illness and injury to a minimum. Interview a direc-

tor or head teacher about their policies, how they explain the guidelines to parents, and how they handle prob- lems that have arisen.

5. Visit an early childhood center. How are the interest areas defi ned? Name the centers of interest, and indicate which of them are for quiet play and which are for active play and work.

6. If possible, visit a program for children with special needs. If those children were to move to full-inclusion pro- grams, what kinds of adaptations might be needed to provide an inclusive environment? For children with motor disabilities? With visual impairments?

7. Check a classroom for diversity. Using the following checklist (de Melendez & Ostertag, 1997), enter a check- mark whenever you fi nd something in the classroom that complies with the element of diversity.

Checking the Classroom Environment for Diversity

ELEMENT OF DIVERSITY

Culture Gender Social class [Dis]ability Age

Pictures/posters

Books

Housekeeping items

Manipulatives

Art materials

Dramatic area

Music

Comments: Th ings I need to change: Th ings I need to add:

326 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

HELPFUL WEBSITES American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation & Dance http://www.aahperd.org Canada Institute of Child Health http://www.cich.ca Centers for Disease Control and Prevention http://www.cdc.gov Children’s Health http://www.kidshealth.org Consumer Product Safety Commission http://www.cpsc.gov National After School Association http://naaweb.yourmembership.com National Association of Child Development http://www.nacd.org National Institute on Out-of-School Time http://www.niost.org National Program for Playground Safety http://www.uni.edu/playground National Safety Council http://www.nsc.org/index/ Teachers Resisting Unhealthy Children’s Entertainment http://www.truceteachers.org Zero to Th ree http://www.zerotothree.org

REFERENCES

Additional resources including the TeachSource Videos can be found on the premium website for this book. Go to http://www.cengage.com/login to register your access code.

Alexander, N. P. (1995, September). Turning on the light: Th inking about lighting issues in child care. Exchange.

Ambery, M. E. (May, 1997). Time for Franklin. Young Children, 52.

Bredekamp, S., & Copple, C. (Eds.). (1997). Develop- mentally appropriate practice in early childhood pro- grams serving children from birth through age 8 (Rev). Washington, DC: National Association for the Edu- cation of Young Children.

Bredekamp, S., & Willer, B. (Eds.). (1996). NAEYC accreditation: A decade of learning and the years ahead. Washington, DC: National Association for the Edu- cation of Young Children.

Carter, M., & Curtis, D. (2003). Designs for living and learning: Transforming early childhood environments. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (1997). Th e ABCs of safe and healthy child care. Atlanta, GA: Author.

Community Products, LLC. (2008). Children come fi rst: Selecting equipment for early childhood education. Rif- ton, NY.

Consumer Product Safety Commission. (2009). Public playground safety checklist, CPSC Document #327. Washington, DC: Author.

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de Melendez, R. W., & Ostertag, V. (1997). Teaching young children in multicultural classrooms. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Derman-Sparks, L., and Olson Edwards, J. (2010). Anti-bias education for young children and ourselves. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Dodge, D. T., Colker, L. J., & Heroman, C. (2002). Th e Creative Curriculum® for preschool (4th Ed). Wash- ington, DC: Teaching Strategies.

Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G. (1993). Th e hundred languages of children. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Press.

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Froschl, M., Rubin, E., & Sprung, B. (1984). Including all of us: An early childhood curriculum about disabili- ties. New York: Educational Equity Concepts.

327CHAPTER 9 Creating Environments

Greenman, J. (2000). What is the setting? Places for childhood. In A. Gordon & K.W. Browne, Begin- nings and beyond (5th Ed). Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

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Howes, C., Phillips, D., & Whitebook, M. (1992). Th resholds of quality: Implications for the social de- velopment of children in center-based care. Child De- velopment, 63(4), 449–460.

Hyson, M. (2008) Enthusiastic and engaged learners: Approaches to learning in the early childhood class- room. NY: Teachers College Press.

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Jones, E. (1984). Personal notes about pluralistic and de- velopmental viewpoints. Unpublished.

Kendall, F. (1996). Diversity in the classroom (2nd Ed). New York: Teachers College Press.

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328 SECTION 3 Who Are the Teachers?

accreditation: A decade of learning and the years ahead. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Wurm, J. (2009). Working in the Reggio way. Redmond, WA: Redleaf Press.

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Zeavin, C. (1997, March). Toddlers at play: Environ- ments at work. Young Children, 52(4), 72–77.

© Cengage Learning

S E C T I O N

4

What Is Being Taught?

CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play � 330

CHAPTER 11 Planning for the Body: Physical/Motor Development � 372

CHAPTER 12 Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development � 394

CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development � 420

CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development � 458

© Cengage Learning

C H A P T E R

10

Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

■ What is developmentally appropriate curriculum?

■ What are the four basic factors in creating eff ective curriculum?

■ Why is play a foundation for learning?

■ What does curriculum planning involve?

■ Why are written plans important and how are they developed?

■ What are four eff ective curriculum models?

NAEYC CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Th ese Core Values and sections from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct are ad- dressed in this chapter. As you read, note how the Core Values, Ideals, or Principles listed here apply to the topics in this chapter. (Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

I-1.2 To base program practices upon current knowledge in the fi eld of child devel- opment and related disciplines and upon particular knowledge of each child.

1-1.3 To recognize and respect the uniqueness and potential of each child. P-1.4 For every child we shall implement adaptations in teaching strategies, learn-

ing environments, and curricula, consult with the family, and seek recom- mendations from appropriate specialists to maximize the potential of the child to benefi t from the program.

I-3B.1 To assist the program in providing the highest quality of service. I.4.1 To provide the community with high quality (age and individually appro-

priate, and culturally and socially sensitive) education/care programs and services.

331CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum

Ira, a 2-year-old, is more interested in the process of pouring milk (especially what happens after the cup is fi lled) than in eating and conversing at snack time. Kindergartners Bert and Leo become absorbed in watching a snail make its way across the sidewalk, ignoring for the moment the lesson on running re- lays. Each of these children are involved in the cur- riculum of an early childhood program.

What Is Curriculum? In an early childhood setting, the curriculum consists of the art activity and language game; it is also the sponta- neous investigation of liquids at snack time, the song that accompanies digging in the sand, and the teacher’s explanation of why the hamster died. Th e curriculum is the planned and the unplanned and includes all of the activities as well as the subject matter, the interactions with people, and all of the experiences of the child’s day.

Young children absorb everything going on about them. Th ey do not discriminate between what is pre- pared and structured for them to learn and whatever else happens to them at school. It is all learning.

Creating a good curriculum for young children is not simply a matter of writing lessons plans. It is under- standing the process of how children interact with peo- ple and materials to learn. It is the sum of a teacher’s knowledge about children’s needs, materials, and equip- ment and what happens when they meet.

Bredekamp and Rosegrant (1995) provide an all- inclusive defi nition:

Curriculum is an organized framework that delin- eates the content that children are to learn, the pro- cess through which children achieve the identifi ed curricular goals, what teachers do to help children achieve these goals, and the context in which teach- ing and learning occur.

■ Th e content is what is being taught—the subject matter refl ects the interests, needs, and experiences of the children, as well as what children should learn.

■ Th e process is how and when learning takes place, the choice of activities and how they integrate with one another, and the time frame within the daily schedule or yearly calendar. Th e process enhances

children’s learning through a hands-on, exploratory approach with a variety of open-ended materials. Play is the medium for the process.

■ Th e teacher is the person who creates the curricu- lum, planning and providing for activities and mate- rials in relation to the age range of the group and observing and evaluating children’s growth. Teachers are grounded in child development theory, have an understanding of how children learn, and are aware of the need to individualize to meet children’s spe- cial needs.

■ Th e context is why certain projects and activities are chosen, based on the program’s philosophy and goals, the cultural backgrounds of the children, and their family and community values and infl uences.

Curriculum must also be relevant to the child. Head Start classes on Native American reservations will de- velop curricula that represent the history and traditions of the tribes the students represent. Relevant curriculum for a preschool in Seattle may include fi eld trips to the Pike Street Market to see the recent salmon catch,

Children respond to curriculum materials that are inviting and accessible.

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whereas a transportation unit for inner city Boston chil- dren may include subway rides.

Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum Appropriate early childhood curriculum is based on the theory, research, and experience of knowing how young children develop and learn. An infant curriculum meets the basic needs of young babies; a toddler curriculum considers the emerging independence and mobility of toddlers. Four-year-olds require diff erent materials and teaching techniques, as do 5- or 8-year-olds. Each age level deserves special consideration when curriculum is being planned.

As noted in Chapter 2, developmentally appropriate programs, curricula, or practices are defi ned by NAEYC (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009) as having the following core considerations:

■ What is known about child development and learn- ing of a particular age group so that the curriculum has appropriate experiences and learning activities to help children achieve and to challenge them.

■ What is known about each individual child, the in- dividual rate of growth, and the unique learning style so that the curriculum will refl ect their needs, interests, and preferences.

■ What is known about the social and cultural con- text of each child so that the curriculum provides meaningful and relevant learning experiences that are respectful of the backgrounds of the children and families in the group.

A developmentally appropriate curriculum takes into account knowledge of child development theory, research, and practice. It includes various related disciplines, cul- tural values, parental desires and concerns, community context, individual children, teachers’ knowledge and ex- perience and is related to overall program goals.

Th e foundation for developmentally appropriate practices and curriculum content is historically rooted in John Dewey’s vision that schools prepare students to think and reason in order to participate in a democratic society (see Chapter 1). Figure 10-1 lists recommenda- tions jointly endorsed by the National Association for the

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Education of Young Children and the National Associa- tion of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education to ensure developmentally appropriate cur- riculum. It can be used as a checklist as you move through the next three chapters, which focus on curriculum.

Culturally Appropriate Curriculum If meaningful learning is derived from a social and cultural context (as Vygotsky asserts), then a multicul- tural atmosphere must be created in which awareness and concern for true diversity (including ethnicity, gender, and abilities) permeate the program. Th is calls into question the familiar ways of doing things and re- quires new insights and ways of thinking about cul- ture. Multicultural education is about “modifying the total school environment so that students from diverse ethnic and cultural groups will experience equal edu- cational opportunities” (Banks, 1994).

Culturally appropriate curriculum is also develop- mentally appropriate curriculum. Th e challenge is to de- velop a curriculum that refl ects the plurality of contem- porary American society in general and the individual classroom, in particular, and present it in sensitive, rele- vant ways. Creating a truly multicultural classroom calls into question the familiar ways of doing things and pro- vides new insights and ways of thinking about culture. Banks (2006) describes this approach as transformative curriculum.

Th e goal of transformative curriculum is to help teachers develop critical thinking skills so that they ques- tion some of the opinions and images of people and cul- tures that are represented in the Eurocentric curriculum that dominates American schools. A transformative cur- riculum helps a teacher view events and situations from diff erent perspectives. Th is approach, for instance, would encourage teachers to look at Christopher Columbus from the perspective of a Native American Indian before creating a curriculum about Th anksgiving, the Pilgrim, or Native Americans. Transformation curriculum is a way to help develop more positive attitudes toward all racial, ethnic, and cultural groups.

Th e common practice in many early childhood pro- grams of cooking ethnic foods or celebrating ethnic or

DAP There is no “recipe” for developmentally appropriate practice; rather, sound practice is related to individual children, families, and the community in which one teaches.

333CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

cultural holidays as isolated experience often trivializes or stereotypes groups of people. Folk tales, songs, food, and dress are symbols and expressions of a culture, not the culture itself. For children to gain any meaningful knowledge, the content must contribute to a fuller un- derstanding of human diversity, not just a special occa- sion topic. Including diverse food, music, and clothing are important artifacts in the curriculum only when they expand a concept of diversity and serve as a link to dis-

cuss other aspects of a culture. For instance, songs and dances could lead to a discussion of what games children play in diff erent cultures.

Transformative education and curriculum planning helps us reach out to understand another culture’s point of view. Th rough that experience, curriculum can be- come more culturally sensitive and appropriate for all. Th e principles of the Anti-Bias environment that you learned about in Chapter 9 apply equally to developing

Image not available due to copyright restrictions

334 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

curriculum that refl ects today’s diversity. Figure 10-2 highlights the diff erences between creating curriculum from a Eurocentric or dominant culture point of view and from a transformative curriculum approach.

Inclusive Curriculum Inclusive curriculum refl ects an awareness of and sensi- tivity to diversity in all areas of a child’s life: cultural, so- cial, language, religion, gender, and capabilities. Th e in- clusion of children with any and all varieties of disabilities and those who refl ect various cultural backgrounds has been built into the chapters of this text.

Cultural sensitivity is described in terms of develop- mentally appropriate practices in Chapter 3 and in defi n- ing the young child later on in that chapter. Chapter 7 includes cultural infl uences on children’s behavior and various patterns of family behavior, and Vygotsky’s the- ory that development and knowledge are culturally spe- cifi c is discussed in Chapters 4 and 13.

Chapter 3 describes how a child with disabilities is in- cluded in the early childhood program. In Chapter 9, you will fi nd suggestions for creating inclusive environments, with a checklist on pages 293–295; in Chapter 12, there are ideas for inclusion in physical activities. Th roughout the text, there are references and examples of inclusion.

Characteristics of a Multicultural Classroom

For a Multicultural Approach Describes the history and cultures of ethnic groups holistically

Describes the cultures of ethnic groups as dynamic wholes

Presents events, issues, concepts from the perspectives of diverse racial and ethnic groups

Is multidimensional and geocultural—shows how many peoples and cultures came to the United States from many parts of the world, including Asia and Africa, and the important roles they played in the development of U.S. society

Content about ethnic groups is an integral part of regular curriculum

Ethnic minority cultures are described as different from mainstream Anglo culture but as rich and functional

Focuses on concepts, generalizations, and theories

Emphasizes knowledge formation and decision making

Focuses on social criticism and social change

Common Practices of Dominant Culture Focuses on isolated aspects of the histories and cultures of ethnic groups

Trivializes the histories and cultures of ethnic groups

Presents events, issues, and concepts primarily from Anglocentric and mainstream perspectives

Is Eurocentric—shows the development of the United States primarily as an extension of Europe into the Americas

Content about ethnic groups is an appendage to regular curriculum

Ethnic minority cultures are described as deprived or dysfunctional

Focuses on ethnic heroes, holidays, and factual information

Emphasizes the mastery of knowledge and cognitive outcomes

Encourages acceptance of existing ethnic, class, and racial stratifi cation

FIGURE 10-2 A comparison of two different approaches to multicultural curriculum, one from a Eurocentric point of view, the other from a culturally sensitive perspective. (From James A. Banks, Cultural Diversity and Education: Foundations, Curriculum, and Teaching 5th ed., p. 238. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA. Reprinted by per- mission of the author.)

335CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

Arce (2000) describes “authentic inclusion” as an ap- proach that builds upon and integrates multicultural and anti-bias strategies for a sensitive and culturally affi rm- ing program. Multiculturalism becomes a part of a whole area of inclusiveness, so that all children feel and see how they are included.

Th e curriculum philosophy becomes a crucial ele- ment in an inclusive environment. How are diff erences in children accommodated in the curriculum? Th e cur- riculum should be fl exible and provide a variety of learning activities and opportunities for a wide range of skills and abilities all at one time. It needs to be a cur- riculum in which children can participate at their de- velopmental level, yet be challenged enough to help them learn.

Th e basic premise in this text is that children with disabilities, children from immigrant families, children from families whose fi rst language is not English, girls

and boys, and young children from all cultures need the same elements in a learning environment. Quality early childhood education programs operate under the same sound principles, no matter what characteristics defi ne the children who attend these programs. Adaptations are made to fi t the capacities of each individual child as needed.

Effective Curriculum: Four Basic Factors Effective curriculum consists of any number of fac- tors. Four important features are curriculum that is (1) integrated; (2) emergent; (3) based on multiples intelligences; and (4) bears in mind differences in learning styles. With these in mind, the curriculum becomes more flexible and suited to all children in the class.

Integrated Curriculum Do you remember back in Chapter 3 the discussion about the whole child? Th e developmental concept that growth is related is a signifi cant point made in Figure 3-1. Th at drawing shows how one area of development aff ects and is aff ected by the others. As young children learn, the social, emotional, cognitive, creative, and physi- cal areas of development work together to help children fi nd meaning in and mastery of their world.

It is useful to think of integrated curriculum in the same way. Integrated curriculum coordinates many sub- ject areas, such as math, science, reading, writing, and social studies, and utilizes a holistic approach to learn- ing. It is curriculum that depends upon the individual diff erences in children, blending hands-on learning with the acquisition of skills. An integrated curriculum makes it possible for teachers to include skill develop- ment activities in context, not in isolation, weaving across many subject areas throughout the day. For in- stance, tracing square shapes in the Writing Center and cutting out squares with scissors can expand the con- cept of a square. A book about shapes shows squares in many confi gurations to make a picture; and in the Block Center, fences and building are constructed in square shapes. In this way, each activity center supports the concept of squares in diff erent ways. See Figure 10-3

Developmentally appropriate materials fi t the abilities of all children.

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for a good example of applying mathematical concepts in an integrated way.

Integrated curriculum means that subject matter is not taught as separate and unique topics, such as math, science, art, and language. Instead, they are all planned components of the total curriculum. The subject areas cut across the learning activity and rein- force concepts in meaningful ways as children engage in their work and play. If this sounds familiar, go back to Chapter 1 and read about John Dewey’s philosophy of education. The concept has been used in curricu- lum development for many years. The guidelines for developmentally appropriate curriculum found in Figure 10-1 contain many of the characteristics of an integrated curriculum.

It is easy to see how an integrated curriculum works. Experiencing a concept in a variety of contexts is a natu- ral rather than a contrived way for children to learn. Unit blocks, a staple in most early childhood programs, are a good example of how much learning potential is avail-

able in one activity. While playing with blocks, children learn about many concepts:

■ Science: weight, gravity, balance, stability, height, in- clines, ramps, interaction of forces

■ Mathematics: classifi cation, order, number, fractions, depth, width, height, length, fractions, size relation- ships, volume, area, measurement, shape, size, space, mapping

■ Social Studies: symbolic representation, mapping, grids, patterns, people and their work

■ Art: patterns, symmetry, balance, design, texture, creativity, drawing

■ Language: making comparisons, recognition of shapes and sizes, labeling, giving directions, commu- nicating ideas and needs, writing and drawing plans, using books as resources.

Th ey also experience growth in:

■ Physical Development: eye-hand coordination, clean up, hand manipulation, fi ne motor, visual percep- tion

■ Social Development: cooperation, sharing, clean up, confl ict resolution, negotiation, respect for the work of others

■ Cognitive: planning, naming, diff erentiation of sizes, shapes, inductive thinking, discovery. (Adapted from Hirsch, 1974)

It is easy to see why one teacher has called block play “the perfect curriculum: It has everything children need to learn!”

An integrated curriculum provides numerous advan- tages (Gestwicki, 2007), Miller (1996), and Arce (2000) and:

■ refl ects the natural way children develop at their own rate and not in all areas of growth at the same time.

■ allows for a wide range of abilities within a class- room age range of one year as well as within a mixed-age group.

■ accommodates individualization as children meet a variety of materials and experiences at their own unique development levels.

■ maximizes the eff ect of rates of learning, diff erent styles of learning, and multiple intelligences.

■ provides for learning to take place within the con- text of meaningful activity.

■ requires large blocks of time so learning can be more in-depth.

■ promotes self-motivation and extension of learning.

In music: Singing Five Little Pumpkins

In routines: Waiting for a turn because “too many” are brushing teeth already

In books: Inch by Inch by Lionni, Millions of Cats by Gag

In block play: Observing and using the fractions and wholes that make up a set of unit blocks

In physical development: Playing hopscotch

In cooking: Measuring and counting items in the recipe

In dramatic play: Noting there are only four hoses but fi ve fi refi ghters

In science: Counting the number of rainy/sunny/ snowy days; recording temperatures (thermometers); time (clocks and calendars); and seasons (charts)

In art: Numbers: learning one-to-one correspondence by counting brushes, crayons, Magic Markers®, and colors

FIGURE 10-3 Young children learn best from an inte- grated approach to curriculum. Mathematical concepts are refl ected throughout the classroom in a variety of activities.

Integrating Math Throughout the Curriculum

337CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

■ blends hands-on learning with skill acquisition. ■ lends itself to both a theme and project approach to

curriculum planning.

Emergent Curriculum Emergent curriculum is just what it says: curriculum that emerges—comes from or slowly evolves—out of the child’s experiences and interests. Th e emphasis is on chil- dren’s interests, their involvement in their learning, and their ability to make constructive choices. Teachers set up materials and equipment in the room and the yard, some- times planning a few activities each day that will capture children’s attention. For the most part, teachers then watch and evaluate what children do and support and ex- tend what use children make of their experiences.

Th e curriculum begins with the children rather than with the teacher, who observes what children do, how they play, and what captures their interest and imagina- tion. Th e point is to deepen and extend children’s learn- ing as they discover meaning and understanding in their play. Th e following example shows how emergent curric- ulum can be developed by following the children’s lead.

Taking Cues from Children A lively group time discussion one day in the 4-year-old classes involved a new bridge that was being built near the school. Th e teachers had noticed that the block area had sat unused during the week so they added books on bridges, paper, crayons, and scissors to the shelves near the blocks, and put up pictures of diff erent kinds of bridges. Th ese additions drew children to the block area where they built bridges, made paper bridges, and counted the number of diff erent kinds of bridges that were in the books nearby. Further conversations between the children and the teachers led to a woodworking project to create wooden bridges. Songs and poems about bridges became a routine part of circle time. Outdoors, the sand pit be- came a waterway with bridges and was soon followed by projects with boats and other water transportation. Th e curriculum content in this example is apparent, but an end product is not the focus. It is an example of integrated cur- riculum as well as emergent curriculum because the pro- cess children go through in creating knowledge through the extension of bridge play fosters new insights and learn- ing. Th e focus is always on the child, not on the activity.

Th is practice of taking cues from children—noting what they play with, what they avoid, what they change— is one of the components of emergent curriculum and stems from the belief that in order to be a meaningful learning ex- perience, the curriculum should come out of the daily life in the classroom. Based on the principles of Erikson, Piaget, and Vygotsky, emergent curriculum assumes that children are active, curious, powerful learners, capable of taking the initiative and constructing their knowledge through experi- ence. Children are encouraged to use whatever style of learning is most natural to them (Gardner, 1983), making use of the variety of materials in their own way. A materials-rich environment in which play is valued forms the foundation for the curriculum. For example,

■ Anton, a fi rst grader, noticed how dark the sky was as he and his classmates waited for the school bus to take him home. His teacher responded that the days were shorter in winter so there was less daylight. Th e children began to ask questions about how this happened. Th e next morning many of the Activity Centers had materials for ex- ploring light/dark; charts for tracking the changes of light to dark; and a new outdoor thermometer. Over the next few months, children were im- mersed in the seasonal changes that occurred out- side their windows.

■ Four new babies were born to families with children in the 3-year-old class. Th e dramatic play area teemed

What math and science concepts did the 4-year-olds use while creating this block building?

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with dolls, blankets, bottles, and baby beds. As the children talked about their new siblings, the teachers posed questions about the care and feeding of a new- born and how diff erent it is from what the 3-year- olds ate. Children were asked to bring in pictures of themselves as babies and created a collage that was hung on the wall near the dramatic play area. During music, the children moved like babies and outside the wagons became baby carriages. As long as their inter- est held, the curriculum was deepened and extended.

In each instance, the curriculum followed the chil- dren’s curiosity and became more complex in order to maintain their interests and learning potential. Th e teacher’s role was to be a co-creator with the children to ensure that learning goals and objectives were met.

Planning emergent curriculum requires good obser- vation and listening skills and the ability to interpret children’s play. Webbing, which is discussed later in the chapter, is a good way to clarify with children what they know and what ideas they have for further exploration. Webbing also helps integrate the activity to include all learning domains.

Collaboration and Mutual Learning Th e emergent curriculum calls for collaboration on the part of the teachers with children and on the part of children with other children and with adults who off er suggestions and ideas.

Th e accent is on mutual learning for both children and adults. For example, when the fi rst grade class took a subway to the museum, this prompted a great many questions about subways and how they work. Because of the children’s interest and the teacher’s awareness of their developmental and educational needs, a project emerged and was developed over the next few weeks. It required the teachers to learn more about what the students wanted to know about subways, as well as to learn more about the topic so they could facilitate the children’s learning and defi ne the goals and objectives. Th e chil- dren helped plan the project. Th ey asked questions, in- vestigated, researched, explored, and, with the teacher’s support and encouragement, formed small groups and completed assigned tasks. Books became an important resource, as did people. Th e teacher, knowing what the children needed and were ready to learn, guided the dis- cussion to ensure that educational goals would be met.

For emergent curriculum to be successful, teachers have a responsibility to listen and observe carefully as

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children generate new ideas and then respond to what they hear and see that children have learned. Many ob- servations methods were described in Chapter 6 and are appropriate ways to help teachers fi nd ways and materi- als to advance and deepen what children learn. While emergent curriculum calls for collaboration and negotia- tion between children and teachers, it is the teacher who knows what is necessary for children’s education and de- velopment and sets the goals for learning.

Sources for Curriculum Ideas Children are only one of many sources of curriculum possibilities. A number of other sources feed into emer- gent curriculum, as noted by Jones (1994):

■ Teachers’ and parents’ interests and skills ■ Developmental tasks of the age group ■ Th e physical and natural environment as well as

people and things ■ Curriculum resource books ■ Family and cultural infl uences ■ Serendipity or the unexpected ■ Daily issues of living together, problem solving, con-

fl ict resolution, routines ■ Values expressed by the school philosophy, the fam-

ilies, and the community

Emergent curriculum seems to capture the spontane- ous nature of children’s play and blend it with the neces- sary planning and organization. In the discussion of cur- ricular models that follows in this chapter, you will see that emergent curriculum has many applications.

Multiple Intelligences In Chapter 4, you read about Gardner’s theory of multi- ple intelligences (MI). According to this theory, children are capable of at least eight distinct categories of intelli- gence. Th at is, they have many diff erent ways of knowing or of being “smart.” Refresh your memory by reviewing Chapter 4, page 126–128. Th e potential for developing the various intelligences is based on the child’s experi- ence, culture, and motivation. Th e following is a sum- mary of this theory (adapted from Armstrong, 2000 and Th e New City School, 1994). Th e eight MI categories with examples are:

1. Linguistic Intelligence. Sensitivity to the sounds, structure, meanings, and functions of words and language.

DAP When children work collaboratively, they help each other succeed as well as to negotiate and solve problems together.

339CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

Linguistic intelligence. ©

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Logical-mathematical intelligence.

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Spatial intelligence.

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Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence.

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Example: Children who enjoy word games, under- stand jokes, puns, and riddles, and enjoy the sounds and rhythms of language. Th ey have a good vocabulary, spell easily, memorize readily, and are good storytellers.

Examples: Adults such as Maya Angelou, Amy Tan, Martin Luther King, Jr.

2. Logical-Mathematical. Sensitivity to and capacity to discern logical or numerical patterns; ability to han- dle long chains of reasoning.

Example: Children who notice and use numbers, patterns, and shapes and explore the relationships in them; they have a systematic approach to problem solv- ing and organize their thoughts well. Th ey think con- ceptually and are able to move easily from the concrete to the abstract. Th ey like puzzles and computer games.

Examples: Adults such as Stephen Hawking, Madame Marie Curie, Bill Gates

3. Spatial. Capacity to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on one’s initial perceptions.

Example: Children who like to draw, build, design, and create things. Th ey enjoy patterns and geometry in math as well as maps and charts. Th ey think in three- dimensional terms and enjoy color as well as design. Th ey love videos and photos.

Examples: Adults such as I. M. Pei, Maria Martinez, Frank Lloyd Wright

4. Bodily-Kinesthetic. Ability to control one’s body movements and to handle objects skillfully.

Example: Children who are agile, coordinated, have good body control and who take in information

340 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

through bodily sensations. Th ey are hands-on learners with good motor skills. Th ey like to touch things, run, and use body language.

Examples: Adults such as Jackie Joyner-Kersee, Marcel Marceau, Kristi Yamaguchi

5. Musical. Ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and timbre; appreciation of the forms of mu- sical expressiveness.

Example: Children who like to sing, dance, hum, play instruments, and move their bodies when music is playing. Th ey remember melodies, are able to keep and imitate a beat, make up their own songs, and notice background and environmental sounds. Th ey enjoy lis- tening and diff erentiating patterns in sounds and are sensitive to melody and tone.

Examples: Adults such as Stevie Wonder, Carrie Underwood, and Yo-Yo Ma

6. Interpersonal. Capacity to discern and respond to the moods, temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people.

Example: Children who have a lot of friends, who like to talk, who prefer group problem solving, and can mediate confl icts; who like to hear someone else’s point of view; who volunteer to help when others need it.

Interpersonal intelligence.

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Examples: Adults such as Marion Wright Edelman, Mother Teresa

7. Intrapersonal. Access to one’s own feelings and the ability to discriminate among one’s emotions; knowledge of one’s own strengths and weaknesses.

Example: Children who pursue personal interests and set goals; who identify and label feelings; are in- sightful, sensitive, refl ective, intuitive; who may day- dream and are comfortable being alone. Th ey know their own strengths and weaknesses.

Examples: Adults such as Sigmund Freud, the Buddha, Maria Montessori

8. Naturalist. Expertise in distinguishing among mem- bers of a species; recognizing the existence of other neighboring species; and charting out the relations, formally or informally, among several species.

Example: Children who enjoy all the features of the outdoor world. Th ey recognize and classify plants, ani- mals, rocks, clouds, and other natural formations; they garden and like to have animals at home and school to care for. Th ey enjoy zoos, aquariums, and places where the natural world is on display and can be studied.

Examples: Adults such as John Muir, Jane Goodall, George Washington Carver

In a group of preschoolers, it is easy to notice the dif- ferent strengths children have in the eight MI categories. Some children excel at puzzles and manipulative games while others are busy dictating stories, building a boat- yard with blocks, or holding the guinea pig. Th ere are children who cannot be still for very long and need to be actively and physically involved in play and work for much of the day. We all have the capacities for the eight categories of MI, but we are not equally profi cient in all of them.

MI theory is based on Gardner’s belief that general intelligence is too narrowly defi ned and suggests that in- telligence has more to do with the capacity to solve prob- lems and engage in a wide variety of culturally valued ac- tivities (Berk, 2009).

Th rough a wide variety of meaningful learning expe- riences, children’s strengths (and primary intelligences) can be assessed, and curriculum can be developed that fosters new knowledge and thinking. Jmel is strong in spatial intelligence, and that can serve as a context for other learning in diff erent intelligence categories. Her intrapersonal and linguistic intelligences can be encour- aged through activities that include her telling or writing stories about something she drew and what it means to her. Bodily-kinesthetic and music abilities can emerge through dancing and moving the body through space in diff erent ways. Th is allows Jmel to experience and rein- force her own strengths and increase her strengths in other areas as well.

Th e relationship of curriculum based on MI to inte- grated curriculum is fairly clear from the example of Jmel and from Figure 10-4. If children have diff erent ways of knowing, they should experience a concept, lesson, or subject matter in a variety of ways. As teachers and care- givers expand their own thinking about children’s abili- ties, they can vary what and how they teach and teach to many intelligences instead of just one, many develop- mental areas instead of just one. An integrated MI cur- riculum makes it possible to involve many intelligences in a wide range of activities and enable more children to succeed by drawing on their own capacities to learn. Th e lesson plan in Figure 10-4 is a good example of planning curriculum with an MI emphasis.

Gardner (Woolfolk, 2001) has written about the good uses of MI theory when it is applied to teaching. “Schools should cultivate those skills and capabilities that are valued in the community and the broader soci- ety,” he says, and, “At the heart of the MI perspective—in theory and in practice—[is] taking human diff erence seriously.” In both comments, Gardner affi rms criteria for DAP.

Multiple Intelligences are also discussed in Chapter 4 and Chapter 12.

Learning Styles Some people like going to lectures to learn about a new culture or country. Others prefer to watch a travelogue. Still others get the most out of traveling to that country and living among its people, eating the food, absorbing the atmosphere. Each of these is a legitimate method of learning and processing information, and each indicates

Naturalist intelligence.

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342 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

the preferred style of that particular person. In Chapter 3, the discussion was about learning styles related to diff erences in children’s behavior. In this chapter, we will focus on how basic learning styles aff ect curriculum planning.

Sensory Styles Th ree basic sensory styles were men- tioned in Chapter 3 and they follow here with examples (Schirrmacher, 2002). Th ese are the preferred mode of each child but not the only method by which the child can integrate knowledge.

1. Th e Visual Learner. Th ese are children who prefer pictures to words; photos, charts, and graphs pro- vide the necessary clues; they like to represent their learning by reading, writing, and drawing; the fi n- ished product is important.

2. Th e Auditory Learner. Th ese are children who listen to others to learn and speak and discuss what they are learning. Th ey are good at following directions in the appropriate sequence from one task to another.

3. Th e Tactile-Kinesthetic Learner. Th ese children are active, full-body learners; they need hands-on activ- ity and learn by doing, not listening or sitting still.

Th ese modalities are the favored ways children learn through the use of their fi ve senses. It seems clear that an integrated, emergent curriculum would be eas- ily adaptable to all three learning modes. In fact, most early childhood experiences are heavily weighted to- ward the development of the fi ve senses that provide many opportunities for children to learn through their preferred style.

Sounds of the City

Assessment/Refl ection

Are the students able to identify urban sounds? How are the sounds the students collected from the various locations the same and different? What generalizations are the students able to make from this information?

MI Extensions Interpersonal: Help the students develop an awareness of how these city sounds affect their relationships with others.

Intrapersonal: How do city sounds affect moods?

Bodily-Kinesthetic: Use movement to complement the compositions.

Linguistic: Read Apt. 3 by Ezra Jack Keats. List all the sounds that are heard within the story and who made those sounds. Use the sound hints to determine who lives on each fl oor.

Logical-Mathematical: Collect data on the number of times specifi c sounds can be heard within a community. Interview people and graph their reactions to these sounds. Propose a hypothesis as to how the frequency of sounds might affect the lives of the people they interviewed.

Spatial: Create cityscape murals that capture the city and its sounds.

A practical guide created by the faculty of The New City School © 1994

MI Context: Students from diverse communities need to develop an awareness and appreciation for the unique nature of the urban environment.

Learner Outcomes: Student will recognize the sounds of the city.

Procedure 1. Elicit from students the sounds that are unique to

an urban area and list these sounds on chart paper. Show pictures of different urban settings to enhance the activity. Some sounds that might be included in this list are airplanes, traffi c, emergency sirens, and street vendors.

2. Have students record city sounds on their empty playground if the school is located in an urban area. For homework, they could record city sounds from their neighborhoods or from the television.

3. Instruct the students to create a rhythm chant based on the sound word list created earlier, and use the taped examples to enhance the mood of the chants. Percussion instruments may be used to accompany portions of the chants. Students perform their musical numbers for the class.

Materials Pictures of city scenes, tape recorders, cassette tapes, percussion instruments, chart paper, markers

FIGURE 10-4 Planning curriculum around multiple intelligences. (From Celebrating multiple intelligences: Teaching for success (paper) by the faculty of the New City School. Copyright © New City School. Reprinted by permission.)

343CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

Field Dependent/Independent Learning Style One of the most useful aspects of this model of learning styles (Witkin, Moore, Goodenough, & Cox, 1977) is that it seems to be found in all cultures throughout the world.

Th e two facets of this model, with examples (McNeely, 1997; Ramirez & Casteñada, 1974), are:

Field Dependent Learning Style (FD). Th ese children are able to grasp broad distinctions among concepts, and they see relationships through a social context, working with others to achieve a common goal. Th ey learn best through material that is related to their own experiences. FD learners are more person-oriented in their play and engage in social interactions sometimes for the sake of the interaction itself. Th ey often use social confl ict to make a social contact. Th ey learn concepts through watching others, and their learning is reinforced by rewards such as verbal praise, helping the teacher, and showing the task to others. Th ey de-

DAPDAP

pend on authority, seek guidance and demonstration from teachers, and need to have the performance ob- jectives of the curriculum carefully explained.

Field Independent Learning Style (FI). Th ese chil- dren look at things analytically, imposing their own structure to the task, and learn things for their own sake. Th ey prefer self-defi ned goals and reinforce- ments and are motivated through competition, their own values, and are more assertive than FD learners. FI learners prefer to work independently, and rarely seek physical contact with teachers; they are more idea-oriented than people-oriented. Th ey like to try out new tasks without help. Th ese children like the details of concepts because they fi nd meaning in the various parts. Th ey focus on the materials and their uses; social interactions are not as important to them.

Figure 10-5 suggests some curriculum approaches that work well for these two learning styles.

DAP Learning styles are infl uenced by culture and gender. In some cultures in which cooperation is more important than competition, students experience cultural confl ict when the curriculum stresses competition.

A Teacher Provides Opportunities for:

Field Dependent Children to: Field Independent Children to:

• Engage in global thinking • Engage in analytical thinking

• Follow a given structure • Generate own structure

• Be extremely directed • Be internally directed

• Attend to social information • Be inattentive to social information

• Resolve confl ict • Think things through philosophically

• Be social • Be distant in social relations

• Work with others • Work alone

• Have friends • Have acquaintances

• Work with a provided hypothesis • Generate own hypothesis

• Work with facts • Work with concepts

• Use others’ decisions • Use own decisions

• Be sensitive to others • Be insensitive to others

• Use stress for learning • Ignore external stress for learning

FIGURE 10-5 A teacher must make use of learning styles for Field Dependence/ Independence. (Adapted from Sharon L. McNeely, Ph.D. [1997], Observing students and teachers through objective strategies. Published by Allyn & Bacon, Boston, MA.)

344 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Play-Based Curriculum: The Foundation for Learning In Chapter 4, you learned about the value and process of children’s play. You may want to review that section for a clear understanding of why play-based curriculum en- hances children’s potential for learning, and is, in fact, the foundation for learning.

Th e vast knowledge of human development and be- havior comes from researchers who spent countless hours observing and recording children playing. As noted by many, from Froebel to Vygotsky to Gardner, children need meaningful materials and activities in order to learn. Th ey need to be physically as well as mentally and emotionally involved in what and how they learn, and they need to play. Th rough the use of activity centers, a variety of play opportunities are available throughout the school day (see Figure 10-6).

The Teacher’s Role in Play Classroom teachers learn about children by listening to and observing spontaneous play activity and planning curriculum that encourages play. Th ey discover each child’s individual personality, learning style, and pre- ferred mode of play.

Interest and Understanding Genuine interest is one way teachers show their approval of the play process. Creating a safe environment in which children feel physically and emotionally secure is an- other. To establish play as an important part of the cur- riculum, teachers must understand, appreciate, and value play experiences for young children; focus on the process of learning rather than on the process of teaching; and refl ect on their observations in order to know what activi- ties, concepts, or learning should be encouraged or extended.

Frost (1996) reminds us of the excellent advice from one of the most able contributors to the fi eld of human development:

Erikson advises that play has a very personal mean- ing for each individual. Perhaps the best thing that we as adults can do to discover this meaning is to go out and play; to refl ect upon our own childhood play; to once again look at play through the eyes of the child.

Supporting Play One of the most diffi cult tasks teachers face is knowing when to join children at play and when to remain outside the activity. Th ey must ask themselves whether their presence will support what is happening or whether it will inhibit the play. Sometimes teachers are tempted to correct children’s misconceptions during play:

Abby and Salina, deeply involved in their grocery store drama, are making change incorrectly. A teacher must judge whether to explain the diff erence between nickels and quarters at that time or to cre- ate an opportunity at a later date. Teachers must be aware of what happens if they interrupt the fl ow of play and how they infl uence the direction it takes. If Abby and Salina begin to talk about their coins, showing an interest in learning how to compute their change, the teacher can move into the discus- sion without seeming to interfere.

Many adults enjoy playing with the children in their class; others feel more comfortable as active observers. But every teaching situation will demand the teacher’s involve- ment at some level. Th e hesitant child may need help enter- ing a play situation; children may become too embroiled in an argument to settle it alone; play may become inappro- priate, exploitative, or dominated by a particular child.

Vygotsky gives us other reasons to be involved with children as they play, particularly in relation to the inter- personal nature of teaching (see Chapter 4). Th e belief that learning is interpersonal and collaborative is exemplifi ed by the teachers of Reggio Emilia (see Chapters 2 and 5), who guide and support children’s learning by engaging in play and knowing what strategy will best help an individual child reach the next level of skill (zone of proximal develop- ment). Th e Reggio Emilia approach to curriculum (dis- cussed at the end of this chapter under “Curriculum Mod- els”) fi nds an appropriate and appealing blend of Vygotsky’s concern for individual exploration and assisted discovery.

Th e teacher’s role in facilitating play is about balance: how to allow children the space and time to create their own play while still taking advantage of the teachable moments in which further learning is enhanced. Use the following guidelines to maintain a good balance:

■ Guide the play, but do not direct or dominate the situation or overwhelm children by participation.

■ Capitalize on the children’s thoughts and ideas; do not enforce a point of view on them.

■ Model play when necessary; show children how a specifi c character might act, how to ask for a turn, how to hold a hammer.

345CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

Play-Based Curriculum: Enhancing Children’s Learning

Provides challenges Requires active use of body Allows for repetition and practice Refi nes eye–hand coordination Develops self-awareness Encourages health and fi tness

Emotional Develops self-confi dence and self-esteem Learns to take a different viewpoint Resolves inner fears, confl icts Builds trust in self and others Reveals child’s personality Encourages autonomy Learns to take risks Acts out anger, hostility, frustration, joy Gains self-control Becomes competent in several areas Takes initiative

Cognitive/Language Distinguishes between reality and fantasy Encourages creative thought and curiosity Allows for problem solving Encourages thinking, planning Develops memory, perceptual skills, and concept

formation Learns to try on other roles Acquires knowledge and integrates learning Learns communication skills Develops listening and oral language skills

Creative Fosters use of imagination and make-believe Encourages fl exible thinking and problem solving Provides opportunity to act upon original ideas Supports taking risks Learns to use senses to explore Re-creates images in buildings and art media Sharpens observational skills Provides variety of experiences Learns to express self in art, music, and dance Develops abilities to create images and use symbols Acquires other perspectives

Social Tries on other personalities, roles Learns cooperation and taking turns Learns to lead, follow Builds a repertoire of social language Learns to verbalize needs Refl ects own culture, heritage, values Learns society’s rules and group responsibility Shows respect for others’ property, rights Teaches an awareness of others Learns how to join a group Builds awareness of self as member of a group Gives sense of identifi cation Promotes self-image, self-esteem Experiences joy, fun

Physical Releases energy Builds fi ne- and gross-motor skills Gains control over body

FIGURE 10-6 Play is the cornerstone of learning.

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346 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled, “Cur- riculum Planning: Implementing Developmentally Appropriate Practice in an Early Childhood Set- ting.” After you study the video clip, view the arti- facts, and read the teacher interviews and text, re- fl ect upon the following questions:

1. “Play is the child’s work,” according to one teacher in this case. How is that ideal imple- mented throughout the program?

2. How did the teaching staff at this preschool center demonstrate that they value meeting the needs of individual children?

TeachSource Video

❙ ❙

■ Ask questions; clarify with the children what is happening.

■ Help children start, end, and begin again. ■ Give verbal cues to enable children to follow

through on an idea. ■ Focus children’s attention on one another; encour-

age them to interact with each other. ■ Interpret children’s behavior aloud when necessary. ■ Help children verbalize their feelings as they work

through confl icts. ■ Expand the play potential by making statements

and asking questions that lead to discovery and exploration.

Setting the Stage for Play Teachers set the stage for learning through play by devel- oping curriculum that includes many forms of play, some of which is spontaneous, some of which is guided and/or directed by the teacher. Th e environment (physical, tem- poral, and interpersonal) is a key element in reinforcing a play-based curriculum.

Structuring the Environment To structure the environment for play, teachers include uninterrupted time blocks in the daily schedule (at least 45 minutes to an hour) for free play time. Th is allows chil- dren to explore many avenues of the curriculum free from time constraints. It is frustrating to young children to have their play cut off just as they are getting deeply involved.

Established routines in the schedule add to the framework of a day planned for play. Th e raw materials of play—toys, games, and equipment—are changed pe-

riodically so that new ones may be introduced for further challenge:

■ In choosing materials, teachers select dress-up clothes and accessories that appeal to all children’s needs, interests, and emotions.

■ Props are required for a variety of roles: men, women, babies, doctors, nurses, grocers, mail carri- ers, teachers, and fi refi ghters.

■ Hats for many occupations help a child establish the role of an airline pilot, tractor driver, construc- tion worker, police offi cer, or baseball player.

■ Large purses are used for carrying mail and babies’ diapers; they also double as a briefcase or luggage.

■ Simple jackets or capes transform a child for many roles.

Props that represent aspects of the child’s daily life are important; children need many opportunities to act out their life stories.

For younger children, teachers make sure there are duplicates of popular materials. Group play is more likely to occur with three telephones, four carriages, eight hats, and fi ve wagons. Social interaction is enhanced when three space shuttle drivers can be at the controls.

Materials that are open-ended further enlarge play. Th ese are materials that will expand the children’s learn- ing opportunities because they can be used in more than one way. Blocks, a staple of the early childhood curricu- lum, are a case in point. Children explore and manipu- late blocks in many ways. Th e youngest children carry and stack blocks and also enjoy wheeling them around in wagons or trucks. Th ey also enjoy the repetitious action of making small columns of blocks. Older preschoolers build multistoried structures as part of their dramatic play—offi ces, fi rehouses, and garages.

Classroom Activity Centers Th e activity centers in most early childhood programs consist of:

Indoors Outdoors Creative arts Climbing equipment Blocks Swings Table toys Sand/mud/water Manipulatives Wheel toys Science/discovery Woodworking Dramatic play Hollow blocks Language arts/books Music Math Nature/science Music Organized games

347CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

All of these centers off er activities and materials for chil- dren to choose from during free play time—the greatest portion of their school day. (See typical daily schedules in Chapter 2.) Paints are in the easel trays, puzzles on the tables, dress-up clothes and props in the housekeeping/ dramatic play center, blocks and accessories in the block corner, and books and tapes in the language area. Teach- ers plan the resources and materials and place them so that children readily see the alternatives available to them. Some of these activities might be teacher-directed: cooking snacks in the housekeeping area. For the most part, however, these activities will be self-initiating and child-directed. At all times, the emphasis will be on pro- viding a child-centered curriculum.

Whatever the activity center, it needs attention and planning. Wherever children are present, learning and playing will take place. Because each play space will make a contribution to children’s experiences, teachers should develop appropriate curriculum for that learning area.

Go back and review what Chapter 9 describes as the important principles in creating environments that refl ect curriculum goals, and see Chapter 2 for daily schedules.

Planning for Skills Acquisition Just as focusing on the activity or learning centers can develop curriculum, so, too, can an early childhood pro- gram be planned around the skill levels of the children in the class. Th e next three chapters provide a more in-

depth identifi cation of the types of skills that children need to learn.

Th e fi rst decision teachers must make concerns what particular skill they wish to help children develop. Th e skill can be in the area of physical, cognitive, language, creative, social, or emotional development.

Th e nature of the individual class and the program philosophy will help teachers establish priorities for these skills. Teachers then select the activities and materials that will enhance the development of any one or more of those particular skills. Figure 10-7 shows how the cogni- tive skill of classifi cation can be implemented in the class- room, making it the focus of the entire curriculum.

Th e next three chapters provide a more in-depth identifi cation of the types of skills that children need to learn.

Planning Curriculum Th e aim of the curriculum is to help children acquire the skills and behaviors that will promote their optimal growth physically, socially, emotionally, and intellectually. Teachers consider a number of factors in developing a curriculum to provide maximum learning opportunities. Among these are the educational philosophy and goals of the program. A family day-care provider plans activities for a few children in an intimate setting while the kinder- garten teacher arranges small working groups so that the large group will not seem overwhelming. Th e activities should support the goals of the program and result in the accomplishment of those goals.

Factors That Enhance Maximum Learning 1. Probably the single most important determinant the

teacher must consider is the children themselves. Th eir ages, developmental levels, individuality, and learning styles are barometers of what will be a suc- cessful and stimulating curriculum.

2. Th e number of children in the class will aff ect the teacher’s planning as will the number of teachers, aides, and volunteers who help out in the classroom.

3. Th e ethnic and cultural backgrounds of the children must be taken into consideration. Teachers need to plan curriculum experiences that draw on children’s

DAPDAP

What do you think are the most compelling arguments that play is a necessary part of any early childhood program? How

would you respond to a kindergarten teacher who thought too much time was devoted to play and that the academics needed more emphasis? What would you say to a parent who was interested in enrolling a child into your program but wanted to know why so much time was devoted to play?

What Do

YOU Think?

DAP The power of play in the young child’s life drives a play-based curriculum that includes many opportunities for social, physical, and intellectual development.

348 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Developing Classifi cation Skills through Integrated Curriculum

ART: size, shape, texture, color of materials; properties and functions of art materials (e.g., paste or glue).

MUSIC/GAMES: description of music for tempo, volume; description of rules of the game, similarities to and differences from other known games.

COOKING: comparison of food by flavor, texture, color, consistency; comparison of food before and after cooking/refrigeration.

GROSS MOTOR: description of speed, method of moving; comparison of distance, height, speed; comparison of wheel and other transportation vehicles.

BATHROOMS: descriptions of toilets, sinks, soaps; comparison of size and function with those at home.

CLASSIFICATION

DISCOVERY/SCIENCE: description of attributes of animal (e.g., guinea pig has eyes, ears, feet, hair); comparison with other animals; descriptions of sensory materials and how they feel, smell, taste, look.

BLOCKS: size, shape, weight of blocks; comparisons of curves in blocks (e.g., quarter circle vs. ellipse).

MANIPULATIVES: descriptions of size, shape, color, variety of table toys; comparison of uses of materials (puzzles, things for building, things for lacing, things to stack).

GROUP TIME: description of children by hair, eye color, size; comparison of types of shoes, clothing, and closures (e.g., tie, buckle, Velcro, zipper).

BOOKS AND LITERATURE: attributes of size, shape, and color of books; comparison of plot, characters, subject matter.

DRAMATIC PLAY: descriptions of dress-up clothing by size, color, role; comparison of kitchen equipment by what is used for cooking, for eating, for cleaning; comparison of what needs to be in freezer, refrigerator, cabinet.

FIGURE 10-7 Curriculum can be developed with a focus on a particular skill. Classifi ca- tion skills can be enhanced throughout the curriculum and in activity centers. Note: This is a graphic way to demonstrate an integrated curriculum, not an example of a for- mat for how to write curriculum plans.

those concepts; what does the child already know, and how can the teacher build on that? What is the most eff ective way to teach a particular concept to this group of children? In many ways, teachers start at the end: Th ey look at what they want the child to accom-

knowledge and experience but that also extend their thinking.

4. Eff ective curriculum planning stems from a knowledge of young children. Teachers ask themselves what con- cepts children should learn and how they will teach

349CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

plish or to learn as a result of this experience and then plan the curriculum to lead toward those results.

5. Planning for a broad range of developmental skills and interests is a key factor in creating a classroom cur- riculum. Because the abilities of children even of the same age vary, activities must be open-ended and fl exible enough to be used by a number of children with varieties of skills. Remember, too, that some children may not be interested in formal or orga- nized art projects or science experiences. Th ese chil- dren may learn more easily through self-selected play: by wearing a space helmet and fantasizing a trip to the moon, by building with blocks for long periods, or by running and climbing out of doors.

6. Th e developmental word pictures of children from birth through age 8 found in Chapter 3 can be use- ful in determining what kinds of activities appeal to young children. All activities—especially those that are planned and formal—should be conducted in an atmosphere of play that off ers the children options in choosing what they need to learn.

A prerequisite for planning is the availability of people and material resources and ways to use them. Th e strengths of the teaching staff , adequate sup- plies and equipment and enough adults to supervise the activities are taken into consideration.

7. Th e amount of time available in the daily schedule and the amount of space in the room or yard aff ect a teach- er’s planning. Finger painting requires time for children to get involved, proximity to water for clean up, and an area in which to store wet paintings. All of these ele- ments must be considered in the planning process.

Culturally Responsive Teaching Positive attitudes toward self and others emerge when children know they are valued for their individuality and appreciated as members of a family and a culture. Th e school environment can refl ect this in a number of ways. Figure 10-8 lists ways in which an early childhood program can use culturally diverse materials on a daily basis to foster the relationship between home culture and school.

Banks (2006) identifi es fi ve important characteristics of the eff ective teacher in a multicultural society. Th ey are teachers who:

1. Will seek pedagogical knowledge of the characteris- tics of students from diverse ethnic, racial, cultural, and social class groups; of prejudice and prejudice reduction theory and research; and of teaching strategies and techniques.

2. Have refl ected upon and clarifi ed an understanding of their own cultural heritage and experience and have knowledge of how it relates to and interacts with the experiences of other ethnic and cultural groups.

3. Have refl ected upon their own attitude toward dif- ferent racial, ethnic, cultural, and social-class groups.

4. Have the skills to make eff ective instructional deci- sions and reduce prejudice and intergroup confl ict.

5. Will devise a range of teaching strategies and activi- ties that will facilitate the achievement of students from diverse racial, ethnic, cultural, and social class groups.

Children with special needs are often able to use most of the curriculum materials typically found in early childhood classrooms. Th ey, too, need their life mirrored in the school setting with dolls, books, and play accesso- ries that signify acceptance and belonging.

Th roughout this text, especially in Chapters 2, 5, and the upcoming chapters, cultural sensitivity on the part of teachers and curriculum goal is emphasized. Woolfolk (2001) suggests the following guidelines for culturally relevant teaching. Th ey provide an accurate summary of many of the points found elsewhere in this book:

■ Experiment with diff erent group arrangements to encourage social harmony and cooperation. Provide a range of ways for children to learn material to ac- commodate a wide range of learning styles.

Use direct teaching methods for important informa- tion that everyone should know, such as telling children how to take care of materials, acceptable ways to dis- agree, and how to get the teacher’s attention.

Learn the meaning of diff erent behaviors of your students; fi nd out how they feel when they are praised or corrected; talk with family members to discover the meaning of gestures, expressions, or other responses that are unfamiliar to you.

Emphasize meaning in teaching; that is, make sure students understand the concept by using examples from everyday experiences.

Get to know the customs, traditions, and values of your students; analyze diff erent traditions for common themes; attend community fairs and festivals.

Help students detect racist and sexist messages, ana- lyze the curriculum for biases, and help children discuss ways that their communication with each other may be biased. Discuss expressions of prejudice.

A sound curriculum is the linchpin of a quality pro- gram for children. Curriculum planning and develop-

350 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

ment is a creative act, one that is rewarding for teachers. Figure 10-9 highlights some of a teacher’s thoughts in the planning process. In the next four chapters, curricu- lum implementations will be explored from another per- spective, that of the major areas of development in the child’s growth. In Chapter 11, the focus will be on how curriculum aff ects the growing body. Chapter 12 will emphasize the curricular role in developing the mind, and Chapters 13 and 14 will explore the curricular issues surrounding social and emotional growth.

Integrating Learning Standards Curriculum planning may be aff ected by a set of stan- dards mandated by the state. Over 75 percent of the states in the United States (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009)

have developed some sort of explicit learning expecta- tions for children to meet at various age and grade levels, often termed “outcomes” or “desired results.” At the fed- eral level, there is the Head Start Child Outcomes Framework and the content standards that other na- tional organizations have created for math, science, and literacy. Standards describe the kinds of learning that should take place and often, but not always, includes most areas of developmental domains.

Gronlund (2006) notes some of the benefi ts of such standardization. When linked to primary grade stan- dards, early childhood standards may enhance school readiness. Standards help to defi ne the foundational skills for learning and help teachers identify the next steps in their learning. To the public, they could rein- force the potential for learning in very young children

Play Materials to Enhance Cultural Diversity and Inclusivity

Curriculum Area Materials and Equipment

Music Rainstick (Chile), marimba (Zulu), balaphon (West Africa), ankle bells (Native American), maracas (Latin America), Den-den (Japan), Shakeree (Nigeria), drums (many cultures), ocarina (Peru), songs of many cultures

Literature Books on family life of many cultures, stories of children from far and near, legends and folktales from many countries, stories with common childhood themes from many lands, favorite books in several languages, wordless books, sign language, Braille books

Blocks and accessories

Variety of accessories depicting many ethnic people, aging people, community workers of both sexes in nonstereotyped roles and with various disabilities; Russian nesting dolls, Pueblo storytellers1, animals from around the world

Art Paints, crayons, markers, and construction paper in variety of skin-tone colors, child-size mirrors

Dramatic play Anatomically correct dolls representing many ethnic groups; doll accessories, including glasses, wheelchairs, crutches, walkers, leg braces, and hearing aids; doll clothes, including cultural costumes and dress-up clothing from many cultures; cooking utensils, such as a wok, tortilla press, cutlery, chopsticks

Games Language lotto, dreidel game, lotto of faces of people from around the world, black- history playing cards, world globe

Outdoors Elevated sand and water tables and ramps for wheelchair access, lowered basketball hoops, sensory-rich materials

Classrooms Carp banners (Japan), paper cuttings from Mexico and China, photographs and magazine pictures of daily life from many cultures, artwork by artists from a variety of ethnic backgrounds, pictures of children from many ethnic backgrounds and cultures

FIGURE 10-8 A child’s family and culture can be brought into the classroom through a variety of curriculum materials; so, too, can children with disabilities feel included.

351CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

and the importance of quality early childhood pro- grams. Standards also provide a vehicle for demon- strating the breadth of learning that takes place in the early years and, if used with thought and planning, they can work hand in hand with developmentally appropri- ate practices.

Many early childhood professionals have concerns over the potential misuse of these standards. Th ey may foster “teaching to the test” rather than a more develop- mental approach to teaching and cause pressure on the child through inappropriate expectations. Th ey may promote testing and other assessment methods inappro- priate for young children as noted earlier in Chapter 6. Too often, standards do not address all of the develop- mental domains but focus only on literacy and/or math and science. Bowman (2006) reminds us that children’s sociocultural experiences are a signifi cant part of their learning and that standards need to recognize this when determining what children should know and be able to do. Frost and others (2008) warn against depriving chil- dren from recess and play because of the national em-

phasis on high stakes testing and the belief that play is less important than academics.

A joint position paper by NAEYC and the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State De- partments of Education (NAECS/SDE) (2002) cited four essential features that early learning standards should include: signifi cant, developmentally appropriate content and outcomes; informed, inclusive processes to develop and review the standards; implementation and assessment strategies that are ethical and appropriate for young children; and strong support for early childhood programs, professionals, and families. By following these guidelines, standards could contribute to more positive outcomes for all children.

Today’s teachers will need to learn more about their own state’s requirements and refl ect with other early childhood professionals on the tension between meet- ing the standards and remaining true to developmen- tally appropriate practices. Figure 10-10 is an example of how a developmentally appropriate curriculum in- cludes learning standards.

How Teachers Plan Curriculum

FIGURE 10-9 The effective teacher’s role in creating curriculum. (Photo © Cengage Learning.)

Knows what is worthwhile to teach

Uses knowledge about individual children’s learning

styles and intelligences

Invites families and diverse cultures into

curriculum

Uses play and active learning

Knows each child’s capabilities

Expresses school philosophy and goals

Uses people and materials as resources

Balances child-initiated and teacher-directed

learning

Allows children meaningful choices

Sets specific objectives

Uses environment as co-teacher

Integrates curriculum

Recognizes and accommodates

individual differences

Plans activities

352 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Setting Goals Th e process of developing curriculum begins with set- ting goals and then choosing the most pressing ones for attention. Th e following fi ve steps are guidelines to set- ting and achieving curriculum goals: 1. Set goals. Decide what it is you want children to

learn. What do you want them to know about themselves? About others? About the world? State goals clearly, preferably in behavioral terms so re- sults can be measured.

2. Establish priorities. Make a list of three to fi ve goals or objectives you consider most important. State the reasons for your choices; your own values and edu- cational priorities will emerge more clearly.

3. Know the resources. A rich, successful, and creative curriculum relies on a vast number of resources. To create a health clinic in the dramatic play area, for instance, you might need the following resources:

■ Materials. Props, such as stethoscopes, X-ray ma- chines, tongue depressors, adhesive strips, medical gowns, and masks.

■ People. Parents and/or community people in the health care professions to visit the class.

■ Community. Field trips to a nearby clinic, hospital, dentist’s offi ce.

4. Plan ahead. Set aside a regular time to meet for cur- riculum planning. Th is may be on a weekly, monthly, or seasonal basis. Discuss the curriculum activities as well as the daily routines in order to in- tegrate the two.

5. Evaluate. Refl ect on the outcome of your planning. Consider what worked and what did not, why it was successful or not. Look at the part of the ex- perience that did not work as well as you would have liked. How can it be improved? What can you change about it? An evaluation should be im- mediate, precise, and supportive. Teachers need feedback about their planning and implementing skills. Th e needs of children are best served when the curriculum is refi ned and improved. Figure 10-11 is a useful example of how to evaluate an activity.

Teacher-Directed Learning When is teacher-directed learning appropriate? Arce (2000) notes that this is a good teaching strategy when materials are complex or the concept is unknown to the children. Teaching certain skills, such as writing or cutting with scissors, requires teacher guidance. Th e continuum that is shown in Figure 10-12 suggests a broad range of

Early Learning Standards

Standard Activity Demonstrates Mastery

Personal and social competence: Identifi es self by categories of gender, age, or social group.

1. Graph children’s ages. 2. Make an “All about Me” book. 3. Create self-portraits with

dictation.

1. Says correct age and shows correct number of fi ngers.

2-3. Says, “I’m a girl,” “I’m 4 years old,” or “I’m Vietnamese.”

Effective learner: Completes increasingly complex puzzles.

Play with knob-puzzles, puzzles with and without frames, and fl oor puzzles.

Uses puzzles with interlocking pieces without the help of frames.

Physical and motor competence: Manipulates two or more objects at the same time.

String beads; play with Legos or Duplos; practice buttoning, zipping, lacing cards, and cutting paper.

Two hands manipulate object at the same time to complete task successfully.

FIGURE 10-10 Early learning standards are benefi cial when they can be linked to de- velopmentally appropriate curriculum and have clear goals and outcomes. (Source: Adapted from Kim Yuen, San Mateo County Offi ce of Education, San Mateo, CA. Taken from Browne & Gordon’s To Teach Well: An Early Childhood Practicum Guide. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Learning, 2009.)

353CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

Evaluating Classroom Activity

Activity

How many children participated? Did any avoid the activity?

How involved did children become? Very Briefl y Watched only

What were children’s reactions? Describe what they said and did.

What did you do to attract children? To maintain their interest?

How would you rate the success of this activity? Poor Adequate Good Great

Why?

What skills/abilities were needed? Did the children exhibit the skills?

What parts of the activity were most successful? Why?

Describe any diffi culty you encountered. Give reasons and tell how you would handle it if it happened again.

If you did this activity again, what would you change?

In light of your evaluation, what would you plan for a follow-up activity?

How did this activity compare with your goals and expectations?

FIGURE 10-11 Evaluating daily activities lets teachers use assessment as a curriculum planning tool. Although not every activity will need this scrutiny on a daily basis, careful planning and evaluation create effective classrooms. (Originally adapted from Vassar College Nursery school. From Beginning Essentials in Early Childhood Education. Fig. 10.18, p. 393. Copyright © 2007 Wadsworth, a part of Cengage Learning, Inc. Re- printed by permission. www.cengage.com/permissions.)

teaching behaviors, including teacher demonstration and directive teaching. Schirrmacher (2002) makes the point that all methods on the continuum are “valid at certain times for certain children and certain activities.” Helm

and Katz (2001) observe that teachers using the project approach often use teacher-directed instruction for teach- ing certain skills and concepts while keeping a high degree of child choice and initiative in the project themselves. DAPDAP

DAP Children benefi t from selecting their own activities and play options as well as from more structured activities that teachers present.

354 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Group Times Th ere are certain times within the daily routine when teachers call children together. Th e size of the group is determined in part by how many teachers there are and how they want to present various learning experiences. Th e reverse is also true. Various types of learning expe- riences best lend themselves to small or large group dis- cussions. In using the project approach, for instance, small group work seems to provide the best format for developing ideas and listening to one another’s opinions. A presentation by a visiting parent or expert on the project theme would be more appropriate for the large group. Smaller groups could then form to discuss in greater detail the ideas presented.

Large group times are used for a variety of reasons. Teachers may use them as opportunities to bring the en- tire class together to:

■ Provide transitions in the daily schedule. ■ Bring in a special guest or presentation. ■ Introduce new ideas and materials.

A Continuum of Teacher Behavior

FIGURE 10-12 A continuum of teaching behavior. (From S. Bredekamp & T. Rosegrant, eds., Reaching Potentials: Appropriate Curriculum and Assessment for Young Children, vol. 2, Figure 2, p. 21, 1995. Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

Nondirective Mediating Directive Acknowledge Model Facilitate Support Scaffold Co-construct Demonstrate Direct

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■ Sing, dance, and do fi nger plays. ■ Read stories. ■ Plan activities with children. ■ Review the day’s events. ■ Initiate group problem solving.

Small groups, on the other hand, are opportunities for teachers and children to have a closer and more per- sonal experience. Th is setting provides the teachers with ample opportunities to:

■ Help children practice a specifi c skill, such as cut- ting with scissors.

■ Encourage children in their social interactions with one another.

■ Enjoy conversations with children. ■ Teach a new game to a few children at a time. ■ Closely observe each child’s growth and development. ■ Hold discussions regarding their project work, and

move the project along. ■ Explore topics in depth.

355CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

■ Eat a meal or have a snack with children and en- courage the social process.

■ Provide close supervision for some experiences, such as cooking.

What is common to all group times is the occasion for teachers to encourage listening and speaking skills; provide an arena in which children share thoughts and ideas with one another; and introduce any number of cognitive and social activities. Teachers must make the determination about which type of group best suits the experience.

Written Plans for Creating Curriculum A written plan is an organized agenda, an outline to fol- low, a framework for the curriculum. It may include a list of activities, goals for children’s learning experiences, the process or method of instruction, the teacher’s responsi- bilities, the time of day, and other special notations. A plan may be developed for a day, a week, a month, or a specifi c unit or theme. Figure 10-13 illustrates a weekly curriculum. Th e four chapters that follow also contain many examples of written plans.

Advantages of Written Plans Setting lesson plans to paper has many advantages. Do- ing so helps teachers focus on the nature of the children they teach—their interests, their needs, their capabili- ties and their potential. A written plan encourages thor-

ough, in-depth planning of curriculum in a logical pro- gression, provides a direction, and helps teachers clarify thoughts and articulate a rationale for what they do. Team teaching is more stimulating when teachers plan together, sharing their ideas and resources; everyone knows what is happening; in case of absences, a substi- tute teacher can carry out the plans. Changes can easily be made to allow for fl exibility, adaptation, and on-the- spot decisions.

When plans are written down, it is easy to see what resources are needed and to have the time to prepare materials. Written plans serve as a communication tool for the teaching staff , for parents, and for the governing agency, and provide a concrete format from which evalu- ation and assessment can be made.

Planning by Objectives Another approach to curriculum development requires more formal, organized planning. Comprehensive les- son plans are developed, sometimes for the whole year, and usually include objectives, the stated concepts that children will learn through this experience. Th ese are commonly called behavioral objectives. Th e lesson plans include specifi c, stated, observable behaviors that chil- dren will be able to demonstrate to show that the teach- ing objective has been met. In other words, a behavioral objective states clearly what children will actually do (e.g., be able to hold scissors properly; grasp a pencil between thumb and fi rst two fi ngers). If the behavioral objective is to improve fi ne motor skills, the lesson plan includes activities and events that foster children’s use of their fi ne motor skills. Several objectives may apply to a given activity. It is then important to order the objec- tives so that the purposes of the lesson remain in focus. To plan successfully, the teacher needs to know develop- mental and behavioral theory (Chapter 4), to have good observational strategies (Chapter 6), and to possess tools to assess whether the objective has been accom- plished (Chapter 6).

One example of using behavioral objectives is Figure 10-10, which shows the use of behavioral objectives when meeting learning standards. A more developed plan found in early childhood classrooms would include activities for the full range of curriculum areas, such as art, motor activities, and dramatic play, for each of the objectives. Important factors in developing curriculum objectives are how much knowledge and understanding children have, what children are interested in, and what standards are mandated by the individual state for the specifi c age group.

Group times are more meaningful when children’s home language is used for story time. One teacher reads the book in English, the other reads it in Spanish.

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356 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Elements of Written Plans A clearly written lesson plan serves as a curriculum map that guides the daily experiences and agendas. It should refl ect the program’s goals and priorities as well as the teachers’ objectives for each student, such as what skills the activity fosters. Th e activities themselves should provide for fi rst-hand learning experiences that promote discovery through active exploration of materials. A written lesson plan is a good way to demonstrate how well the curriculum is integrated, inclusive, and cultur- ally sensitive.

Th e plan should present a balance to the day in which activity and play alternate with opportunities for quiet times, including the time spent outdoors. Large and small group times that are teacher-directed are in- cluded, as well as blocks of time in which children se- lect their own activities. Th e plan should also note when and where teachers are able to work individually with children. Many written lesson plans also include any changes that need to be made to the environment or schedule.

Figure 10-13 demonstrates many of the key elements for a weekly lesson plans. Figure 10-14 shows a written

FIGURE 10-13 From The Creative Curriculum® for Infants, Toddlers, & Twos, 2nd ed. (p. 103), by D.T. Dodge, S. Rudick, and K. Berke, 2006, Washington, DC: Teaching Strategies, Inc. Copyright 2006 by Teaching Strategies, Inc. Reprinted with permission.

Group Planning Form

Changes to the Environment:

Remind children during outdoor play to use the bathroom.

Ask for volunteers to go on a walking trip around the neighborhood.

Special Experiences I Plan to Offer This Week

Monday

Indoor Experiences

Outdoor Experiences

Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Changes to Routines and Schedule:

Family Involvement:

Music & Movement: move like leaves

Read Red Leaf, Yellow Leaf and discuss leaves on playground

Read A Simple Brown Leaf

Use magnifying glasses to look at leaves at the sensory table

Read A Tree Is Nice

Use magnifying glasses to look at leaves at the sensory table

Prepare for the walking trip

Read Red Leaf, Yellow Leaf and discuss the colors of the leaves on the playground

Collecting leaves on the playground

Easel Painting

Raking leaves

Raking leaves Walking trip around the neighborhood to look at and collect leaves

Easel Painting

Bring baskets outside for leaves gathered on the playground. Add easel to the playground. Introduce magnifying glasses.

LaToya Twos November 4–8

Teacher(s): Group:

Week of:

CREATIVECURRICULUM

357CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

plan for a curriculum that individualizes a child’s specifi c needs and experiences.

Webbing Webbing is the process through which teachers develop a diagram based on a particular topic or theme, highlighting key ideas and concepts (Katz and Chard, 2000). Ideas generated from brain-storming sessions flesh out the topic with many subheadings and lists of curriculum possibilities Webbing is a planning tool that provides depth to a topic and cre- ates a map of possible activities and projects. A web may be organized around a theme (water), into cur- riculum areas (language arts, music), or around pro- gram goals (problem solving, cooperation). By their very nature, webs foster an integrated curriculum ap-

proach and help teachers extend children’s learning and experiences.

Creating a web can be fun as it allows teachers to use their imaginations and calls into play their knowledge, resources, and experience. Katz and Chard (2000) sug- gest the following process to develop a web about the fall season:

1. Brainstorming. Using small slips of paper, teachers write down theme or topic ideas that the children suggest—each idea on a separate piece of paper. For the topic “Th ings that happen in fall and winter,” for instance, the slips would contain ideas such as “cut jack-o-lanterns” or “rake leaves.”

2. Grouping. Th e slips of paper are organized into groups of similar ideas, and, on a colored piece of paper, a heading is given to each group. “Canning and preserv-

FIGURE 10-14 The most effective curriculum grows out of the child’s needs and expe- riences. (From The Creative Curriculum® for Infants, Toddlers, & Twos, 2nd ed. (p. 97), by D.T. Dodge, S. Rudick, and K. Berke, 2006, Washington, DC: Teaching Strategies, Inc. Copyright 2006 by Teaching Strategies, Inc. Reprinted with permission.)

CREATIVECURRICULUM

Child Planning Form

Child: Abby (14 months)

Current information:

Abby has been filling purses with small toys and carrying them around. She’s also starting to nap earlier in the morning.

Plans:

Add some small baskets to the room for filling and carrying. Adjust the schedule to accommodate her new nap time.

Child: Devon (18 months)

Current information:

Devon enjoyed hearing The Itsy-Bitsy Spider board book. He’s started to do the hand motions.

Plans:

Continue reading the book. Bring the spider puppet to use with the book.

Child: Max (16 months)

Current information:

Max played with two simple puzzles every day.

Child: Shawntee (18 months)

Current information:

Shawntee needs to be by me when new adults are around.

Brooks Infants February 2–6

Teacher(s):

Group:

Week of:

Plans:

Add two new knob puzzles and leave the old ones. Encourage him to discover and try the new ones.

Plans:

Make sure I’m available to her on Friday when Max’s dad comes to volunteer.

358 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

ing” and “seasonal recipes” fall under the heading of “Cooking.” Subgroups can be created, if necessary.

3. Sharing. Teachers can share their ideas with one an- other, rearranging the headings and subheadings as they share skills, resources, and information with one another.

4. Drawing. Th e ideas can be transferred to a piece of paper, placing the topic or theme in the center and drawing lines radiating out to the headings (group time, manipulatives, dramatic play). Th is creates a visual record of the relationships between and among the ideas and becomes what Workman and Anziano (1993) call “a living, growing resource.”

Jones and Nimmo (1994) emphasize the organic na- ture of a web. First created as a response to children’s ideas, it creates a picture in which ideas emerge and con- nect in any number of ways. It is, of course, a tentative plan, for what happens next depends on the children’s responses. Th e web creates a fl exible plan that can be al- tered and adapted as teachers observe children and eval- uate their interests.

Figure 10-15 is an example of children and teach- ers working together on a curriculum web that grew out of the children’s involvement with play animals. Th e project that evolved is featured in the photos on page 362.

Animals

Build a zoo

Habitats Materials needed from -School yard -Home

Make plans for construction

of habitat

Collection of materials

Wood scraps Tubing Tape Leaves Twigs

Build zoo walls

Food -Dishes -Waterbowls

Add: Plants Trees Bushes Bugs Butterflys

Building blocks with

animals

Make playdough

animals

Visit San Fransisco

Zoo

View zoo habitats on LCD

Make animals with model

magic

What to do with the animals

Playing with animals

Dramatic play

Mural of zoo

Art

Draw animals

Trace animals from zoo photos

Light projector

Enlarge animals

for viewing Make large paintings

FIGURE 10-15 Web for elementary school children. (Tracy Pierce, Geo-Kids, Menlo Park, CA. Used by Permission.)

359CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

Themes A traditional method of developing curriculum is to fo- cus on a broad, general topic or theme, also known as a unit. Th ough used interchangeably, themes are generally a smaller part of a unit, allowing for a more specifi c fo- cus. For example, a unit on the body may have “What I can do with my hands” as one theme. Th is mode of plan- ning is used in many early childhood and elementary settings. Focusing on themes, however, can and should be much more than an in-depth study of a topic and should be integrated into the whole curriculum.

A thematic approach can utilize many of the attri- butes of an integrated curriculum:

■ Children can help choose and plan themes, thereby constructing their own learning.

■ Activities can be chosen to refl ect the curriculum goals.

■ Th e emphasis is on active learning. ■ Th e most appropriate themes are those that have a

meaningful connection to children’s lives.

■ Many subject areas can be integrated in the diff erent activities.

■ Th e program lends itself to fl exibility, teacher permitting.

■ It provides for an in-depth study of a topic. ■ It can support the use of multiple learning styles

through diff erent media. ■ It adds coherence and depth to the curriculum. ■ It has the potential for good multicultural curricu-

lum emphasis.

Figure 10-16 is an example of a theme on the fi ve senses for toddlers.

Gestwicki (2007) cites some disadvantages of using a traditional theme approach to curriculum. It can be re- stricted and narrow and too adult-directed, not allowing for children’s curiosity and initiative. Th ere is a danger of creating an artifi cial unit that has no relevancy to the children’s experiences or interests. Teachers may fi nd it hard to deviate from the curriculum plan and not be fl ex- ible enough to extend the topic further. When too rigidly applied, themes can isolate the experience into a particu-

Curriculum through Play for the One-and-a-Half-Year-Old

Sensory Stimulation

Objective: To help toddlers begin to explore and understand the fi ve senses.

Activity Small-Group Focus Optional Activities

Monday Soap painting Guessing game: textures. Distinguish soft from hard using familiar objects.

Play hide-and-seek with two or three

Tuesday Water table play Guessing game: smells. Identify familiar scents in jars.

Blow bubbles.

Wednesday Fingerpainting Guessing game: weights. Distinguish heavy/not heavy using familiar objects such as book or doll.

Take walk to collect collage materials of different textures.

Thursday Making collages of textures collected day before

Guessing game: shapes. Using puzzles of shapes and shape- sorting boxes.

Have a parade of sounds from many musical instruments.

Friday Play dough Food fest of fi nger foods: Try different textures, sizes, shapes, and fl avors

Make foot or hand prints on large mural paper.

FIGURE 10-16 Example of teacher-directed activities to help toddlers explore their sensory skills.

360 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

lar subject or concept and miss the opportunities to broaden the learning potential. At its worst, a theme can be recycled every year without regard for the diff erent group of children and their needs and interests.

Holiday Themes or Not? An inappropriate use of themes is to limit them to spe- cifi c times of the year, such as Th anksgiving or Valentine’s Day, or to celebrate holidays. Th emes are not just for special occasions since they tend to isolate and narrowly defi ne the topic.

Some holiday themes may not be appropriate to ev- ery family represented by the group. One teacher de- cided that making Easter baskets on Good Friday (a re- ligious day for many Christians) was off ensive to those who practiced Christianity and was uncomfortable for the non-Christians in the class. Th e practice was dropped throughout the school in the name of cultural and reli- gious sensitivity.

Some schools have adopted policies that do not per- mit celebrating holidays as part of the school curriculum. Holidays do provoke a particularly sensitive time for cel- ebrating. Th ere are many who believe that celebrating holidays from around the world brings a sense of multi- culturalism to the curriculum. York (2003) suggests that when done with thought and care, holidays can be an important addition to the curriculum. To ensure the most positive outcomes, according to York, all holidays are celebrated with equal importance; only those that have importance to the children and families in the class are observed; parents are enlisted to help; the celebration takes place within the context of the daily life of people and families; and sensitivity to the children and families who do not celebrate a particular holiday is observed.

Others might say this is a tourist approach to cul- tural diversity or that it is a quick visit to another culture without follow-up and depth of exploration. Too often in early childhood programs, holiday curriculum units are the only expression of cultural diversity. According to Derman-Sparks & Edwards (2010), there are no mean- ingful developmental reasons for the strong emphasis on celebrating holidays in most early childhood programs today. She further argues that this overuse of holiday themes actually interferes with a developmentally appro- priate curriculum because too many foods or songs are used, bypassing the opportunity for children to learn about common areas of life. It seems that holiday themes paint a fl at picture of a cultural or religious event with- out taking into account how people in those cultures live, work, sleep, or play in ways that are familiar or similar to other cultures.

Life-Oriented Themes Th emes that are of great interest to young children are those that directly concern them. Th e body as a theme suggests many avenues for development: body parts may be emphasized; exploration using the senses may be stressed; measuring and weighing children may be used to demonstrate growth of the body. Another subject to which children readily respond is that of home and fam- ily. Animals, especially pets, are appealing to young chil- dren and can lead into further curriculum areas of wild animals, prehistoric animals, and so on.

Th e more in touch with children the teachers are, the more their classroom themes should refl ect the children’s interests and abilities. Children who live in Silicon Valley in California, in Houston, Texas, or in Central Florida may have a local interest in computers and space shuttles. Th e urban child of New York, Detroit, or Washington, DC, will relate more readily to themes about subways, taxis, and tall buildings. Children’s interests often focus on, but are not necessarily limited to, what they have ex- perienced. By choosing themes that coincide with chil- dren’s daily lives, teachers promote connected and rele- vant learning. Take another look at Figures 10-4 and 10-8 from this perspective.

Some themes in an early childhood setting can ad- dress children’s own issues. All young children share similar fears and curiosity about the world they do not know but imagine so vividly. Th e cues children give, par- ticularly about their concerns, suggest to the observant teacher some important themes of childhood. During Halloween, for example, it can be helpful and reassuring to children if the theme of masks is developed. Select some masks that have a function, such as hospital masks, ski masks, safety glasses, sunglasses, snorkel masks, or wrestling and football helmets. Children can try them on and become comfortable with the way their appearance

Should celebrating holidays be part of an early childhood curriculum? Justify your response with personal examples from

your childhood, your teaching experiences, and your understanding of development. Debate your answer with a classmate who has a different opinion.

What Do

YOU Think?

361CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

changes. Th ey can laugh with friends as they look in the mirror to see how a mask changes the appearance but does not change the person.

Th emes can be inclusive, integrated, and appropriate. It takes a teacher with a child-centered approach to re- spond to children’s innate excitement and curiosity about learning.

The Project Approach Much of what you have just learned about emergent and thematic curriculum as an integrated approach applies equally to projects. As you read ahead, keep in mind what you have learned about the advantages of an inte- grated curriculum (page 335), how to take cues from children as explained in the discussion on emergent cur- riculum (page 337),the concept of children and teachers collaborating (page 338), and the sources for curriculum ideas found on page 338. A project approach embodies these characteristics as well. On the continuum of teacher-directed versus child-directed learning, a project requires the greatest amount of child involvement.

Projects are the epitome of an integrated curriculum, embracing all of the key characteristics of integrated learning and allowing for the incorporation of a wide range of subject areas. Katz (1994) defi nes the “project approach” as:

…an in-depth investigation of a topic worth learn- ing more about…usually undertaken by a small group of children within a class…the whole class… or even an individual child. Th e key feature…is that it is a research eff ort deliberately focused on fi nding answers to questions about a topic posed either by the children…or the teacher.

A recent revival of this curriculum approach used in progressive schools (see Dewey, Chapter 1) is worth not- ing here. Based on the belief that “children’s minds should be engaged in ways that deepen their understanding of their own experiences and environment” (Katz & Chard, 2000), the project approach consists of exploring a theme or topic (such as babies, dinosaurs, riding the school bus) over a period of days or weeks.

Preplanning by the children and teachers is the fi rst step: Th ey observe, question, estimate, experiment, and research items and events related to the topic. Together, they make dramatic play and display materials they need. Children work in small groups throughout the process and have the opportunity to make numerous choices about their level of participation. Th e teacher often re- cords the activity on tapes and with photographs. Proj-

ect work has diff erent levels of complexity, so it meets the needs of children of diff erent ages and abilities.

In the small town of Reggio Emilia in northern Italy, a similar approach to curriculum has received worldwide attention. Th e project approach is used in even greater depth as it permeates the entire curriculum and school environment. It will be discussed later in this chapter.

Projects emerge from children’s own interests, teacher observations of children’s needs and interests, and par- ents’ suggestions. Th e topics refl ect the local culture of the children. In fact, Chard (1998) suggests that since life experiences and interests of the teacher and of the children are so strongly refl ected in the project itself, it is a singular occurrence relevant only to that group. An- other group may adopt the same topic, but it will not be a duplicate process due to the individual nature of the children and teacher planning the project.

Th is approach to teaching and learning easily lends itself to an inclusive classroom and curriculum, responding to di- verse points of view as well as diverse cultures. Projects cre- ated by the children of Reggio Emilia, for instance, will diff er from those of American children due to many cultural infl uences—in particular, the children’s ability to argue their point and defend their ideas to others as the project emerges. In the Italian culture, this is a natural part of discourse and is usual in the beginning of conversation between people; in American mainstream culture, it is usual when two people “agree to disagree” for the conversation to end.

Th e planning process is crucial to the success of the project approach as is the underlying philosophy that chil- dren can be co-constructors of their own education. Th is approach has much in common with the approaches of both Dewey and Neill’s Summerhill (see Chapter 1). Th e teacher helps children explore what they already know about the topic, what they might need to know, and how they can represent that knowledge through various media, reinforcing Vygotsky’s theory that interaction and direct teaching are important aspects of intellectual develop- ment. Teachers pose questions for children that lead them to suggest a hypothesis: What might happen if you do that? What do you think you could do to make that work? Children are encouraged to evaluate their own work and learn to defend and explain their creations to others. Fig- ure 10-5 on page 343 exemplifi es this process.

Th e following is a summary of the process involved in a project approach as outlined by Chard (1998), Katz and Chard (2000), and Helm and Katz (2001). Th ere are three phases to a project approach:

1. Representation. Children express and communicate their ideas. Th rough the use of drawing, writing, construction, dramatic play, maps, and diagrams,

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Playing with animals in classroom Making animals from Model Magic

Making animals from Model Magic Using their animals with blocks

Visiting the zoo

Drawing plans for building the zoo Drawing plans for building the zoo

Building the zoo Making the zoo habitat The zoo

This project evolved from the web shown in Figure 10-15 and took several months to ac- complish. We thank the children at Geo-Kids in Menlo Park, CA, and photographers Tracy Pierce and Michele McMath.

363CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

children share their experience and knowledge. Rep- resentation documents what children are learning.

2. Fieldwork. Investigations take place outside the classroom, through events, objects, places, and peo- ple so that children build on their own knowledge through direct experiences.

3. Investigation. Using a variety of resources, children explore and research the topic. Th is includes fi eld- work as well as closely analyzing, sketching, and dis- cussing what they fi nd.

4. Display. Exhibits of children’s work on the project serve as a source of information and provide an op- portunity to share their work and ideas with others. As the project progresses, the children are kept up to date on their progress by displays of their work.

Play-Based Curriculum Models Five distinct models demonstrate curriculum that em- brace the fi ve guidelines for developmentally appropriate practice: creating a caring community, teaching to en- hance development and learning, planning curriculum to achieve important goals, assessing children’s develop- ment and learning, and establishing reciprocal relation- ships with families. Each model is unique with its own strengths and characteristics and each is play and devel- opment integrated.

High/Scope: Cognitively Oriented Model Th e High/Scope curriculum stresses active learning through a variety of learning centers with plenty of ma- terials and developmentally appropriate activities. Th e schedule includes extended periods of free play time and guidelines for teacher’s intervention in play activities (Frost, et al, 2008). Active problem solving is encouraged as children plan, with teacher’s assistance, what they will do each day, carry out their plan, and review what they have done. Appropriately, this is known as the “plan-do- review” process. Teachers use small groups to encourage, question, support, and extend children’s learning while emphasizing communication skills.

Th ere is a balance between child-initiated experi- ences and teacher-planned instructional activities. Teach- ers use observational techniques to focus on children and to understand children’s play. Teachers are responsible for planning curriculum organized around key experi-

ences that reinforce and extend the learning activities the children select for themselves. Th ese key experiences form the basis of the curriculum and include creative representation, language and literacy, initiative and social relations, movement, music, classifi cation, seriation, number, space, and time (Hohmann & Weikart, 2002).

Children with special needs are integrated readily into High/Scope programs and with a curriculum devel- oped especially for K–3 grades and early adolescents. High/Scope extends its active learning philosophy into further school years.

High/Scope’s approach to children’s learning is deeply rooted in Piagetian theory and supports Vygotsky’s the- ory of social interaction and cognition: Children learn when interacting with the people and materials in their environment. Th e schools of Reggio Emilia share core el- ements of the High/Scope philosophy. Both philosophies stress the importance of children’s constructing their knowledge from activities that interest them; team teach- ing is an important concept, to allow the children access to adult support; and the process of planning, acting, re- cording, and reassessing is one that both approaches use to foster critical thinking skills.

To document children’s growth using a portfolio sys- tem (see Chapter 6), the High/Scope program uses the following categories (Schweinhart, 1993; Brewer, 1995):

■ Initiative: Expressing choices, engaging in complex play.

■ Creative representation: Making, building, pretending.

■ Social relations: Relating to children and adults, making friends.

■ Music and movement: Exhibiting body coordination, following a musical beat.

■ Language and literacy: Showing interest in reading, beginning reading, beginning writing.

■ Logic and mathematics: Sorting, counting objects, describing time sequences.

Teachers evaluate these abilities as they observe chil- dren’s use of key experiences and plan the curriculum accordingly.

Bank Street: Developmental- Interaction Model Bank Street was founded by Lucy Sprague Mitchell (see Chapter 1), and its roots refl ect the thinking of Freud, Dewey, Erikson, Vygotsky, and Piaget, among others.

364 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Th ere is a clear connection between education and psy- chology in its approach (Mitchell and David, 1992). It is a developmental approach because child development principles infl uence the curriculum planning, and it is an interactive model because of the connections made be- tween children, adults, and the greater environment. Th e interaction between cognitive and socio-emotional de- velopment is a key element as well, underscoring the connections between thinking and emotions (Mitchell & David, 1992).

Th e Bank Street model originated the play-based ap- proach used in many early childhood settings today through the use of interest centers, water and sand play, blocks, puzzles, painting, and small and large group play. Teachers use play to enhance children’s cognitive and language skills through frequent conversations and inter- actions (Frost, et al, 2008).

Children are seen as active learners who learn by in- teracting with and transforming the world about them. Play is the primary vehicle for encouraging involvement between and among children, adults, and materials. Th e teacher’s primary role is to observe and respond to activi- ties initiated by the children. Classrooms are organized into learning centers, in which children can work indi- vidually or in groups.

Th e Bank Street model exemplifi es an integrated curriculum. It is rooted in social studies (Mitchell & David, 1992) so that children learn about the world in which they live through concrete, fi rst-hand experiences. Mitchell and David emphasize that the school is an ac- tive community connected to the social world of which it is a part and that “the school shares the responsibility with children’s families and with other neighborhood in- stitutions.” Units and themes are used to focus the cur- riculum. Th ere is freedom of movement and choice and easy access to materials (Epstein, Schweinhart, & McAdoo, 1996).

A teacher’s knowledge and understanding of child development principles is crucial to this approach. Edu- cational goals are set in terms of developmental processes and include the development of competence, a sense of autonomy and individuality, social relatedness and con- nectedness, creativity, and an integration of diff erent ways of experiencing the world.

The Schools of Reggio Emilia Respect for children’s investigative powers and for their ability to think, plan, criticize, collaborate, and learn from all they do is the hallmark of the Reggio Emilia ap- proach and is an excellent example of an integrated and

emerging approach to learning. Th is collection of schools in Italy, with separate programs for infants to 3-year-olds and 3- to 6-year-olds, has commanded worldwide atten- tion for its philosophy and practices. “Nowhere else in the world,” states Gardner (in the classic work of Edwards, Gandini, & Forman, 1993), “is there such a seamless and symbiotic relationship between a school’s progressive philosophy and its practices.” Th e curricu- lum takes the project approach to its highest levels.

Infl uenced by Dewey’s progressive education move- ment, the philosophies and practices of Reggio Emilia owe a great deal as well to Piaget’s constructivist theory, Vygotsky’s belief in social discourse as a method of learning, and Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (see Chapters 1, 4, and 13). Children are actively en- gaged in long-term projects that they initiate, design, and carry out with the support of the teacher. Art is the pri- mary medium for learning.

Some of the key components of the Reggio Emilia approach are: a materials-rich environment that is aes- thetically appealing; a community-based attitude involv- ing the entire city; a family support system; and a com- mitment to process.

Th ese elements are manifested in the program through astonishingly beautiful school settings, replete with the work of children and evidence of their projects elegantly displayed throughout; by support realized through a large portion of the city’s budget; through small groups of children who stay together for a three- year period with the same teacher; and through inten- tionally bringing the children’s culture into school life.

Play, in the Reggio Emilia classroom, is focused on children’s ability to represent their experiences through the arts. As such, play is more collaborative with several

The Reggio approach: order and beauty.

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365CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

children working on one project while another group is working elsewhere. “Working” in this context is playing; art is the form that play often takes in this model. Th e teacher’s role is more involved than in other models as the philosophy of Reggio Emilia is to work with children and assist them with their activities.

Cadwell (1997) identifi es eight fundamentals of the Reggio Emilia approach. Each has implications for creat- ing a curriculum that is fully integrated and one that emerges from children’s interests and ideas. Th ese eight essential points are:

1. Th e child as protagonist. All children are strong and capable and have the potential and preparation to construct their learning. Th ey are protagonists (i.e., central characters) with teachers and parents in the educational process.

2. Th e child as collaborator. Th ere is an emphasis on working in small groups. Th is stems from the belief that we are social beings and form ourselves through interactions with people and things.

3. Th e child as communicator. Symbolic representation, through dance, art, painting, sculpting, building, dramatic play, music, and words help children dis- cover and communicate what they know and what they question. Teachers support the use of these “many languages” to help children make their think- ing visible.

4. Th e environment as third teacher. Every corner of the environment has an identity and purpose and en-

courages encounters, communication, and relation- ships. Th ere is order and beauty in the design of the equipment, the space, and the materials.

5. Th e teacher as partner, nurturer, and guide. Teachers listen and observe children closely in order to facili- tate and guide their process of open-ended discov- ery. Th ey ask questions to fi nd out about children’s ideas and theories and then provide the opportuni- ties for their learning.

6. Th e teacher as researcher. Teachers work in pairs and collaborate with other members of the staff , engaging in continuous discussion and interpretation of their work and the work of the children. Th is provides on- going staff development and deeper exploration of theoretical foundations. Teachers see themselves as researchers who prepare and document their work. Th ey consider children researchers as well.

7. Th e documentation as communication. Th oughtful care is given to ways in which the thinking of chil- dren is presented. Teachers make transcripts of chil- dren’s dialogue, take series of photographs of their projects, and arrange them in panels that hang throughout the school or in books. Th is documen- tation is a way to communicate to the rest of the school what the children’s work is about, to help parents become aware of their children’s work, to assist teachers in evaluating children’s work, and to show children that their work is valued.

8. Th e parents as partner. Parent participation is con- sidered essential, and parents discuss their ideas and skills with the teachers. Th is underscores the colle- giality and collaboration between home and school and ensures a curriculum that represents the diver- sity of the children and their families.

Th e teacher’s role is unique: two coequal teachers work with a class of 25 children. Th ere is no head teacher or director of the school. Th e teachers are supported by a pedigogista, a person trained in early childhood edu- cation who meets with the teachers weekly. Also on the staff of every school is an atelierista, a person trained in the arts who teaches techniques and skills the children learn for their projects.

Th e process of the activity is highly respected as the way to plan and work together. Teachers and children— collaborators—listen to one another, and many points of view are encouraged. Debate and discussion are key ele- ments in the process of deciding what project to do and how to go about it. Th e attitude that a child is a natural researcher as well as an able learner and communicator has molded the organization and structure of the schools.

Reggio Emilia: a materials-rich environment.

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366 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Th e schools of Reggio Emilia are worth knowing about just for the strong and powerful view they hold of the child and the concept of teacher and student learning from one another. Th ere are a growing number of Amer- ican models as well.

Cadwell (1997), who has assisted two schools in St. Louis to adopt the Reggio Emilia approach pictured on these pages, off ers a hopeful challenge: “We can learn from the Reggio educators to look at children diff erently, to expect more of them and of ourselves, and to off er them many more possibilities for full development.”

Waldorf Schools Th e Waldorf curriculum, shaped by Rudolf Steiner in 1919 (see Chapter 1), emphasizes the development of the whole child through “the head, heart, and hands.” Based on the belief that young children learn primarily through observation, imitation, and experience, the cur- riculum provides a rich environment for children to ex- plore and role models who provide appealing activities. Waldorf schools are play-based: A hallmark of the cur- riculum is learning through play, and large periods of time are devoted to creative play. Steiner agreed with Froebel and others that education should begin where the learner is: Whatever the child brings to the educa- tional experience is to be worked with, not against. Aca- demics are de-emphasized in the early years of schooling. Looping is common in the elementary school years as the teacher stays with the class for up to eight years. Other defi ning features (WECAN, 2005) of a Waldorf curriculum include:

■ Strong rhythmic elements based on the cycles of life and nature: A daily rhythm of play, work, circle time, outdoor play, ending with a nature or folk tale cre- ates a consistent pattern for each session. Th e weekly rhythm evolves from activities, with one day for baking, another for crafts, and another for paint- ing, and so on. Seasonal activities, such as planting bulbs, harvesting produce, or gathering leaves, stress nature’s impact on our lives.

■ Environments that nourish the senses: Th e walls of the classrooms are usually painted with soft water- colors, curtains may be made from plant-dyed fab- rics, and tables and chairs are made of solid wood. Th e materials used are natural and real; the sur- roundings are simple and calming.

■ Extensive use of natural materials: Wood, cotton, and wool are used throughout the classroom. Most of the toys are handcrafted from these natural materi-

als, encouraging children to use their imagination. A piece of wood becomes a ticket to ride the train, which is made from chairs and pieces of wood. It may also become a telephone, a piece of food, or an- imal in a barn made of similar materials. Th e Wal- dorf philosophy suggests that other, more “fi nished” toys limit the power of fantasy, imagination, and creativity that is natural in a young child.

■ Play as an imitation of life: Th e curriculum fosters skills that imitate the work of adults. Children participate in activities focused on the home— cooking and baking, cleaning, washing and sewing, gardening and building. Engaging in meaningful life activities are seen as preparation for later academic challenges.

■ Enhancement of a sense of reverence and wonder: Children’s natural sense of awe and wonder is fos- tered and deepened, primarily through activities, stories and festivals that celebrate the cycles of the seasons. In the fall, the classroom may be decorated with corn stalks and sheaves of grain; the seasonal table will be draped with beautiful fabrics in fall col- ors and hold gourds, pumpkins, acorns, and leaves. When parents join them for a harvest festival, songs of thankfulness and praise are sung before the feast begins. Each season this is repeated in order to ex- pand the child’s sense of reverence for life.

A Waldorf curriculum has much to off er, especially to those who put a premium on the use of imagination and an appreciation for the natural world. Learning is non- competitive with no grades or set textbooks. Th ere are many elements in the Waldorf Method that are common to the Montessori Method and to the Reggio Emilia Schools.

Montessori Schools In Chapter 1, Maria Montessori was discussed in rela- tion to the history of early childhood education. What follows here is an explanation of the Montessori Method as a curriculum model for young children.

Montessori’s approach to learning has had a continu- ing infl uence in education since those early years. Of her work, three features stand out: (1) adapting school work to the individual rather than molding the child to fi t the curriculum; (2) insisting on freedom for children in selection of materials and choice of activities; and (3) training of the senses and on practical life issues.

Montessori programs may not be play-based in the way the four previous models are, but they are certainly

367CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

child-centered and child-based in philosophy and prac- tice. Montessori held that the choices children make during free activity time is work that others might rightly identify as play. Montessori programs have art activities as well as music, movement, and some group games. Fantasy play, a staple in other early childhood settings, is not part of the Montessori curriculum. Instead, the Practical Life area, where children learn personal care and care of the environment, is the closest Montessori comes to dramatic play. In the Practical Life area, chil- dren imitate adult activities, such as pouring and food preparation, but with real glasses, pitchers, and utensils readily available to them.

The Program A common misunderstanding is that all schools with the Montessori name are the same. Th ey are not. Th ere are many variations and types of Montessori schools throughout the United States, refl ecting an infi nite vari- ety of interpretations of the Montessori Method. Within the Montessori movement itself, there are at least two factions claiming to be the voice of the true Montessori approach to education.

Although, the most common form of Montessori program is one in which 3- to 5-year-olds are grouped together, there are a growing number of schools for 6- to 9-year-olds and even 9- to 12-year-olds. Teacher educa- tion programs now prepare Montessori teachers to work with infants and toddlers as well as high school students.

Th e most striking feature of the Montessori class- room is its materials. Many are made of wood and de- signed to stress the philosophy of learning through the senses. Color, texture, and quality of craftsmanship of the materials appeal to the hand as well as the eye; they demand to be touched. “Smooth” and “oval” take on new meaning as a child runs a fi nger around Montessori- designed puzzle shapes.

Montessori materials have other unique characteris- tics besides their tactile appeal. Th ey are self-correcting; that is, they fi t together or work in only one way so that children will know immediately whether they are suc- cessful. Th e Montessori curriculum presents the materi- als in a sequence, from simplest to most diffi cult. Many of the learning tasks have a series of steps and must be learned in a prescribed order. Whether sponging a table clean or using the number rods, the child is taught the precise order in which to use the materials. Montessori developed curriculum materials and tasks that are re- lated to real life. Practical Life activities range from

cleaning tasks (hands, tables) to dressing tasks (lacing, buttoning, or tying garment closures).

In a Montessori classroom, children work by them- selves at their own pace. Th ey are free to choose the materials with which they want to “work”—the word used to describe their activity. Children must accom- plish one task before starting another one, including the replacing of the materials on the shelf for someone else to use.

Th e prepared environment in a Montessori pro- gram has child-sized furniture and equipment—one of Froebel’s ideas that Montessori used. Materials are set out on low shelves, in an orderly fashion, to encourage children’s independent use. Only one set of any materi- als—their shape, form, and the way they are presented for children to use—are the vehicles for learning.

Th e teacher in the Montessori setting has a pre- scribed role, one of observing the children. Teachers be- come familiar with skills and developmental levels, and then match the children to the appropriate material or task. Th ere is little teacher intervention beyond giving clear directions for how to use the materials. Group in- struction is not common; learning is an individual experience.

Program Changes Many changes have taken place in Montessori practices over the years, and today’s best Montessori programs are those that are true to philosophical traditions of the Montessori Method but constantly make small changes and adjustments. Many Montessori schools are adding curriculum areas of art, dramatic play, gross motor devel- opment, and computers. Th ere is also greater teacher fl exibility to promote social interaction.

For years, Montessori was separated from the main- stream of American education. Today that has changed, with over 100 public school districts off ering Montessori programs in their elementary schools and with the in- creased interaction between Montessorians and other early childhood professionals.

Maria Montessori has found her way into nearly ev- ery early education program in existence today. Whether labeled so or not, much of the material and equipment as well as many of the teaching techniques in use today originated with this dynamic woman nearly 100 years ago. She is fi rmly established in early childhood history and its future. Th e Montessori Method should be weighed in light of contemporary knowledge and should be tailored to meet the needs of vigorous, eager, often needy children of the 21st century.

368 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Nurturing children’s development and learning through-out the early years is an exciting and awesome respon- sibility. As an early childhood educator, you will constantly be faced with situations in which you must make judgments about how to support and guide the children in your care. On any given day, you may wonder:

■ Should I insist that all children play together and that ev- eryone be “friends?”

■ What should I do to help a child who has diffi culty cutting with scissors?

■ When is it reasonable to expect children to begin recogniz- ing the letters in their names?

■ What are sensible expectations when it comes to children following rules?

■ How can I help children develop empathy and respect for all kinds of people?

How you answer questions like these and the actions you take can be more or less helpful to children. Your actions could enhance children’s feelings of self-worth or detract from them. Your responses could increase children’s interpersonal abilities or leave children at a loss about how to interact eff ectively. You could either promote or inhibit children’s developing literacy, numeracy, or motor skills. Although there is not just one right answer for any of these situations, the things you say and do will make a real diff erence in children’s lives.

What resources are available to help you frame the most eff ective responses? Your past experiences with children, advice or models provided by colleagues, and your intuitive feelings about what is best all contribute to your knowledge base. How- ever, it is not suffi cient to guide your actions professionally. Your personal qualities and experiences must be supplemented by theory and research regarding how children develop and learn. Th is knowledge extends beyond what you have absorbed from encountering the fi ve, 10, or even 100 children with whom you have interacted so far. It encompasses the accumu- lated wisdom of our profession that goes back further than any of us have been alive. Such knowledge includes terms, facts, principles, and concepts that will help you understand how and why children think and behave as they do. It will also provide evidence-based insights into potentially useful intervention techniques. Ultimately, this combination of personal, concep- tual, and research-based understandings will help you make the transition to bona fi de early childhood professional.

As part of your professional education you will become fa- miliar with common sequences of development and what char-

acterizes typical development in various domains (cognitive, emotional, language, social, physical) at diff erent ages. Th is knowledge helps determine reasonable expectations for children, so you can plan educational activities that are age appropriate. You will also learn how rates of development vary from child to child. Th is will sensitize you to the wide range of abilities repre- sented among the youngsters in your group and help you create activities that are best suited to children’s individual needs.

Likewise, there are theories and research describing how young children learn. For instance, as you become more famil- iar with children’s learning styles and the role of play in chil- dren’s learning, you will be able to create educational environ- ments that suit how children learn best. Finding out what researchers think about teaching by example, the use of re- wards and consequences, and diff erent ways to coach children in the learning process will give you much to think about re- garding your interactions in the early childhood setting. In addition, becoming more aware of research that describes how children’s families and cultural contexts impact the educa- tional process will help you develop approaches that are so- cially and culturally relevant.

Some of the professional knowledge base seems logical, but some is counterintuitive. For example, common sense might tell you that praising children when they do something well is a good strategy for increasing positive behaviors in the future. Yet, researchers have found that certain kinds of praise actually interfere with children’s learning and make it less likely that they will repeat desired actions.

Finally, you need to put these learnings into practice. You need to gather both time-honored curriculum and innovative ways to organize the environment and the daily schedule. You must work to plan activities that help all children learn in ev- ery domain. While professionals in the fi eld have attempted to catalogue such practices in a variety of documents, you will have to do more than memorize or copy them. Th ere is more than one way to think about things; there are contradictory ideas to consider; diff erent contexts will demand diff erent ap- proaches. In the end, you have to make your own judgments about how to interpret and respond to children in a variety of circumstances. And that will help you defi ne what is being taught to young children.

Marjorie Kostelnik, Ph.D., has been an early childhood educator for 30 years. Currently, she is Dean of the College of Education and Human Sciences at the University of Nebraska. Most recently, she and her coauthors have writ- ten Guiding Children’s Social Development (5th ed.), Delmar Publishing, and Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum: Best Practices in Early Child- hood Education, Merrill/Prentice Hall.

Making a Difference in Young Children’s Lives by Marjorie Kostelnik, Ph.D.

Insights from the fi eld

SUMMARY Curriculum encompasses the planned and unplanned events children experience in group settings. Curriculum can include whatever happens to a child while in school or day care, or it can be a syllabus with detailed lesson plans. Today’s teachers and caregivers ensure that chil- dren are exposed to developmentally appropriate, inclu- sive, and culturally appropriate curriculum.

Developing curriculum includes setting goals, estab- lishing priorities, knowing what resources are available, planning ahead, and then evaluating the process. As teachers develop their curriculum plans, they may focus on the classroom activity or learning centers and the skills of the children. All three lend themselves to a basis for curriculum planning, and all are important vehicles for creative and eff ective curriculum for young children. State mandated learning standards now infl uence cur- riculum development in the early childhood and elemen- tary years. Although standards have the potential to im- prove teaching and learning, they carry the risk that inappropriate teaching and testing will take the place of developmentally appropriate practices.

Integrated curriculum provides opportunities for chil- dren of diverse skills and abilities to learn through the same experience. Emergent curriculum takes its cues from the children’s interests, and the teacher helps them to ex- plore their ideas in more depth. An extension of this is the project approach, which may last for weeks and months. Th ere are many ways of learning, and the multiple intelli- gence theory helps teachers understand how to create cur- riculum that covers a broad range of abilities and interests. Various curriculum models demonstrate the application of curriculum development theory to practical use.

Play is the way curriculum is expressed in the early childhood setting. Teachers, aware of play as a founda- tion for learning, provide an atmosphere that supports the play process. Th ey provide a setting in which play is recognized as the curriculum of the child, the primary process through which children learn. Curriculum comes alive as children discover and take pleasure in learning.

Teachers demonstrate their appreciation of diversity by carefully selecting materials and planning experiences that are culturally responsive and inclusive and provide opportunities for learning in large and small groups.

KEY TERMS curriculum developmentally appropriate practice

(DAP) culturally appropriate curriculum transformative curriculum inclusive curriculum

emergent curriculum learning styles activity centers prerequisite linchpin

standards webbing project approach pedigogista atelierista

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Defi ne developmentally appropriate curriculum for early childhood programs. What three core considerations determine whether a curriculum is DAP?

2. Name four factors that infl uence eff ective curriculum.

3. Why is play considered a foundation for learning?

4. What is the teacher’s role in curriculum planning?

5. What are the key elements of written lesson plans?

6. Describe fi ve play-based curriculum models that are developmentally appropriate. Include the elements that fos- ter development through play.

369CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

370 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Create a curriculum web with several classmates following the process described on pages 357 and 358.

2. Develop a project for (a) 3-year-olds in a half-day nursery school; (b) 6-year-olds in an after-school extended- day program; and (c) a family day care home. Use a nonholiday theme.

3. Observe teachers as children play. What is the diff erence in the play when (1) a teacher interacts with children in their play and (2) a teacher intervenes? What happens to the play immediately after teacher contact is made? How long does the play last? What is your conclusion?

4. Use Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences to determine your own ways of knowing. How has this style aff ected your abilities as a student?

5. Use Figure 10-14 to plan an activity for (1) toddlers; (2) 4-year-olds; and (3) fi rst graders.

6. What materials do you fi nd in early childhood classrooms that enhance cultural diversity? What would you add? Take away? Why?

HELPFUL WEBSITES High/Scope http://www.highscope.org NAEYC http://www.naeyc.org Th e Creative Curriculum® http://www.TeachingStrategies.com Anti-Defamation League http://www.adl.org Reggio Emilia http://www.reggiochildren.org

REFERENCES

Additional resources including the TeachSource Videos can be found on the premium website for this book. Go to http://www.cengage.com/login to register your access code.

Arce, E. (2000). Curriculum for young children: An intro- duction. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Armstrong, T. (2000). Multiple intelligences in the class- room. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Banks, J. (2006). Cultural diversity and education: Foun- dations, curriculum and teaching. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Banks, J. A. (1994). Multiethnic education: Th eory and practice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Berk, L. E. (2009). Child development. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Bowman, B. T. (2006, September). Standards at the Heart of the Education Equity. Young Children 61(5), 42–48.

Bredekamp, S., & Rosegrant, T. (Eds.) (1995). Reaching potential: Transforming early childhood curriculum and assessment (Vol. 2). Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Brewer, J. (1995). Introduction to early childhood educa- tion. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Cadwell, L. (1997). Bringing Reggio Emilia home. New York: Teachers College Press.

Chard, S. (1998). Practical guide to the project approach. New York: Scholastic.

Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (Eds.) (2009). Develop- mentally appropriate practice in early childhood pro- grams serving children from birth through age 8. Wash- ington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

371CHAPTER 10 Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play

Derman-Sparks, L., & Edwards, J. O., (2010) Anit-bias education for young children and ourselves. Washing- ton, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Edwards, C., Gandini, L., & Forman, G. (1993). Th e hundred languages of children: Th e Reggio Emilia ap- proach to early childhood education. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Epstein, A. S., Schweinhart, L. J., & McAdoo, L. (1996). Models of early childhood education. Ypslanti, MI: High/Scope Press.

Frost, J. L., Wortham, S. C., & Refi fel, S. (2008). Play and child development. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Frost, J. L. (1996). Play and playscapes. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: Th e theory of mul- tiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (1998). Refl ections on multiple intelli- gences: Myths and messages. In A. Woolfolk (Ed.), Readings in Education Psychology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Gestwicki, C. (2007). Developmentally appropriate prac- tice: Curriculum and development in early education. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Gronlund, G. (2006). Making early learning standards come alive: Connecting your practice and curriculum to state guidelines. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Helm, J. H., & Katz, L. (2001). Young investigators: Th e project approach in the early years. New York: Teach- ers College Press.

Hirsch, E. S. (Ed.). (1974). Th e block book. Washing- ton, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Hohmann, N., & Weikart, D. P. (2002). Educating young children: Active learning practices for preschool and childcare programs. Ypslanti, MI: High/Scope Press.

Jones, E. (1994). An emergent curriculum expert off ers this afterthought. Young Children, 54, 16.

Jones, E., & Nimmo, J. (1994). Emergent curriculum. Washington, DC: National Association for the Edu- cation of Young Children.

Katz, L. G. (1994). Th e project approach. Champaign, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education.

Katz, L., & Chard, S. (2000). Engaging children’s minds: Th e project approach. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

McNeely, S. L. (1997). Observing students and teachers through objective strategies. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Miller, R. (1996). Th e developmentally appropriate inclu- sive classroom. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Mitchell, A., & David, J. (Eds.). (1992). Explorations with young children. Mt. Ranier, MD: Gryphon House.

National Association for the Education of Young Chil- dren (NAEYC) & National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Edu- cation (NAECS/SDE). (2002). Position Paper: Early Learning Standards: Creating the Conditions for Success. Retrieved from NAEYC website (http://www.naeyc.org) March, 2009.

New City School. (1994). Celebrating multiple intelli- gences: Teaching for success. St. Louis, MO: Th e New City School.

Ramirez, M., & Casteñada, A. (1974). Cultural democ- racy, bicognitive development, and education. New York: Academic Press.

Schirrmacher, R. (2008). Art and creative development for young children. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Del- mar Learning.

Schweinhart, L. J. (1993, July). Observing young chil- dren in action: Th e key to early childhood assess- ment. Young children, 29–33.

WECAN (Waldorf Early Childhood Association of North America). (2005). Th e Waldorf kindergarten: Th e world of the young child.

Witkin, H., Moore, C., Goodenough, D., & Cox, P. (1977). Field dependent and fi eld independent cog- nitive styles and their educational implications. Re- view of Educational Research, 47, 1–64.

Woolfolk, A. (2001). Educational psychology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Workman, S., & Anziano, M. C. (1993, January). Cur- riculum webs: Weaving connections from children to teachers. Young Children, 4–9.

York, S. (2003). Roots and wings: Affi rming culture in early childhood programs. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

© Cengage Learning

C H A P T E R

11

Planning for the Body: Physical/Motor Development

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

■ What are the physical and motor skills children learn in an early childhood setting?

■ What do teachers consider when planning for physical/ motor development?

■ How is physical/motor development integrated into the curriculum?

■ Why is outdoor play important?

NAEYC CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Th ese Core Values and sections from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct are ad- dressed in this chapter. As you read, note how the Core Values, Ideals, or Principles listed here apply to the topics in this chapter. (Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

Core Values: We have committed ourselves to basing our work with children on knowl- edge of child development.

Section I: 1-1.5 To create and maintain safe and healthy settings.

1.1.7 To ensure that children with disabilities have access to support and re- sources.

373CHAPTER 11 Planning for the Body: Physical/Motor Development

Learning through Movement One of the fi rst things you notice about young children is their energy and movement. Teachers often character- ize children through their movements. “ Trina never walks … she runs!” Pregnant mothers are aware of fetal motions and often assign personality traits to their chil- dren by these movements. “Th is baby is so active I think it must be in training for the Olympics.” Infants show the extent of their full-bodied, random movements when they cry, roll over, and reach for a crib mobile.

In the Beginning Basic motor skills develop in the early childhood years and form the foundation for movement and motor pro- fi ciency. If children do not develop them during the early years, these skills often remain unlearned.

A child’s fi rst few years of life are an astounding time of physical growth and acquisition of motor skills. Th e many milestones, such as rolling over, sitting up alone, crawling, walking, and running, are reinforced daily by parents and caregivers. Th is reinforcement strengthens the network of synapses, and they become a permanent part of the brain. By adolescence, the brain is beginning to rid itself of excess synapses. Th ose that have been ac- tivated and experienced most often are the ones that will survive (Shore, 1997). Th is research makes a strong case for activities and experiences, which foster physical growth and motor skills in young children. Greenman

says, “Movement is as necessary to their learning as air and light” (2000).

Physical growth and motor development are partly determined by a child’s genetic make-up. Equally impor- tant are environmental factors, such as nourishment, health, safety, stimulation, opportunity, practice, encour- agement, and instruction. Th e crucial interplay of hered- ity and environment guides the child’s progress through life.

Learning Is Integrated Motor abilities aff ect other areas of development. Re- search reinforces the notion that physical and motor de- velopment is integrated with a child’s cognitive develop- ment. Factors that aff ect children’s physical growth, such as poverty and malnutrition, can aff ect their ability to learn.

Th is relationship between movement and learning continues throughout life ( Jensen, 1998). Complex movements such as dancing or throwing a ball engage areas of the brain used for problem solving, planning, and sequencing new things to do. Th is mind–body inte- gration can be seen in other areas of development as well:

Tim is reluctant to climb outside. He is frightened when he—or anyone else—is up in a tree or on a climber. Because he cannot risk using his body in space, he stops himself from playing with anyone who invites him to try these activities. Tim’s lack of gross-motor development is aff ecting his social skills.

Samantha loves to draw and cut. She chooses the art area every day she attends the 2-year-old class. Not only are her fi ne-motor skills well devel- oped for her age; she takes great pride in her cre- ations. Her motor skills enhance her self-confi dence in school. In turn, she receives praise and attention from others as she communicates with both adults and children through her work.

Program Needs Th e greatest portion of the young child’s day is spent in physical activity. Quality early childhood programs rec- ognize this, providing for a full range of physical and motor experiences, planned and spontaneous. Indoors, children use puzzles, scissors, and dressing frames as they practice fi ne-motor skills. Th ey dance with scarves and streamers to music. Perceptual-motor development,

Children are the picture of movement, spending the greatest portion of their day in physical activity.

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374 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

as with body awareness, occurs when children learn songs and games (“Head and Shoulders, Knees and Toes” or “Mother May I Take Two Giant Steps?”) or while fi nger painting. Outdoors, gross-motor skills are refi ned by the use of climbers, swings, hopscotch, and ring-toss.

Children need time as well as equipment and activi- ties to practice their skills. Th e value teachers place on physical and motor development is directly related to the time allotted in the daily schedule for children to pursue them.

For years, early childhood programs have made an outdoor environment available to children, assuming a great need for physical activity and that children will fi nd ways to fi ll that need themselves. However, many school outdoor areas contain few challenges, perhaps only a blacktop for bouncing balls and a small metal climber for hanging and climbing. Moreover, American children are exposed to a value system in which physical/motor fi tness is not always a high priority. Children are often encour- aged toward sedentary activities at an early age, such as watching television, videos, and playing computer games.

Physical/motor development is the central focus of the needs and interests of young children; it should play a central role in planning the curriculum.

Physical Growth/Motor Development Children do not need encouragement to participate in physical activity. Th ey need the opportunity, time, and support of their teachers to learn the fundamental fi ne

and gross-motor skills necessary for a healthy, active life. Physical activity should be an important part of chil- dren’s everyday life.

Physical Growth Th e average preschooler grows 2 ½ inches and gains fi ve to seven pounds each year (Santrock, 2008), so under- standing physical development is important to teachers and parents. For example:

■ New behavior is made possible through physical change: A toddler can be toilet trained once anal sphincter muscles develop.

■ Growth determines the child’s experiences: Observe the new vistas that open up when children learn to climb.

■ Growth changes the way people respond to the child: Th e mobility of crawlers and toddlers leads to more restrictions from parents, and teachers choose materials that are more challenging and complex.

■ Self-concepts are profoundly related to physical de- velopment: An obese fi rst grader avoids the running and chasing games during recess.

Development follows a directional and sequential pat- tern, even with children who are physically or mentally disabled. Variations in growth patterns are infl uenced by environment and genetic make-up. Large muscles de- velop before smaller ones—one reason why most pre- schoolers are more profi cient at running than at cutting with scissors. Growth also starts at the center of the body and moves outward. Watch a toddler walk using whole-leg action and compare that with a 5-year-old whose knees and ankles are involved in a more developed response. Children also tend to develop in a head-to-toe pattern. Infants move their eyes, head, and hands long before they learn to creep or crawl. It is important to re- member, however, that growth does not occur in a smooth and unbroken pattern.

By the age of 5, a child’s brain is almost adult size and continues to mature into adolescence. As the brain ma- tures between the ages of 2 and 6, children gain greater impulse control, speed, and coordination of arms and legs. Eye-hand coordination is complete around the age of 4 years (Berger, 2005).

When looking at these growth patterns and brain development, parents and teachers must keep in mind the wide individual diff erences in the rates at which chil- dren grow and in the timing of each change. As a general rule, the pattern within individuals is consistent; that is, a child who is early, average, or late in one aspect of

Movement Exploration Enhances Children’s Ability to

• Solve problems. • Exercise divergent thinking. • Respond at their individual age and

developmental level. • Learn to cooperate with others. • Become more aware of others’ viewpoints and

ideas. • Share, take turns. • Be self-expressive. • Be creative. • Gain confi dence. • Develop strong muscles. • Refi ne motor skills.

375CHAPTER 11 Planning for the Body: Physical/Motor Development

physical development will be so in all aspects of growth. Figure 11-1 shows the range of dramatic changes in growth for children up to age 8.

See also Chapter 3 for an overview of developmental norms.

Gender Differences Th ere are gender diff erences in growth patterns. Boys have a larger proportion of muscle tissue than girls, are more physically active and participate in more rough- and-tumble play than girls. Girls have more fat tissue than boys and are smaller and lighter until puberty (San- trock, 2008). Girls mature earlier than boys, and their growth is more regular and predictable. In motor skills, preschool girls have an edge in fi ne-motor skills, such as writing and drawing, and gross-motor skills, such as hopping and skipping. By age 5, boys can jump slightly farther, run slightly faster, and throw a ball about 5 feet farther than girls. Th ese gender diff erences remain small until adolescence (Berk, 2002).

During middle childhood, motor development be- comes smoother, more controlled, and coordinated. In gross-motor skills, boys usually outperform girls through speed, strength, and agility. Fine-motor skills increase as hands become steadier and more precise in both boys and girls (Santrock, 2008).

Ethnic Variations Th ere is some indication that physical development dif- fers among ethnic groups. We need to be aware of the possibilities in the way children grow, but be careful not to stereotype them. African-American infants and tod- dlers seem to walk earlier and as a group are taller than Euro-Americans. Asian children also seem to develop physically earlier than Euro-American babies but are smaller and shorter overall (Bee & Boyd, 2009). Some researchers suggest that because African-American chil- dren have longer limbs, they have better leverage, which accounts for their superior performance in running and jumping (Berk, 2002). In the United States, children of African descent tend to be the tallest, followed by Euro- peans, Asians, and Latinos (Berger, 2005). Health and nutrition are factors that infl uence growth, and their ef- fect is evident in the smaller size and weight of children in underdeveloped and/or poor nations.

Including Children with Special Needs Every classroom is likely to have children who have spe- cial needs that must be met. It has already been estab- lished (see Chapters 3 and 9) that inclusion of children with special needs in early childhood programs is not

Growth Patterns of the Young Child

Age Weight Height Proportion Teeth

Newborn 7 lb. 20 in. Head � 1/4 of length None

Infancy (up to 18 months)

Gains 15 lb. (now 20–25 lb.)

Adds 8 in. (now 28–29 in.)

About the same 6

Toddler (18 mo. to 2½ years)

Gains 5 lb. (now 28–30 lb.)

Adds another inch or two (now 29–33 in.)

Legs � 34% of body 20

Preschool (2½ – 5 years)

About 5 lb./yr. (now 30–40 lb.)

Add 14–15 in. from birth; at age 2 � half of adult height (now 35–40 in.)

Head growth slows; legs at age 5 � 44% of body

20

Early-middle childhood (5–8 years)

Doubles before adolescence (age 6 � 45–50 lb.)

Adds 9–10 in. (age 6 � 44–48 in.)

Continues to move slowly toward adult proportions

Begins to lose baby teeth; replaced by permanent teeth (age 6 � 20–24 teeth)

FIGURE 11-1 An overview of growth shows how rapid physical growth is in childhood.

376 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

only appropriate but is mandated by law. Physical educa- tion is the only subject area cited in the defi nition of an “appropriate education” in Public Law 94-42 (Gallahue, 2003), providing an opportunity for children to grow and develop through movement and physical activities.

Children with physical, cognitive, emotional, or learning disabilities are faced with a variety of challenges, many of which may be met by adapting the environment and planning for activities that help children function within their range of abilities. “Th e Inclusive Environ- ment” and Figure 9-4 in Chapter 9 off er a number of ways for teachers and caregivers to individualize the set- ting for a variety of needs. In Chapter 3, many types of disabilities are discussed.

Th ere are a number of teaching strategies that can enhance the participation of children with special needs in regular classroom activities in Figure 11-2. Th ese brief examples make it clear that including children with special needs takes some careful thought about what kinds of movement experiences and physical de- velopment activities are within their abilities. Many of the suggestions are appropriate for all children, re- minding us that the needs and interests of all children are essentially the same.

Adapting the environment and planning activities that help children function within their range of abilities is an important responsibility of the teacher. To plan physical activity for children with special needs, a teacher needs to:

■ Evaluate the child’s physical and motor develop- ment, focusing on the child’s capabilities and needs. Kareena is a 4-year-old girl who is blind, with age- appropriate motor skills except when she is in a new environment. She has a hesitant and unsteady gait as she learns furniture placement and activity area layout. Kareena is at ease with the teachers and is willing to approach other children, some of whom seem uncom- fortable with her. She is generally cheerful and has a strong sense of herself and her abilities.

■ Set appropriate goals. Involve Kareena in more group activities that promote social relationships. Pair her with a child who is sighted but whose own physical de- velopment needs are similar. Playing with peers sup- ports learning and a growing sense of competence.

In this way both children can build confi dence and friendships. Utilize outside play for balancing activities,

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obstacle courses, and music and movement with scarves. Involve other children to help Kareena move from one activity to another and support her by model- ing conversations that aid her in becoming oriented to materials and equipment: “Th ere are a lot of fi sh in the water table, Kareena. Let’s see if you can fi nd the shark. Renee and Leo, can you tell Kareena what other fi sh and toys are in the water and who else is playing here?”

DAP Children of varying abilities enjoy diffi cult tasks and challenges that give them an opportunity to experiment, learn, and make progress.

Teaching Strategies for Children with Special Needs

1. For Children with Learning Disabilities Help children gain a better understanding of their body, the space it occupies, and how it can move. Structure personalized activities that work within the child’s present level of abilities. Progress from simple to more complex activities in small increments. Make frequent use of rhythmic activities, stressing the rhythmical elements to movement.

2. For Children Who Are Visually Impaired Use many auditory cues to help children gain a sense of space and distance. Include strenuous, big-muscle activities. Modify activities that require quick directional changes.

3. For Children with Cognitive Disabilities Stress gross-motor activities. Focus on fundamental stability, locomotor, and manipulative skills. Allow children to repeat their successes to enjoy the accomplishment. Avoid activities in which participants are eliminated from the game.

FIGURE 11-2 Many physical activities are appropriate for all children and encourage those with special needs to take an active part in the daily program. (From Gal- lahue, D. L. (2003) Developmental physical education for today’s children. Madison, WI: Brown and Bench- mark.)

377CHAPTER 11 Planning for the Body: Physical/Motor Development

■ Consider what modifi cations need to be made to materials and equipment that individually support children’s wide range of capabilities. Use multisen- sory toys and objects when possible. Th e balance beam may need to be wider or possibly placed on the ground for Kareena’s fi rst attempts. Add textured ma- terials (cotton balls, velvet, rubber, and plastic objects) to the obstacle course and other equipment that will help direct Kareena as she moves. A wind chime hang- ing near the beginning of the obstacle course and balls with bells or other noisemakers inside will also guide her. Simplify activities by starting with what Kareena can do. For instance, kick a ball that is stationary be- fore kicking a moving ball.

■ Make space modifi cations as necessary. Check to see if walkways are clear and if equipment is readily acces- sible. Be consistent in storing classroom materials and equipment. Move equipment closer to where children can easily reach it. Equip riding toys with bells or beep- ers. Create physical boundaries, if necessary, and pur- chase equipment that is specifi cally designed for an in- dividual child’s disability.

■ Evaluate children, materials, and activities on a reg- ular basis. When Kareena masters the balance beam on the ground, how high might you move it for her next attempt? Is the obstacle course too challenging and, if

so, how does it need to be modifi ed? Does Kareena seem to enjoy these outside activities and is she growing in her social relationships?

Motor Development Motor development “is the process of change in motor behavior brought about by interaction between heredity and environment” (Gallahue, 2003). It is a lifelong pro- cess of continuous change based on the interaction of (1) maturation (i.e., the genetically controlled rate of growth); (2) prior experiences; and (3) new motor activities. Like physical growth, motor development is a sequence of stages that is universal but still allows for individual dif- ferences. Each stage is diff erent from, yet grows out of, the preceding level. Figure 11-3 charts motor develop- ment through the early years.

Any discussion of motor development should in- clude reference to bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, part of Gardner’s multiple intelligence theory (see Chapters 4, 10, and 12). Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence occurs when children use their bodies to help them process information and communicate their understanding of school. For instance, children who learn best through bodily-kinesthetic intelligence need active manipula- tion of materials. Drama, creative movement, dance,

Steps in Motor Development

FIGURE 11-3 Motor development follows a developmental sequence. (Adapted from Allen, K. E., & Marotz, L. (2007). Developmental profi les: Prebirth through eight. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning.)

roller-skating/bicycling (5–8 years) running faster (5 years and up)

skipping (5–6 years) hopping on one foot (3–5 years)

up/downstairs with continuous movement (4 years) jumping on two feet (3–5 years)

running (2–3 years) walks up/downstairs alone (3 years)

toddling (18–24 months) standing/walking alone (12–15 months)

climbing stairs (13 months) walking when led (11–12 months)

creeping/crawling (8–10 months) standing holding onto something/someone (8–10 months)

sitting and supporting self (6–8 months) infant on belly, with chest up (2 months)

378 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

manipulatives, games, and exercises, both indoors and outdoors, benefi t the bodily-kinesthetic learner (New City School, 1994).

Gross-Motor Development Gross-motor activity involves movements of the entire body or large parts of the body. Using various large mus- cle groups, children try to creep, crawl, roll, bounce, throw, or hop. Activities that include balance, agility, co- ordination, fl exibility, strength, speed, and endurance foster gross-motor development.

Fine-Motor Development Fine-motor activity uses the small muscles of the body and its extremities (the hands and feet). Such movement requires dexterity, precision, and manipulative skill. Grasping, reaching, holding, banging, pushing, spinning, and turning are all activities that refi ne these skills.

Perceptual-Motor Development Perceptual-motor development is a process in which the child develops the skill and ability to take in and in- terpret information from the environment and respond to it with movement. Children obtain data and impres- sions primarily through their senses. How often have you seen babies mimic a parent’s or caregiver’s mouth movements—taking in visually the various expressions, then physically responding in kind?

In a sense, every moment is perceptual-motor activity because the body and mind must work together to com- plete all motor tasks. Th e perceptual task is to process in- formation; the motor response activates what is received in a physical way although perceptual and motor abilities do not necessarily develop at the same time or the same rate (Gallahue, 2003). Th e complex nature of perceptual- motor development can be seen when examining the three basic categories of spatial, temporal, and sensory aware- ness, which also include perceptual-motor concepts of body and directional, visual, and auditory awareness.

Spatial Awareness For children, spatial awareness means a sense of body awareness and the body’s relationship to space, as well as a knowledge of what the body parts can do.

■ For the toddler, concepts of spatial relationships are developed through motor activity: dropping objects from a high chair or forcing a large stuff ed animal into a small box. Th eir defi nition of space is related to the action and movement involved in specifi c activities.

■ A sense of relationship to less immediate things and places (knowing a specifi c route to school and home, making simple maps) develops in the preschool years. To illustrate, let us look at 3-year-old Tamara. She demonstrates her awareness of spatial relation- ships as she moves herself up to a table (without bumping into it), reaches to her left to pick up a ball of clay, and turns around behind her to choose a rolling pin.

■ Not until ages 6 to 8 do children develop the more abstract spatial ability of distinguishing left from right on their own bodies and on others’ bodies. Spe- cifi cally, directional awareness refers to left and right, up and down, front and behind, over and under.

Temporal Awareness Temporal awareness is the child’s inner clock, a time structure that lets the child coordinate body parts. Danc- ing to a rhythmic beat, speeding up, and slowing down

Fine-motor activity requires using the small muscles of the body with dexterity and precision.

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379CHAPTER 11 Planning for the Body: Physical/Motor Development

develops this kind of skill. It is also a force that helps children predict time. For instance, 7-year-olds Luis and Aref ask if it is time to clean up as they fi nish their game of soccer. Th e after-school center has sports time for about an hour before getting ready for snack; the chil- dren have an inner sense of time that parallels their knowledge of the daily schedule.

Sensory Awareness Sensory awareness refers to use of the senses. It is an- other way the body gives the mind information. Vision is the dominant sense for young children. Visual awareness is the ability to mimic demonstrated movements and to discriminate faces, emotions, sizes, shapes, and colors. It is the ability in 3-month-old babies to recognize their mothers. Auditory awareness includes the ability to un- derstand and carry out verbal directions and to discrimi- nate among a variety of sounds (“Is this loud? fast? soft?” “Is that Josie or Dominick who called you?”). Auditory skills help children process information about language. From infancy, children seem to be able to combine visual and auditory awareness. Further sensory awareness de- velops through touch. Babies seem to put everything in their mouth to learn. When 4-year-old Stephanie picks up each object at the display table, she is using her sense of touch to discover size, shape, and volume.

Physical/Motor Skills in Early Childhood

Types of Movement Physical/motor skills involve three basic types of move- ment: locomotor, nonlocomotor, and manipulative abilities:

1. Locomotor abilities involve a change of location of the body (Gallahue, 1996) and include the skills of walk- ing, running, leaping, jumping, climbing, hopping, skipping, galloping, sliding, and riding a tricycle.

2. Nonlocomotor abilities (sometimes referred to as bal- ancing or stabilizing) are any movements that re- quire some degree of balancing (Gallahue, 2003). Th ese skills are turning, twisting, pushing, bending, stretching, pulling, swinging, rolling, dodging, and balancing.

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3. Manipulative abilities include the operation and control of limited and precise movements of the small muscles, especially those in the hands and feet. Manipulative skills include throwing, catching, reaching, bouncing, striking, kicking (gross-motor manipulation) and holding, grasping, cutting, and sewing (fi ne-motor manipulation).

Th ese three basic movements are necessarily com- bined when children are active in physical play:

With doll buggy: Holding onto buggy— Manipulative

Pushing buggy— Nonlocomotor

Walking with buggy— Locomotor

Playing ball: Bending down for the ball— Nonlocomotor

Th rowing the ball— Manipulative

Running to base— Locomotor

Jumping rope: Holding and turning the rope— Manipulative

Jumping—Locomotor Balancing self after jump—

Nonlocomotor Breaking a piñata: Holding the bat—

Manipulative Swinging the bat—

Nonlocomotor Running to get the prize—

Locomotor

Figure 11-4 shows age appropriate toys and games that foster the development of the three types of basic motor skills.

Learning Motor Skills Children must use their bodies to learn motor skills. Th ey acquire these skills by making comparisons between their past experience and new actions. Such comparisons use memory and experience. Physical movement activities require full involvement of the mind and body.

DAP Physical abilities and cognitive growth are intricately connected.

380 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Memory and Experience Memory plays an important part in learning motor movements because children need to recall what they just did to make corrections or refinements. The ball that does not reach the basket is tossed farther on the next shot. To get the puzzle piece to fit, a child re- members other ways to manipulate the pieces. A long- term memory of movement is one that may go unre- hearsed for long periods of time. The experience of swimming, for example, may be recalled only in the summer.

Th e experiences children have and the ability to recall those experiences are necessary to the process of gaining

motor skill. Rehearsal is as important to the young child as it is every day children repeat and practice specifi c movements over and over as they play and work.

Practicing Basic Skills A child’s typical day, at home or at school, provides nu- merous opportunities to practice motor skills. Th rough play, the child can practice fi ne-motor skills such as:

■ Holding a paintbrush, scissors, or rattle. ■ Tiptoeing to music. ■ Grasping a bottle, a hand, a toy. ■ Th reading a bead or a wide needle.

How to Foster Basic Motor Skills

Type of Infants 0 to Toddlers 1½ Preschoolers Early School Motor Skill 1½ Years to 3 Years 3 to 5 Years 6 to 8 Years Locomotor: Safe areas to explore Walker wagons Hippity-hop balls Jump rope Walking body movements Pull/push toys Sled Roller skates Running Balls to roll Dancing Beginning skis Ice skates Jumping Hanging jumpseats Wide balance board Trampoline Climbing rope Hopping Walkers on wheels Toddler gym—stairs Roller skates Tumbling mats Skipping Simple obstacle course and slide Jump rope Hopscotch Leaping “Ring around the Rosey” Balance beam Climbing Climber Galloping Dancing Sliding

Nonlocomotor: Large, safe areas Pounding board Shopping cart/doll Scooter Pushing for exploration Simple, low rocking horse carriage Two-wheel bike Pulling Parent/caregiver Ride-on toys Wheelbarrow Sled, toboggan Bending play: holding, Toddler-type swing Pedal toys, trike Exercise mat Balancing pushing arms, Large Legos® Rakes, shovels Acrobatics Stretching legs, sturdy Sturdy doll buggy Slide Diving mask for Rolling turning push toys Wagon Swing swimming Twisting Soft obstacle Fabric tunnels Punching bag Doorway gym bar course of pillows Blocks Cars, trucks to push

Manipulative: Mobile attached Variety of balls Crayons, markers Baseball glove/bat Grasping to crib—kicking feet Stacking, nesting toys Clay, dough Ring toss game Throwing moves it Activity box—on fl oor Bowling games Full-size balls Catching Rattles, teething rings Shape sorters Puzzles Oversize bat Kicking Crib activity board Large, fat crayons Woodworking tools Frisbee Receiving/moving Soft foam blocks Large pegs and board Balls “Miss Mary Mack” objects Snap beads Water/sand table Lacing board Bouncing Floating bath toys Water/sand table

FIGURE 11-4 Toys and games help develop specifi c motor skills in young children.

381CHAPTER 11 Planning for the Body: Physical/Motor Development

Th e child can also practice gross-motor skills such as:

■ Pumping on a swing. ■ Climbing a tree. ■ Digging a garden. ■ Balancing on a board, on one foot.

Th rough self-help activities the child can practice fi ne- motor skills such as:

■ Buttoning a coat or doll’s clothes. ■ Brushing teeth, hair. ■ Turning a faucet handle or doorknob. ■ Feeding self with utensils.

Gross-motor practice includes:

■ Moving a nap cot or table. ■ Kicking covers off . ■ Walking, holding onto furniture. ■ Climbing up stairs or on a climber.

Children learning motor skills need experience in basic skills; they must learn simple skills before combin- ing them into complex activities. Children must have time to try, refi ne, and try again.

Watch the TeachSource Video entitled, “Two–Five Years: Fine Motor Development for Early Child- hood.” After you study the video clip, refl ect on the following questions:

1. What activities did you see that lay the founda- tion for writing?

2. Compare and contrast the video clip’s fi ne- motor activities with those described in the text.

TeachSource Video

❙ ❙

To learn a motor skill, children must combine memory with experience, taking advantage of opportunities to try something new, and practice what has already been learned.

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Feedback Children modify and improve their motor skills as they receive information about their movements, both intrin- sic (the paintbrush makes marks when it is pushed across the paper) and extrinsic (“I notice that your legs are very far apart as you try to somersault; how about holding them together as you roll next time?”).

A Range of Developmental Levels Any group of young children will have various levels of motor growth and physical development. An individual child may have diff erent abilities and skills in gross-, fi ne-, and perceptual-motor areas; activities should be off ered on several developmental levels. Play materials and equipment, such as balls, climbers, and ladders, should accommodate a variety of skill levels, particularly if children with physical disabilities are in the class. Climbing boards put on several levels and puzzles rang- ing from 6 to 60 pieces are two examples of how teachers can meet the need for success and challenge.

Role of the Teacher

Considerations As teachers plan programs for physical/motor devel- opment, they refl ect on several important issues. One often overlooked area is that of gross-motor develop- ment as an everyday occurrence. Teachers sometimes take for granted children’s progress as they walk up and down stairs, climb on and off platforms and benches, and dance with abandon. Favorite rainy day activities such as moving around like Tyrannosaurus

382 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Rex or spinning like a top are exercises in physical/ motor development using gross-motor skills. Remem- ber that the normal classroom setting can promote physical development every day through established routines and curriculum.

Childhood Obesity Th e frequency of children who are overweight and child- hood obesity has increased alarmingly. According to the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS, 2006), the prevalence of childhood obesity among children ages 2 to 5 has increased from 5 percent in 1980 to 13.9 per- cent in 2004. Health risks include heart disease, high blood pressure, diabetes, depression, and low self- esteem. Part of the problem is that children are less active on a daily basis than in previous generations.

While there are many factors infl uencing obesity, such as socioeconomic status, family eating habits, heredity, and television viewing, a key factor seems to be whether or not one of the parents is obese (Berk, 2002). Th e American Obesity Association (2008) notes that if one parent is obese, the child is three times as likely to be obese in adult- hood; if both parents are obese, the risk is 10 times more likely that the child will be an obese adult.

Th e dramatic increase in childhood obesity only serves to underscore the need for regular physical exer- cise in programs for young children. Sanders (2002) suggests structuring physical activity into the schedule to help children maximize their movement experiences.

Children do not learn by play alone. Organized move- ment experiences provide certain skill development that unstructured play cannot.

Th e National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) and the Council on Physical Edu- cation for Children (COPEC, 2000) established devel- opmentally appropriate guidelines for preschool-age children (see Figure 11-5).

Sex-Role Stereotyping Is motor behavior diff erent for boys and girls? If so, why? Research indicates that there are diff erences between girls and boys in these areas. For example, behavioral dif- ferences in motor development are apparent in early life: 1-year-old girls already spend more time in fi ne-motor tasks, while baby boys are more engaged in gross-motor activity. Around the age of 2, children begin to identify people by their gender. Preschoolers often characterize many toys, articles of clothing, occupations, and behav- iors with one sex or the other (Huston, 1993; Picariello, Greenberg, & Pillemer, 1990). Girls of this age increas- ingly seek out other girls to play with in quieter pursuits, whereas boys seem to prefer more active, aggressive play (Bennenson, 1993; Maccoby & Jacklin, 1987).

Why does this happen? Probably some sex diff er- ences are the result of genetics. At the same time, sex- role stereotyping expectations profoundly aff ect the motor and physical development of young children. Th is is the crucial issue for teachers, for their attitudes can ei-

Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Preschool Movement Programs

1. Toddlers should participate in at least 30 minutes a day of structured play and one to several hours a day of unstructured physical activity. Preschoolers should participate in at least one hour of daily structured physical activity.

2. Preschoolers should not be sedentary for more than one hour at a time and be engaged in unstructured physical activity whenever possible.

3. Basic movement skills should be the building blocks for more complex movement abilities. 4. Indoor and outdoor environments should exceed recommended safety standards for performing large-muscle,

gross-motor activities. 5. Teachers and caregivers should understand the importance of physical activity and integrate movement

programs as part of the daily educational program. 6. Teachers serve as facilitators, encouraging children to explore and discover a range of movement possibilities.

FIGURE 11-5 From Appropriate Practices in Movement Programs for Young Children, Ages 3–5. The Council on Physical Education for Children (Reston, VA: A position state- ment of the National Association for Sport and Physical Education/NASPE, 2000, pages 8–9, 11, 15, 17) and Sanders, S. W. (2002), Active for life: Developmentally appropriate movement programs for young children. Washington, DC: The National Association for the Education of Young Children).

383CHAPTER 11 Planning for the Body: Physical/Motor Development

ther encourage or discourage children from developing to their fullest potential. Teachers must acknowledge the diff erences that exist, and then ask themselves:

■ What messages do I give children about physical ac- tivity? Do I value it for myself? For children? Do I value physical expression for girls as well as boys?

■ Do I emphasize sports as a way to have fun? A way to be healthy? Do I praise only the “winner”?

■ Can I provide male and female role models for physical activities using parents, grandparents, older siblings, staff , visitors, and guests?

■ Do I encourage children to wear clothing that allows them the freedom to run, climb, or tumble? What do I do when girls arrive in long dresses and party shoes? (Be sensitive to family and cultural infl uences about appropriate clothing.) What should I wear?

■ Are all physical/motor activities made equally avail- able and attractive to boys and girls? What should I do if some children dominate these activities, while others never choose them?

■ How do I actively engage all children in every form of physical activity? Do I let them know I think it is important?

Pica (2004) notes that children between the ages of 6 and 8 usually play with others of the same sex. She further suggests that this growing gender awareness can be addressed by assigning play partners of the opposite sex for certain games or suggesting that all children take on the roles of people in various occupations (fi refi ght- ers, police offi cers, hairdressers, dancers) regardless of gender. By working and playing together, children learn to appreciate not only their own ideas and ways of doing things, but also those of others. See Chapter 15 for fur- ther discussion on gender-related issues.

A Safe and Challenging Environment First and foremost, teachers ensure the safety of the chil- dren. To maintain a safe physical environment, they see to it that materials and equipment are in usable condi- tion and that overall traffi c patterns are free of hazards. For example, to make a gymnastic activity safe, teachers would provide mats and make sure that only one child is tumbling at a time.

Psychological safety requires an even fi ner sensitivity on the part of the teaching staff . Fear is a learned re- sponse, and teachers must be careful not to discourage children from using their full range of abilities, creating overly anxious and fearful children. Th e new teacher is often concerned about children’s safety, particularly when they are climbing. It helps to remember that children generally climb to heights that are comfortable for them; in other words, they set their own limits.

Picking children up and placing them on equipment, often at their own request, is questionable. If teachers comply with children’s wishes to be lifted and set some- where high, they are placing those children in situations outside of their natural limits. Th e children may see this as saying, “You are incapable of climbing up there your- self,” or “It is too dangerous for you to try that alone.” Also, this does not allow children to gain experience in basic skills fi rst, but puts them in a situation that calls for skills more complex than they have at the time. Th is denies the child the opportunity to practice those skills and increase their capabilities. When they must seek solutions to getting up, out, in, or down, they learn to handle realistically their current level of physical and motor development. Teachers lend encouragement and confi dence to children by saying, “I cannot put you up there, but I will help you try.” Making playgrounds safe is a good way to promote physical growth and sets the stage for learning through motor development as shown in Figure 11-6.

Playground Enrichment Th e playground is the natural arena for optimal physical development and the ideal environment to promote physical fi tness. On the playground, all motor skills are called into play. Outdoor activities should challenge chil- dren to use a wide range of motor skills and provide for a wide range of diff erences among their abilities:

Carmine grabs a scarf and begins to dance, twirling and whirling, hopping and bending in time to the mu-

Are you physically active? Do you participate in a sport or exercise on a regular basis? What would you do to

create opportunities for all children to be physically active for some part of each school day? List some examples that would be especially appropriate indoors.

What Do

YOU Think?

384 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

sic. Following the teacher’s lead, Carmine balances on his toes and waves his scarf high over his head. Tina walks to the climber, grasps the highest rung she can reach, pulls herself up by lifting one leg and then the other until she stretches vertically full- length along the climber bars. Satisfi ed, she pushes off with her feet and jumps backward to the ground. She bends her knees as she lands, balances herself to an upright position, and runs off .

Ramon toddles over to pick up the large red ball. Momentarily overwhelmed by its size, he falls back- ward to sit on the grass. As a teacher approaches him, he rolls the ball toward her. She throws it back to him and Ramon imitates her movements. Soon they are involved in kicking and tossing the ball to each other.

Using both small and large muscles, children gain control over their bodies as they run and play. Th e play-

ground provides open space where full-bodied action takes place, providing many opportunities to develop balance and coordination.

Physical skills, however, are not the only benefi t of outdoor play. Social and cognitive skills are enhanced as well. On the playground, children must negotiate turns with the wagons, ask for a push on the swing, and wait in line going up the slide. Some of the most intri- cate and involved dramatic play takes place outdoors. Problems get solved when two tricycles collide. Science experiences are all around—fi nding a bird’s nest or planting a garden. “Th ere are indeed advantages of the outdoors that cannot readily be provided indoors” (Frost, et al, 2008).

On the playground, no one says “Be quiet!” or “Quit wriggling!” It is a place of motion and space, fi lled with the special sensations found only outdoors.

When creating and maintaining a challenging envi- ronment, teachers consider both variety and level of

Making Playgrounds Safe

• Not crowded. • Smooth where children’s hands are likely to be

placed. • Checked frequently. • Placed appropriately: sides facing north, swings

away from other structures and busy areas. • Scaled to age level: steps and other openings are 4

inches or less apart or 8 to 10 inches apart. • Modifi ed for age levels: swings have soft seats.

Teachers: • Reinforce safe practices. • Wear appropriate outdoor clothing. • Check frequently where children are playing. • Involve children in safety checks of yard, equipment,

and grounds. • Provide continual, adequate supervision. • Avoid congregating to talk. • Get involved with children. • Provide enough activities and challenges. • Watch for sun exposure, especially with toddlers. • Assist children when they want to rearrange

movable equipment.

Safety in the yard means: • Enough room for the number and age of children

who will use it. • Adequate empty space. • Availability of both hard and soft surfaces. • Soft surfaces under any equipment from which a

child might fall. • Shady areas alternating with sunny spots. • No standing water—good drainage. • No poisonous or thorny plants, or litter or debris. • Areas of play clearly defi ned and differentiated from

one another. • Sand area protected at night from animals. • Fences high enough and in good repair. • Gates secure with latches out of children’s reach.

Equipment is: • Well maintained—no exposed nails, screws, sharp

edges, chipped paint. • Chosen with children’s ages in mind in regard to

height and complexity. • Stable and securely anchored. • Repaired immediately or removed if damaged. • Varied to allow for wide range of skills.

FIGURE 11-6 Before children are allowed to use a playground, teachers should use a checklist such as this to ensure that safety standards are met. A safe playground stimu- lates physical development, social interaction, and full exploration of the materials and environment.

385CHAPTER 11 Planning for the Body: Physical/Motor Development

challenge. A choice of surfaces encourages a variety of movements, and while cement may be appropriate for transportation toys, tanbark and rubber mats are better for climbing, hanging, and dropping.

Varying the equipment also stimulates motor activ- ity. Equipment that is mobile allows for greater range of uses and allows children to manipulate their own envi- ronment. By creating their own physical challenges with wooden crates, children make platforms, caves, and houses to crawl in, over, and through. Another way to provide variety is to focus on the less developed skills, such as catching and throwing, rolling, latching, snap- ping, or zipping.

When children are encouraged to discover their own physical potential, they learn to solve problems of move- ment defi ned by the limits of their own abilities rather than by performance. Th is kind of learning encourages self-confi dence as children fi nd success through their own challenges.

A Child’s Self-Concept Th e image of physical self is an important part of self- concept. How people feel about themselves is rooted in the way they feel about their bodies and what they can or

cannot do with them. Attitudes about the body and its abilities directly aff ect the types of activities children will try. Studies show that skill in games appears to be tied to peer group acceptance (Gallahue, 2003). Psychologists and teachers often notice a link between learning prob- lems and clumsiness. Skilled early childhood educators carefully observe children, document their observations, and make referrals if a child needs an individual assessment.

Physical activity, then, contributes to a child’s self- concept. With practice comes a sense of competence. Children can learn to relax as they gain experience in physical activities, and thus reduce the stress of antici- pating failure. Competence breeds self-confi dence and a willingness to try greater challenges. As children try new activities, they learn more about themselves. And physi- cal activity increases awareness of what fun it is to move—to run through a fi eld or pump a swing just for the sheer joy of it!

Teachers support positive self-concept through phys- ical and motor development in several ways. Th ey let children discover their own physical limits, rather than warning or stopping them from trying out an activity for themselves:

■ “I’m stuck!” A child shouts across the yard. Rather than rushing to lift the child down, the teacher walks over to the child and replies, “Where can you put your foot next?” “How can you fi nd a way to get across that branch?”

■ “I’m afraid!” Th e teacher stands close to the child who is climbing and responds to the fear. “I will stand close to the climbing ropes so you will feel safe.”

■ “Look what I can do!” Teachers reinforce children who try something new. “Greg, it’s good to see you cutting out that pumpkin all by yourself.”

■ “I tried.” Teachers congratulate eff orts for the achievement they really are. “Your hands reached the top this time, Shannon. I bet you are feeling proud of yourself.”

■ “I can’t do it.” Children who stand on the side lines observing others may need some encouragement from the teacher to take the fi rst step in mastering the climbing frame or slide. “Here is a good place for you to put your foot, Arturo. I will hold on to your hand until you ask me to let go.”

It is often not so much what teachers say to children that infl uences their feelings about themselves as it is the way in which children are treated. Children value them-

Playground equipment should be challenging, and it should provide a variety of movement experiences and a signifi cant amount of physical activity.

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selves to the degree they are valued by others. Th e ways in which teachers show how they feel about children ac- tually builds their self-confi dence and sense of self- worth. Children create a picture of themselves from the words, attitudes, body language, and judgment of those around them.

Games that promote competition may aff ect a child’s self-concept. Rae Pica’s “Insights from the Field” article at the end of the chapter raises questions about the use of competitive rather than cooperative games with young children.

Encouraging Physical Play Th e vital role of physical activity is best fulfi lled when teachers:

■ Create time in the daily schedule for periods of physical activity, preferably, but not limited to, outdoors.

■ Actively participate while supervising and encour- aging all children to become involved in strenuous activity.

■ Set goals for children’s motor development and physical fi tness.

■ Use a variety of activities on a daily basis, includ- ing science, art, and music, to stimulate physical development.

■ Select age-appropriate equipment and materials, providing a variety of props to enhance their use.

■ Give children opportunities to repeat, practice, and refi ne the skills they learn.

When children develop their physical and motor skills under this kind of encouragement, their confi dence and sense of competence grow. Th is sense of personal worth is at the core of their being.

Observing children while they play outdoors allows teachers an opportunity to assess potential problems in motor development. Th e checklist in Figure 11-7 indi- cates some areas to observe.

Curriculum Planning for Physical/Motor Development Teachers plan activities that promote physical/motor skills in the areas of gross-motor, fi ne-motor, and perceptual-motor development. Th ey look at the envi-

Adults support children’s self-confi dence when they let them help with physical work and activity.

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Check Whether Child

❑ 1. Has trouble holding or maintaining balance ❑ 2. Appears to have diffi culty balancing and

moves awkwardly ❑ 3. Cannot carry self well in motion ❑ 4. Appears generally awkward in activities

requiring coordination ❑ 5. Has diffi culty making changes in movement ❑ 6. Has diffi culty performing combinations of

simple movements ❑ 7. Has diffi culty in gauging space with respect

to own body; bumps and collides with objects and other children

❑ 8. Tends to fall often ❑ 9. Has poor eye–hand coordination ❑ 10. Has diffi culty handling the simple tools of

physical activity (beanbags, balls, other objects that require visual–motor coordination

FIGURE 11-7 A checklist of possible problems in phys- ical/motor development serves as a guideline when devising a developmentally specifi c profi le for spotting problems.

387CHAPTER 11 Planning for the Body: Physical/Motor Development

DAP Children extend and deepen their interest and understanding through hands-on experiences throughout the day.

ronment, both indoors and out, to see that all three areas of physical growth are encouraged.

In the Classroom Setting When thinking of physical/motor development in the classroom, teachers tend to focus on the fi ne-motor (or small-muscle) tasks for the classroom and on gross- motor (or large-muscle) tasks for the outdoor play space. Th e indoor area lends itself more readily to activities with less movement, and the outdoor area encourages whole-body play. Yet children can have a wider variety of activities if teachers remember that both gross-motor and fi ne-motor projects can happen everywhere in the environment.

Indoor Areas. Indoors, the art area is stocked with pens, crayons, scissors, and hole punches that develop the fi ne-motor skills:

1. Add large brushes or rollers to the easel, or plan fi n- ger painting, and the art area now includes gross- motor development.

2. When children use templates to trace both inside and outside spaces, they practice perceptual-motor skill.

3. In the science area, getting “just a pinch” of fi sh food is a fi ne-motor activity; cleaning out the turtle house requires larger muscles to move rocks and sand.

4. Perceptual-motor development occurs as children use pitchers to fi ll the fi sh tank or turtle tub and learn about water levels.

5. At the manipulative table, when a child puts a peg into a pegboard, fi ne-motor skills are used.

6. Removing puzzles from a shelf and carrying them to a table brings in gross-motor skills. Add nuts and bolts, and the child’s perceptual-motor skills are called into play.

7. Th e block area has endless possibilities, from lifting and carrying (gross-motor), to balancing and stack- ing (fi ne-motor), to building a space so that an ani- mal or car will fi t through (perceptual-motor).

8. Th e language and library areas are places for turn- ing pages or looking at words and pictures (fi ne- motor). Th ey also involve taking books off shelves and replacing them and trying out the movements and activities read about in books. For instance, Tana Hoban’s Is It Hard? Is It Easy? encourages

DAPDAP

children to act out the scenes pictured in the story, all gross-motor tasks. With a listening post nearby, children listen for the “ beep” and coordi- nate what they hear (perceptual) with turning the pages (motor).

Outdoor Areas. Outdoors, children develop motor skills of all kinds.

1. In the sand, children dig, a gross-motor activity. As they judge how big a hole is, or how much water will fi ll it, they are practicing and improving their perceptual-motor skills. Turning on a faucet, plant- ing seeds, and making mud pies are for fi ne-motor development.

2. Wheel toys off er children opportunities in all motor areas.

3. Pushing someone in a wagon develops arm and leg strength—gross-motor development.

4. Guiding tricycles and carts on a path and around obstacles requires perceptual-motor skill.

5. Trying to “repair” or “paint” a wheel toy with tools or with large brushes, tying wagons together, or weav- ing streamers through the spokes of a bicycle all use fi ne-motor skills.

By looking at the classroom and yard with one eye to physical and motor development, teachers can plan ac- tivities that support growth in all skill areas.

The outdoor area has great potential for developing gross-motor skills (climbing, bending, sliding), fi ne-motor skills (grasping, reaching, holding), and perceptual-motor skills (eye–hand coordination, directionality, tempo).

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Transitions and Group Times. Every part of the daily schedule can be planned to use all physical/motor skills. For instance:

1. Getting in and out of coats and snowsuits is a large muscle activity. Children learn perceptual-motor skills as they try to get their arms in the correct sleeves.

2. Buttoning, zipping, and tying are fi ne-motor activities.

3. As children get ready for group time, often a diffi - cult transition, they might practice drawing faces in the air or making their bodies into the shapes of let- ters, both perceptual-motor tasks.

4. Group times also include activities for motor devel- opment, such as stretching, dancing, jumping, as well as working puzzles, pounding clay, and writing stories.

5. When there are balloons, scarves, or a parachute at music time, children practice gross-motor skills.

6. Finger plays at group time are a fi ne-motor task. Activities for developing the senses of hearing and sight are two areas of sensory growth that can be utilized as content for group times.

Focus on Skills Th e physical/motor skills include those that use large and small muscles and that coordinate perception and motor response. Teachers planning activities for children can focus on any one of these as a basis for curriculum planning.

Eye-Hand Coordination. Developing stitchery skills uses the perceptual-motor skill of eye–hand coordination. A series of activities can be planned to help children learn these skills.

1. It begins in infancy, when the baby fi rst begins to manipulate and examine an object, learns to grasp with thumb and forefi nger (pincer grasp), and shows a hand preference.

2. Stringing large wooden beads is a fi rst step and leads to using pieces of straw and punched paper, with somewhat smaller holes. Macaroni can be strung on shoelaces or on stiff string, and then onto yarn, which is softer and more challenging.

3. Sewing cards made by punching holes in polystyrene trays can be introduced as the next activity. Large, plastic needles can be used with the lacing cards or with the trays; large embroidery needles with big eyes can be used for stitching yarn onto burlap.

4. Children may be ready to use embroidery hoops with which they can make a design on burlap fi rst

and then stitch over the outlines. Buttons can be sewn on burlap or other fabric. Popcorn or packing material can be strung using a needle.

5. A fi nal project might be to make a group wall hang- ing, with squares of children’s stitchery sewn together. Simple backpacks and coin purses might be made with the children sewing most of it themselves.

Walking on a Balance Beam. Look again at Kareena’s story on page 376 for the process teachers use to help Kareena and others with a wide variety of capabilities learn how to use a balance beam.

Figure 11-4 on page 380 lists age-appropriate equip- ment that fosters the development of motor skills.

Use of Themes When teachers plan activities, they often have a theme or unit as their focus. Th emes can be used to encourage physical and motor involvement. A unit of “Outer Space” involves ample opportunity to involve all the motor skills.

■ Gross-motor skills are used in jumping around on the moon, taking a space walk, getting in and out of the rocket ship, and building a spaceship with large blocks.

■ Fine-motor skills are needed to manipulate knobs on the instrument panel, to draw maps of the stars, or to write out a countdown on a chalkboard.

■ Perceptual-motor skills are needed to work out how to get ready for a trip to Mars, what happens on the trip, and when and how to get back to Earth.

■ Use the sample forms in Chapter 10 to develop an outer space unit as well as other appropriate themes to encourage motor skills.

Once teachers realize which physical/motor skills the children possess and what the group is ready to learn, they can plan activities around a classroom unit.

Parents can be a good source of ideas for ensuring that themes and activities refl ect the various cultures within the classroom. Figure 11-8 lists many activities that are culturally related.

Curriculum planning for motor and movement skills requires teachers to know principles of physical growth and motor development. Th ey then can use this knowl- edge to plan activities that encourage children to master their own movements and to learn other skills through movement. In the early childhood setting, curriculum can be planned by concentrating on activity areas, focus- ing on a specifi c motor skill, or using a classroom theme.

389CHAPTER 11 Planning for the Body: Physical/Motor Development

Appreciating Cultural Diversity through Motor Development

For Indoor and Outdoor Play Activity Motor Skill Practice Culture Lion or dragon dance Gross-motor Chinese (New Year) Making and fl ying carp kites Fine- and gross-motor Japanese Dodgeball Gross-motor Euro-American Chinese jump rope Gross-motor Chinese Breaking the piñata Gross-motor Latino Spinning like a dreidel Gross-motor Jewish (Hannukah) Origami art Fine-motor Japanese

Activity Motor Skill Practice Culture Weaving Fine-motor Native American Country/Western dance step Gross-motor Euro-American Make mariachi instruments Fine-motor Latino Dancing to mariachi band music Gross-motor Latino Hokey pokey Gross-motor Euro-American Make and twirl a grager Fine-motor Jewish (Purim) Cooking; stir-fry rice Fine-motor Chinese Making fry bread Fine-motor Native American Kick the can Gross-motor Euro-American Making and beating drums Fine-motor Native American

FIGURE 11-8 A variety of activities that refl ect many cultures can be integrated into the curriculum for motor and physical development. Note: These activities are, at best, an approximation of traditional cultural expressions and not authentic presentations, yet they can enlarge the child’s world view through physical play.

The subject of competition is one that provokes some pretty strong feelings in the United States. Th e prevail- ing belief is that competition is good for us and that being competitive is human nature. But is it human nature or is it learned behavior?

Th e research shows that, given a choice, most preschoolers prefer cooperative to competitive activities. Th is would seem to indicate that competitive behavior is not a natural inclina- tion. Also, in a New York Times essay, Nicholas Kristof told a hilarious story about trying to teach the traditional game of musical chairs to a group of 5-year-old Japanese children who kept politely stepping out of the way so their peers could sit in the chairs! Th is would seem to indicate that competitive be- havior is taught in some societies—and not taught in others.

It’s no wonder the research has determined that competi- tion fosters such antisocial behaviors as aggression and cheat- ing. In case you don’t recall from your own childhood (or you were always the one winner among many losers), being elimi- nated feels terrible, as does feeling like a loser. And those other kids you’re playing with? For the duration of the game, they’re not your friends; they’re what are standing in your way. Children only have to play an elimination game once to know that, if they’re not going to be labeled losers, they have to do whatever it takes to win. And we’ve all seen what that can mean: punching, poking, kicking, scratching, screaming, and shoving.

When the important adults in their lives consistently place children in situations where winning is the ultimate goal— where the winners are considered heroes and the losers “losers”—winning is what children come to value. Th ey learn that only the end result (the product) counts—not enjoyment of the game (the process). Th is, in turn, places more emphasis on extrinsic, rather than intrinsic, reward. Yes, winning feels good when everyone around you is making a big deal out of it. But does that feeling last? What happens when the possibility of being “number one” becomes the only reason for doing some- thing? And what about the children who aren’t winning?

Consistently playing cooperative, rather than competitive, games with the children lets them know you value the process.

It lets them know you value collaboration. Moreover, when children participate in games like Footsie Rolls (which re- quires partners to perform log rolls with the soles of their feet together) or Body Balance (which requires a group to work together to maintain a steady balance through a series of chal- lenges), they come to realize how good it feels to work and be together. In place of the punching, poking, and kicking, there is problem solving, encouragement, and a whole lot of laughter. As a result, they want to experience more of it!

Musical chairs actually has a great deal to off er children— in all three developmental domains—but only when the chil- dren have the opportunity to continue playing! With a simple modifi cation—challenging the players to fi nd a way to share the remaining chairs—the children develop listening skills, learn to discriminate between sound and silence, and learn to solve problems (the cognitive domain). Because no one is eliminated, they experience feelings of belonging. Th ey’re also developing their cooperative skills (the social/emotional do- main). And the activity gives them a chance to get their blood fl owing, while also off ering practice with stopping and starting (the physical domain).

Dare I say it? Winning isn’t everything—particularly in early childhood. Because I consider it more important for children to grow up to be self-assured, character-driven adults—who also happen to have positive feelings about physical activity—I prefer that the children participate in games and activities without competition, elimination, or humiliation.

I believe that, because we’ve been entrusted with the edu- cation of the whole child, we should regard the activities we present in light of what they off er children cognitively, socially, emotionally, and physically. I believe we should select games and physical activities just as we select the other parts of the curriculum—based on whether they are developmentally ap- propriate.

Rae Pica is a children’s movement consultant and the author of 15 books, including Experiences in Movement, Moving & Learning across the Curricu- lum, and Great Games for Young Children. For more ideas and activities, visit www.movingandlearning.com.

Is Competition Developmentally Appropriate? By Rae Pica

390 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Insights from the fi eld

391CHAPTER 11 Planning for the Body: Physical/Motor Development

SUMMARY Children are in motion virtually from conception

and develop their abilities to move their bodies as they grow. Young children spend most of the day in physical activity; therefore, the development of physical and mo- tor skills must take a high priority in early childhood programs. Physical growth, which pertains to the body, is for teachers an issue of fi tness and health. Th ey need to have an overview of growth to help children develop functional and fl exible bodies. Motor development means learning to move with control and effi ciency. De- velopment involves maturation and experience. Teachers must know the sequence of development and what part they play in providing physical and motor experiences for the young child.

Muscular development can be categorized as gross- motor, fi ne-motor, and perceptual-motor. Gross-motor movements use the entire body or large parts of it, such as the legs for running or the arms and torso for throw- ing. Fine-motor movements, such as manipulating ob- jects, are those that use smaller muscles and that require precision and dexterity. Perceptual-motor movements

are those that combine what is perceived with a body movement. Spatial, temporal, and sensory awareness all play an important part in the development of perceptual- motor skills.

In the early childhood years, children need exposure to many motor activities. Th ey need a chance to practice, to get feedback, and to have a broad range of experiences of variety and challenge. Because children acquire motor skills through short- and long-term memory, rehearsal plays an important role as well.

When planning curriculum, teachers must have an awareness of sex-role stereotyping and must consider safety as well as challenge. A child’s self-concept is linked with the concept of physical self and skill, so teachers must keep in mind which behaviors should be encour- aged and which behaviors may indicate potential prob- lems. As they plan activities for children, teachers use classroom and yard areas, focus on a specifi c skill, or use a theme to develop curriculum for physical/motor skills.

KEY TERMS gross motor fi ne motor perceptual-motor development

spatial temporal sensory

intrinsic extrinsic sex-role stereotyping

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What factors infl uence motor development in young children?

2. What physical/motor skills are appropriate for young children to develop?

3. How can the teacher of young children support motor development in classroom areas?

4. How can the teacher support acquisition of specifi c motor skills in young children with special needs?

5. Have you observed gender diff erences in the physical development of young children? If so, what implications are there for teachers planning motor activities?

6. How would you explain the importance of outdoor play to a parent?

392 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Map the classroom in which you are currently working. List at least one activity in each area that develops physi-

cal motor skills. Add one more activity of your own that widens such development.

2. In what ways does a school program you know reinforce sex-role stereotyping in motor activities? What could be done to change this?

3. Try to develop the theme of “at the beach” or “camping” in your setting in such a way that physical/motor skills are used. Be sure to include gross-motor, fi ne-motor, and perceptual-motor activities. List at least six other themes around which you could build a similar curriculum.

HELPFUL WEBSITES American Academy of Pediatrics http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/ National Program for Playground Safety http://www.uni.edu/playground National Association for Sports & Physical Education http://www.aahperd.org/naspe

Additional resources including the TeachSource Videos can be found on the premium website for this book. Go to http://www.cengage.com/login to register your access code.

REFERENCES Allen, K. E., & Marotz, L. (2003). Development profi les:

Rebirth through 8. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Del- mar Learning.

American Academy of Pediatrics Policy Statement (2003, August). Pediatrics Vol. 112, No. 2, 240–243.

Bee, H., & Boyd, D. (2009). Th e developing child. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley.

Bennenson, J. F. (1993). Greater preference among fe- males than males for dyadic interaction in early childhood. Child Development, 64, 544–555.

Berger, K. S. (2006). Th e developing person. New York: Worth Publishers.

Berk, L. E. (2002). Infants and children. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

COPEC (Council on Physical Education for Children). (2000). Appropriate practices in movement programs for young children ages 3–5: A position statement of the National Association for Sport and Physical Educa- tion. Reston, VA: NASPE.

Frost, J. L., Wortham, S. C., & Reifel, S. (2008). Play and child development. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pear- son Education, Inc.

Gallahue, D. L. (2003). Developmental physical educa- tion for today’s children. Madison, WI: Brown and Benchmark.

Greenman, J. (2000). Guest editorial: Places for child- hoods. In A. M. Gordon & K. W. Browne, Begin- nings and beyond: Foundations in early childhood edu- cation. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Huston, A. C. (1993). Sex typing. In E. M. Heathering- ton (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 4, 387– 467, Socialization, personality, and social develop- ment). New York: Wiley.

Jensen, E. (1998). Teaching with the brain in mind. Al- exandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Cur- riculum Development.

Maccoby, E. E., & Jacklin, C. N. (1987). Gender segre- gation in childhood. In E. H. Reese (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 20, 239–287). New York: Academic Press.

National Center for Health Statistics. (2006). Preva- lence of overweight among children and adolescents: United States, 2003-2004. Hyattsville, MD: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, Cen- ters for Disease Control and Prevention.

393CHAPTER 11 Planning for the Body: Physical/Motor Development

New City School, Inc. (1994). Celebrating multiple intel- ligences: Teaching for success. St. Louis, MO.

Pica, R. (2004). Experiences in movement: Birth to age 8. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Picariello, M. L., Greenberg, D. N., & Pillemer, D. B. (1990). Children’s sex-related stereotyping of colors. Child Development, 61, 1453–1460.

Sanders, S. W. (2002). Active for life: Developmentally appropriate movement programs for young children. Washington, DC: National Association for the Edu- cation of Young Children.

Santrock, J. W. (2008). Children. Boston: McGraw- Hill.

Shore, R. (1997). Rethinking the brain: New insights into early development. New York: Families and Work In- stitute.

© Cengage Learning

C H A P T E R

12

Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

■ What is cognition?

■ What perspectives aid in understanding the develop- ment of cognition?

■ What are the cognitive skills of early childhood?

■ How can the teacher support cognitive development?

■ How might computers be used with young children?

NAEYC CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Th ese Core Values and sections from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct are ad- dressed in this chapter. As you read, note how the Core Values, Ideals, or Principles listed here apply to the topics in this chapter. (Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

Core Values: We have committed ourselves to basing our work with children on knowl- edge of child development.

Section I: Ethical Responsibilities to Children—Ideals and Principles: I-1.5. To create and maintain safe and healthy settings that foster children’s social,

emotional, intellectual, and physical development and that respect their dig- nity and their contributions.

P-1.4. For every child we shall implement adaptations in teaching strategies, learn- ing environment, and curricula, consult with the family, and seek recommen- dations from appropriate specialists to maximize the potential of the child to benefi t from the program.

395CHAPTER 12 Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development

Learning through Cognitive Experiences Ah, to be a child again! Th e world is a place of wonder and promise. Th ere are worlds and people to discover, explore, and understand. Childhood is a time:

■ Of self … a baby plays with his hands and feet for hours and rolls over just for the sake of doing it.

■ Of things everywhere … a toddler invades the kitchen cabinets to see what treasures can be found.

■ Of people … a preschooler learns the teachers’ names and then makes a fi rst “friend.”

■ Of faraway places … a kindergartner packs for the fi rst “sleepover.”

Th e amount of learning that takes place in early child- hood is staggering. How do children manage to absorb the sheer quantity of information and experience they accumulate in their fi rst few years of life?

Every child accompanies this mighty feat by think- ing. Early theories about cognition were based on the idea that intelligence was a general capacity or potential that can be measured by standardized tests (such as IQ tests) and, therefore, that cognition could be developed by a specifi c, rather narrow, set of teaching techniques. During the last half of the 20th century, however, new ideas began to emerge. All of the recent theories revolve around the same fascinating question: What accounts for the remarkable changes in thinking, language, and problem solving in young children? Th e theories of Piaget and Vygotsky (see Chapter 4) have become an important part of early childhood educational philoso- phy. Recent research on the brain and information pro-

cessing and the theories of Gardner have broadened our notions of thinking and intelligence.

Cognition is the mental process or faculty that chil- dren use to acquire knowledge. To think is to be able to acquire and apply knowledge. By using conscious thought and memory, children think about themselves, the world, and others. Educating the thinking child is a critical function of parents and teachers. Curriculum in the early years must address the thinking, or cognitive, skills.

Th e relationship between cognition and language is important. Typically, we fi nd out what children think by listening to them talk or asking them to tell us what they know. Cognition can occur without the language to ex- press it. For example, an infant’s laughter during a game of peek-a-boo indicates the child’s knowledge that the hidden face will reappear. Conversely, the use of language can occur without cognition (i.e., without knowing the meaning). A child’s counting from 1 to 20 (“…11, 13, 17, 19, 20!”) is a case in point. At the same time, language and thought are intertwined. Th e growing child communi- cates through meaningful language. Children get their needs met better when they can name them. Th eir thoughts are expressed more clearly to adults when they are put in words, and feelings can be mediated through language. Cognition and language generally become more interdependent as development progresses. Children ex- pand their knowledge base through language. Th ey listen, question, tell. Th e child with good language skills can thus apply them to widen the horizons of knowledge.

Cognition is related not only to the developing mind but also to all areas of the child’s growth. Young thinkers are at work no matter what they are doing. For example, physical/motor development is also a cognitive process. Learning to roller skate involves skinned knees and learn- ing to balance (motor tasks), along with analyzing, pre- dicting, generalizing, evaluating, and practicing the art of locomotion on wheels (cognitive skills). When trying to enter into group play (a social task), children will think of strategies for how to get started (cognitive skill).

Th is chapter explores in depth the framework for planning curriculum for the mind. Chapters 3 and 4 de- scribe cognitive development in early childhood. Th is chapter applies cognitive development principles to cur- riculum planning by elaborating on the development of cognition in the early years, on the skills acquired by children from birth to age 8, on the role of the teacher, and on specifi c curriculum content.

For the purposes of clarity, cognition and language will be separated into two chapters. Both cognitive and language development are nurtured through a rich envi- ronment of meaningful print (see Chapter 13) and intel-

As children investigate the world of people and places, they ask themselves and others what they want to know.

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396 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

lectual content stimulated by curiosity and inquiry. Teachers must remember that these work together. Planned programs for early childhood will be more suc- cessful if that link is recognized.

The Development of Cognition: Multiple Perspectives

An Eclectic Point of View In trying to enhance cognitive development, early child- hood educators draw on developmental and learning theories and their direct experiences with children. By combining theoretical and practical viewpoints, teachers take a blended, or eclectic, perspective on the develop- ment of the thinking process. Th ey work with children to encourage their ability to formulate ideas and to think rationally and logically. Regardless of theoretical view- point, the early childhood professional works toward helping children acquire skills that will lead to the devel- opment of:

Concepts: Labeling or nam- ing an idea, moving from the specifi c to the abstract.

Example: “What is a grape?”

Relationships: What is the association between two or more things? How are they similar or diff erent? What are their functions, characteristics?

“What colors of grapes are there?” “Do all of them have seeds?” “What sizes do you see? Taste alike?”

Generalizations: Drawing conclusions from con- cepts, grouping things and fi nding common elements.

“Are grapes a fruit or meat?” “How do grapes grow?”

Th e primary viewpoints that inform teachers in planning curriculum for cognitive development in early childhood are cognitive, multiple intelligences, sociocultural theo- ries, and brain-based research.

A Piagetian Perspective Developmental psychology, particularly through the works of Jean Piaget, has provided a deeper understand- ing of cognitive development. Piaget’s view of cognition

is twofold. First, learning is a process of discovery, of fi nding out what one needs to know to solve a particular problem. Second, knowledge results from active thought, from making mental connections among objects, from constructing a meaningful reality for understanding.

For Piaget, knowledge is an interpretation of reality that the learner actively and internally constructs by in- teracting with it. Piaget divided knowledge into three types: physical, logical mathematical, and social.

1. Physical knowledge is what children learn through external sensory experiences. Watching leaves blow in the wind, grabbing a ball, and sniffi ng a fresh slice of bread are all instances of children learning about diff erent physical objects and how they feel, taste, smell, move, and so on. Th e basic cognitive process involved in the development of physical knowledge is discrimination. For example, by touching mag- nets to paper clips, puzzles, and paper dolls, chil- dren learn fi rsthand about magnetism. Th ey learn to discriminate between those objects that “stick” to the magnet and those that do not.

2. Logical mathematical knowledge derives from coor- dinating physical actions into some kind of order, or logic. Th is is not to be confused with formal mathe- matics; rather it is the kind of mathematical thinking children use in making connections about what they see, such as an infant’s lifting the blanket to fi nd a hidden toy. Th e logic of the young child is seen in the coordination of actions to make an inference. Th ink back to the magnets example. If a child delib- erately takes a magnet to the metal drawer pulls and metal climbing bars, we can see the logical knowl- edge used: the child has made the inference that it is the metal things that “stick” on the magnet.

3. Social knowledge comes from our culture—the rules of the game, the right vocabulary, the moral codes. It includes learning vocabulary and being taught or told things, as well as knowledge about the social aspects of life. Value-laden and often arbitrary, it can rarely be constructed logically but is learned through life. With the aforementioned magnets, so- cial knowledge would need to be used to decide who gets to play with the magnets, or when it is some- body else’s turn.

In developing cognitive curriculum, teachers plan experi- ences that enhance those types of knowledge. Th ey can teach using diff erent forms of knowledge. Rote knowl- edge is information given with no particular meaning to the learner—that which could be learned meaningfully but is not. A teacher talking about magnets or telling

397CHAPTER 12 Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development

children what attracts or repels gives children rote knowl- edge. Meaningful knowledge is what children learn gradually and within the context of what they already know and want to fi nd out—like the example of letting the children handle the magnets themselves if they choose, and answering their questions as they arise. Both telling (rote) and asking or allowing (meaningful) can be useful; the question for the children is the balance be- tween the two in everyday educational encounters.

As you may recall from Chapter 4, a special topic of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development was construc- tivist theory. In applying this theory to curriculum, the constructivist classrooms likely look like this (adapted from Roberts & Spitz, 1998):

■ Choice. It is crucial to practice life in a democracy and to learn to evaluate choices and decisions from a variety of materials or activities, so children can focus on formulating their own real questions and learn how to fi nd genuine answers.

■ Play. Th rough play experiences, children will de- velop their own thinking because it will allow for self-selection and create situations in which children must exchange views and solve problems.

■ Materials and Activities. Concepts will be developed through interactions and experimentation with real objects, materials, and people and thus will need an environment that provides materials both appropri- ate and interesting as well as many activities that stimulate interaction with peers.

■ Time. Each day will allow long blocks of uninter- rupted time for child-initiated activities.

■ Teacher. Th e teacher’s role is to facilitate and to im- part information and social knowledge, along with providing an emotionally safe and intellectually stimulating environment.

■ Curriculum Content. Th e content arises from the is- sues of the students’ real lives, their interests, family, and events so that learning is in the context of meaning for each child.

Vygotsky, Thinking, and Culture Focusing on how our values and beliefs aff ect what we transmit to the next generation, Vygotsky’s sociocul- tural theory (see Chapter 4) shows that much of chil- dren’s development and knowledge is culturally specifi c. Th is understanding of the role of social interaction in thinking has spawned a new understanding of group diff erences and the role of social experience and lan- guage in shaping our human capabilities (Bowman,

2007; Rogoff , 2003). Th e most salient sources of knowl- edge are family members, the media, and school. Th e psychological tools children need to learn higher mental functions, such as symbolic thought, memory, attention, and reasoning, need the mediation of someone who knows the tools of that particular society. “With a grow- ing population of people of color, speaking a variety of diff erent languages, belonging to many religious groups and ethnic and national communities, the question is not can all children learn, but how to teach them” (Bowman, 2007).

Vygotsky adds an important element to our under- standing of thinking. If knowledge is connected to what a culture values, then learning must be done in a collabora- tive style. Teachers and parents must have some agree- ment about what is important to teach children. Th e best way of teaching is a kind of assisted learning that allows for scaff olding, a natural learning technique known as ap- prenticeship. An older child or adult serves as a guide who is responsive to what the child is ready to learn. Th ere are three implications of this theory for curriculum:

1. Mixed-age groupings so that young children can learn from older children and the more advanced ones have opportunities to help others. Indeed, the most eff ective strategy for preventing early reading failure is one-to-one tutoring.

2. Play is a valuable way for children to work with the symbols and other higher forms of thinking. With other people alongside, the child practices what is to be expected and valued in society.

3. Th e teacher can be both observer and participant. For instance, if a child builds with blocks, the adult might sketch the building and then encourage a joint eff ort to make a map or use measurement tools.

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Research into cognition documents that children pos- sess diff erent kinds of minds and therefore understand, learn, remember, and perform in diff erent ways. Most experts agree that intelligence is complex and that tradi- tional tests do not measure the entire host of skills or abilities involved.

“Gardner’s theory is a dream come true for teachers,” says Nelson (1995), “because it means many intelligences can be nurtured. And with that in mind, I [can] reinvent my curriculum and the way I teach it so that it meets the needs of a wider range.” Multiple intelligences theory ac- knowledges that people learn and use knowledge in dif-

398 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

ferent ways. In practice, it is a systematic approach to ba- sic skills. Project Spectrum was founded to develop an innovative approach to curriculum and assessment in the preschool and early primary years. “Th e work was based on the conviction that each child exhibits a distinctive profi le of diff erent abilities, or spectrum of intelligences. Th e power of these intelligences is not fi xed, but can be enhanced by educational opportunity and an environ- ment rich in stimulating materials and activities” (Chen, et al., 1998).

Because MI is neither a curriculum nor a model of pedagogy, there are many ways that the intelligences can be brought into the classroom. Th e overall framework involves four steps:

1. Introduce children to a range of learning areas 2. Identify each child’s strengths 3. Nurture those strengths 4. Bridge their strengths to other subject areas

A relatively easy start is to create the various learning centers that correspond to the diff erent intelligences:

Students who need to learn counting, one-to-one correspondence, or math facts can do so, for exam- ple, through centers which tap into their spatial tal- ents: students draw items—or group already-drawn images—to capture the math concepts. Students might go to a bodily-kinesthetic center to snap fi n- gers or jump as they count by twos. Or perhaps stu-

dents listen to music, clapping hands to catch the rhythm and beat of the numbers. (Hoerr, 2004)

Th is does not mean that teachers must develop every ac- tivity to all eight intelligences! Rather, teachers learn about each individual child and then tailor their curricu- lum to build on their children’s strengths. Figure 12-1 gives examples of how an MI approach can build a bridge between children’s curiosity and the school curriculum.

Brain-Based Research “Th e human brain is the most fascinatingly organized three pounds of matter on this planet” (Schiller, 2008). Th e only unfi nished organ at birth, it continues to grow throughout the life cycle. Th e principal task of the brain in early childhood is the connection of brain cells, as a child’s brain is two-and-a-half times as active as an adult’s. “Cognitive science unites psychology, computer science, and neuroscience to produce research and in- sights about the science of children’s minds” (Gopnik, 1999). During the fi rst three years of life, an infant’s brain creates an estimated one trillion synapses. Provid- ing quality experiences and relationships will create last- ing eff ects on how the brain gets wired.

As noted in Chapter 4, a child is born with a billion cells (neurons) not yet connected in a meaningful way. Over the next few years, the brain forms trillions of net- works (synapses), many more than a child will ever need.

The MI Approach: Sample Early Learning Activities

Learning Center Sample Activity Intelligence Area

Mechanics/construction Making wire designs Spatial

Science Tools for biologists Naturalistic

Music Sound cylinders match-up Musical

Movement Statue game Body-kinesthetic

Math Weights and measures Logical

Social understanding Making silhouettes Interpersonal

Language “Reporting the news” Linguistic

Visual arts Making an art portfolio Intrapersonal

FIGURE 12-1 Same activities from Project Spectrum (Chen, Isberg, & Krechevsky, 1998), based on a year-long research project aimed at improving performance of at-risk fi rst graders in a Boston-area public school.

399CHAPTER 12 Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development

As they multiply and connect, a sophisticated network of neural pathways is created. Research on the brain devel- opment of young children (see Chapter 4) has important implications for curriculum. Indications are strong that children’s brains need to be stimulated for the network of connections to grow and be protected from deletion. “Brain connections that have been reinforced by repeated experience tend to remain while those that are not are discarded” (Galinsky, 1997). We need to develop curric- ulum that brings children to interesting places and brings interesting things to children (see Figure 12-2).

In general, teachers of children can keep these ideas in mind:

■ Birth to age 4. Provide for healthy sensory stimula- tion. Th is means all the senses need to be included in a child’s exploration of the world. Very young children should live in an enriched environment—

visual, auditory, language, and so on, because “there are circuits that are responsible for emotional and social functioning (not just perception and motor action) that come ‘on line’ during the fi rst years of life” (Siegel, 1999).

■ Age 4 to 8. Th e brain is eagerly searching for stimu- lation; it is most fl exible, or plastic, early in life to accommodate a wide range of environments and in- teractions, but its capacity for change decreases with age (NSC, 2008). Programs from preschool through fi fth grade must be richly stimulating with activities that reward the brain’s appetite for mean- ing. Give children plenty of opportunities to use stories, explore ideas, and master tasks rather than use worksheets or other repetitive tasks that kill en- thusiasm for learning.

■ All ages. Develop curriculum that provides for chil- dren’s well-being. Emotions aff ect memory and

Brain-Based Research: Infl uences on Cognitive Curriculum

Brain Research Findings Curriculum Implications

The brain is strongly run by patterns rather than facts. Children learn best with curriculum developed around themes, integrated learning, and whole experiences. The key to our intelligence is the recognition of patterns and relationships.

Conclusion: Develop meaningful themes for activity planning. Uninteresting or abstract pieces of information (e.g., drilling young children on alphabet letters) will not provide understanding. Plan some kinds of “immersion experiences” that encourage children to go deeply into their play and work.

Stress and threat affect the brain in many ways. Emotions run the brain, and bad emotions reduce the capacity for memory and understanding, as well as reducing higher-order thinking skills. Good emotions create excitement and love of learning.

Conclusion: Make a positive, personal connection with each child, and avoid threats by loss of approval, hurried schedules, or implying children are helpless or bad. A secure environment counteracts the problems that may occur when the stress regulation mechanisms are triggered too often. Good emotions enhance memory.

The brain runs better when food intake is steady. Insulin levels stay more even, cortisol levels are lower, and glucose tolerance is better. Diet activates memory; children need diets rich in proteins (meats, nuts, cheese), omega-3 fatty acids, and selenium and boron (leafy green vegetables), as well as enough restful sleep so the brain can reorganize itself.

Conclusion: Snacks are good! Regular snack times may lead to better cognitive functioning, fewer discipline problems, and an enhanced sense of well- being.

All learning is mind–body. A child’s physical state, posture, and breathing affect learning. Our brain is designed for cycles and rhythms. Practice makes permanent, and memory is kept more accurate when information is revisited.

Conclusion: Keep track of and teach to children’s bodily functions and body states and how long they are expected to sit or nap. Plan a daily schedule with both variety and balance, and work in regular routines and productive rituals.

FIGURE 12-2 Teachers must translate new fi ndings into appropriate curriculum.

400 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

brain function. When a person feels content, the brain releases endorphins that enhance memory skills ( Jensen, 2005) and undue stress short circuits these skills. Exercise and positive social contacts, such as hugging, music, and the supportive com- ments of friends create opportunities for collabora- tion and cooperation.

In summary, research from cognitive developmental psy- chology and brain research supports curriculum devel- opment that is engaging and that encourages explora- tion. Th e biological evidence strongly suggests that there are sequences in children’s thinking, that there are at least multiple expressions of intelligence, and that the context of learning aff ects what children know.

Cognitive Skills Th e actual skills children acquire as they learn to think are considerable. A basic skill is defi ned by two funda- mental qualities:

■ A skill is basic if it is transcurricular: that is, if the child can use it in a variety of situations and activi- ties throughout the school day. For example, children who can express feelings and opinions clearly—who can let adults know when they are having diffi culties with a particular task or social situation—have ac- quired a skill that is useful anywhere.

■ A skill is also basic if it has dynamic consequences: that is, if it leads to other worthwhile responses. For instance, children who are articulate tend to elicit more verbal responses from adults. Consequently, they are exposed to more verbal stimulation, which in turn strengthens their verbal abilities, and so on. Th us, having this skill leads to major dynamic con- sequences in a favorable direction, whereas not hav- ing the skill leads to dynamic consequences in an unfavorable direction.

Most skills fall into the nine categories that follow. Th e list, though long, is comprehensive; what children learn in the thinking realm of their development will fall into one of these categories. Th e teacher plans activities for all cognitive skills to ensure challenging children’s thinking.

Skills of Inquiry Young children are curious, watching the world carefully. Th rough exploration and examination, they increase their attention span. Inquisitive children begin to orga-

nize what they see, analyzing and identifying confusions or obstacles for themselves. All the senses function at birth, and both sensation and perception are used to make sense of the world.

Cognition is one step beyond perception. It occurs when a person actually thinks about what he or she has perceived. Th us, there is a sequence, from sensa- tion to perception to cognition. A baby’s sense or- gans must function if this chain of comprehension is to begin. No wonder the parts of the cortex dedi- cated to the senses develop rapidly: this is what al- lows all other developments to occur. (Berger, 2006)

Th us, the skills of inquiry include the development of attention span and memory. According to Chouinard (2007), children need to take an active role in question- ing and information gathering. Th ey cannot just sit pas- sively while the adults do all the work; they remember information better when they are actively involved. Th e child asks questions, listens, gets ideas, and makes sug- gestions. Th ey interpret what others communicate, seek- ing assistance from other people and materials.

Piaget called these skills of inquiry; several of Gardner’s intelligences would also be included, as would Vygotsky’s notion of cultural ways of learning. Organizing and fi nding patterns, reasoning, and prob- lem solving are also inquiry skills. As children examine alternatives, they choose a course of action, revising their plans as needed. Th e National Education Stan- dards of Kindergarten–Grade 4 have been translated into early childhood and concentrate on an inquiry- based approach. Th is means we develop this skill by helping children build on what they already know in order to construct new knowledge.

Young children thrill in making educated guesses, then checking their hypotheses by experimenting and taking risks. As Drew and others (2008) describe it:

Constructive play involves building and making things no one has seen before. As young children fi ddle with, sort, and arrange materials, ideas and imagination begin to fl ow. Questions arise naturally. Th ey wonder: What will happen if I put this here? How tall will it go? Where did the bubble come from? In this way, constructive play serves to focus the minds of children through their fi ngertips and leads them to invent and discover new possibilities, to fulfi ll their sense of purpose.

Th ese basic skills of inquiry are the foundation for thinking; as such, they are far more important to develop than are rote letter or numeral recognition.

401CHAPTER 12 Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development

Knowledge of the Physical World How do children learn about the physical world? First, they use objects, spending plenty of time exploring, ma- nipulating, choosing, and using toys and natural materi- als. Babies search for something to suck; they begin to grasp objects and let them go. Toddlers will pick up and throw things or drop objects from a highchair to see what happens. Children observe reactions, discover rela- tionships, and try to predict what will happen. Six-year- olds with balloons and water explore how to fi ll, roll, throw, and burst the balloons. Th is knowledge is part of Gardner’s logical mathematical intelligence, for knowl- edge of the physical world is essential to making order of it. We have learned that participation in an environment fi lled with interesting sights, sounds, and people enriches a child’s schemes of thought and action (Lally, 1998).

As they learn the properties of objects, children gain a better understanding of the concept of cause and eff ect. Experience with the physical world gives children a base for comparing and contrasting, key skills for mathemati- cal classifi cation and scientifi c thinking.

Knowledge of the Social World Relationships are primary to development. Early experi- ence signifi cantly infl uences social and emotional brain function, and “toxic stress damages developing brain ar- chitecture, which can lead to life-long problems in learn- ing, behavior, and physical and mental health” (NSC, 2008). Learning about others is hard work because the social world is not concrete and is often illogical. Th e child needs an awareness of self before developing an awareness of others and how to interact socially. To Gardner, this kind of knowledge requires both intraper- sonal (access to one’s own feelings and a range of emo- tions) and interpersonal (the ability to notice others, making distinctions among individuals, particularly their moods and motivations) intelligence. Attachment rela- tionships are important in the unfolding of the emo- tional and social development of the child: “it is not a matter of overwhelming enrichment or excessive sensory stimulation that is needed during this time, but one of attunement between adult and child” (Siegel, 1999).

Infants begin by distinguishing friends from strang- ers. Toddlers learn to use “mine” and then to use others’

DAPDAP

names as well. Th e next step is to expand their knowl- edge of roles to include those of family, school, and the community. Four- and 5-year-olds are provided with daily opportunities to cooperate, to help, and to negoti- ate with others about their needs and wishes. According to Vygotsky, preschoolers learn appropriate actions by playing with older children. Also, make-believe is a ma- jor means through which children extend their cognitive skills.

In the best of circumstances, children are encouraged to notice both similarities and diff erences in people and then are led to develop tolerance for both. School-aged children seek small group teamwork and moments of private time with a close friend. In learning rules for so- cial living, children learn appropriate conduct for various situations—indoors or out, happy or sad, at the grocery store or at the dinner table.

Classifi cation Knowledge of the physical world teaches children to have diff erent responses to diff erent objects. Classifi ca- tion is the ability to group like objects in sets by a spe- cifi c characteristic. During their fi rst year, infants use their senses to sort and classify their many experiences. As toddlers, they initially classify by sorting groups of completely diff erent objects, using a logic that only the child understands. During the preschool years, they be- gin to sort objects using consistent criteria. Once they

DAP Since children gradually develop their mental representation capacities, reasoning skills, classifi cation abilities, attention, mem- ory, and other cognitive capacities, a high-quality program draws on children’s curiosity and encourages children to pursue their own questions and develop their own ideas, and is embedded in children’s daily work and play.

Being able to explore actual materials and objects en- courages children to assimilate and use new knowledge.

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402 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

develop language profi ciency, they can name and classify objects. Gradually, and with help from adults who stimu- late describing and manipulating, they learn that objects have more than one attribute and can be classifi ed in more than one class.

To clarify this process, consider how 2-year-old Tisa learns to classify:

What can Tisa do to her stuff ed bear and the family dog? What can she do with one and not the other? Which are her toys? Which are Rover’s? Which ones have fur? What is diff erent about them?

Tisa learns the attributes of the objects by exploring, learning the class names of “toy” and “pet.” Tisa makes collections, sorting by similarity those that are Rover’s toys and those that are her own. She uses class relation- ships to understand that both animals have fur, but she can tug on only one animal’s ears without encountering a problem.

Seriation Seriation is “the ability to put an object or group of ob- jects in a logical series based on a property of those ob- jects” (Geist, 2001). Many of the sensorial and practical life materials designed by Montessori were developed to make clear to children exactly what seriation is and how it can be learned. Th ese toys distinguish grades of inten- sity by size, color, weight, number. Children build pyra- mid towers, fi t nesting blocks together, and use the counting rods. By noting diff erences, often through trial and error, children learn seriation systematically. For in- stance, the pyramid tower is ordered from largest piece to smallest as it is built. Boxes are nested, one inside the other, by their graduated size or volume. Th e counting rods can be put into a staircase array, the units building on each other from one to 10. Children can arrange sev- eral things in order and fi t one ordered set of objects to another. Gardner’s category of musical intelligence re- quires seriation, as well as the skill of inquiry (“How do I make noise? Rhythm? Musical song?”) and a knowl- edge of the social world (“How can we make music to- gether? A real band?”).

Numbers Understanding the concept of number means learning about quantity: understanding amount, degree, and po- sition. Mathematical knowledge is an emergent under- standing of concepts. Once infants develop an under- standing of object permanence (that an object exists

whether or not it can be seen), they are ready to learn about quantity. Toddlers compare objects, for example, by stacking rings on a stick, sorting by groups (large ver- sus small, hard versus soft), and noticing what is “more.”

Preschool children can learn songs, chants, and fi nger plays that include numbers (“One Potato, Two Potato” or “Five Speckled Frogs”). Once children comprehend numbers, they are ready to use mathematical terms and forms of expression. For instance, after singing about the frog that jumped into the pool in the song “Five Speckled Frogs,” Chantel can begin to understand that four is “one less than” fi ve.

But a knowledge of numbers is neither complete nor meaningful unless children have direct experience with materials and objects. “Quantifi cation is the basis for formal mathematics, and is a synthesis of order, the basic understanding that objects are counted in a specifi c se- quence and each object is counted only once” (Geist, 2001). Learning about quantity also means comparing amounts (as when children work with table toys, blocks, sensory materials, and the like) and arranging two sets of objects in one-to-one correspondence (“Each person needs one and only one napkin for snack, Tyler”). Chil- dren can also count objects and begin computation (“Parvin, you have three shovels. Here is one more; now how many do you have?”). As with language and pre- reading skills, children who grow up in poverty tend to enter school already lagging behind their middle class peers in key math knowledge, so teachers “can help build on their natural predisposition through instruction, games, and hands-on activities that focus on fi ve major

Cognition in action! The concepts of the world come to life through Montessori materials.

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403CHAPTER 12 Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development

areas of mathematics: numbers and operation, algebra, geometry, measurement, and data analysis and collec- tion” (Lense, 2008). Th e importance of math learning in the primary grades and children’s potential to learn math have implications for teaching primary grade math. Th e early years are especially important for math develop- ment, as knowledge in math is predictive of both math achievement and later reading success as well (Sarama & Clements, 2009).

Symbols A symbol stands for something else; it is not what it ap- pears to be! Young children have to think hard and long to symbolize. It is a task of some skill to imitate or use one object to represent something else. Th ey begin by using their bodies. Infants and toddlers love to play peek-a-boo, reacting to “Boo!” with full-bodied excite- ment. Pretend play is the hallmark of using symbols. Preschoolers revel in playing favorite characters. Primary school children make up plays and puppet shows.

Make-believe helps in the process of symbolizing, as does making sounds to represent objects (“Choo-choo” is a train, for example). Using and making two- and three-dimensional models are other ways children sym- bolize, when they transfer what they see to the easel or to the clay table. Children are also symbolizing when they dress up in costumes and uniforms. Th e Reggio Emilia approach (see Chapters 2, 9, and 10) encourages children to use a variety of media to express their think- ing and deepen their understanding.

Teachers add to the symbolizing process when they use descriptive words. Description games encourage children to do the same. For example, “It is round and red and you eat it. What is it?” (An apple!) After all these skills have been mastered, children are ready for written symbols when they can use the written word to label, take dictation, or write notes. Using Gardner’s and Vy- gotsky’s ways of thinking, educational environments for school-age children might take the form of discovery centers, a kind of museum, in which apprentice groups with children of diff erent ages would help children with numerical and computer skills (see “Computers in the Classroom” and “Insights from the Field” at the end of this chapter).

Spatial Relationships Spatial relationships develop early. Infants visually track what they see, trying to reach and grasp. As they experience one object’s position in relation to another,

they begin to have a mental picture of spatial relation- ships. Toddlers fi nd this out as they learn to steer themselves around tables and seat themselves on the potty. Th e concept of “close” (the chair) and “far away” (the quesadilla cooling on the counter) give clues to length and distance (“How far do I have to reach to get one?”). As spatial skills develop, children learn to fi t things together and take them apart. Th ey rearrange and shape objects. Th ey observe and describe things from diff erent spatial viewpoints. Th is perspective is learned only through experience. Th e child under age 5 needs to describe and then try out the notion that what one sees from the side of the hill is not what can be seen from the top.

Adults help children learn such skills by letting them locate things at home, in the classroom, in the department store. Cognitive theories of Piaget and Gardner suggest that body and kinesthetic knowledge are used in this type of activity. In Reggio Emilia, for instance, mirrors are placed around corners, found at the school entrance, and embedded in the fl oors, giving children a sense of self in space in a number of ways. Teachers encourage children to represent such spatial relationships in their drawings, with pictures, and in photographs.

When considering intellectual development, teachers should keep in mind that, to children, education is explo- ration. Let children use their imagination to use materials in new and different ways.

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Cognitive Skills into the Curriculum

Cognitive Skill Sample Activity Age

Inquiry: senses, perception, attention, memory

Playing with water: what can you fi nd out?

Toddler, Preschool

Knowledge of the physical world Take an outdoor sound walk Toddler, Preschool

Knowledge of the social world Make a Wheel of Feelings; read Aliki’s Feelings book

Preschool, School-Age

Classifi cation Collections: put together, identify describe, and classify a nature collection

Preschool, School-Age

Seriation Yeast grows: see which expands most, with fl our, sugar, salt, juice

School-Age

Numbers Play “fi ves” game with playing cards numbered 1–4

School-Age

Symbols Making shapes: bodies and shape cards

Preschool, School-Age

Spatial relationships Geoboards Preschool, School-Age

Time Play “Stop & Go” with music Preschool, School-Age

FIGURE 12-3 Every cognitive skill has a place in planning curriculum.

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Com- municating with Families: Best Practices in an Early Childhood Setting.” After you study the video clip, view the artifacts, and read the teacher interviews and text, refl ect upon the following questions:

1. How does preschool teacher Mona Sanon pro- vide experiences with blocks to develop the nine cognitive skills?

2. How can children’s thinking be developed at school and home through play, language, and sharing experiences?

TeachSource Video

❙ ❙ Time Understanding time is a complicated aff air because time is composed of at least three dimensions: time as the present, time as a continuum, and time as a sequence of events. Children must learn each of these to fully under- stand the concept of time. In some settings, children learn to stop and start an activity on a signal (when the teacher strikes a chord on the piano for clean-up time). Th ey try to move their bodies at diff erent speeds, in- doors and out. Older children begin to observe that clocks and calendars are used to mark the passage of time. Specifi cally, children come to know the sequencing of events in time: which comes fi rst, next, last. Having an order of events through a consistent daily schedule helps children learn this aspect of time. Th ey also benefi t from anticipating future events and making the appropriate preparations. Planning a course of action and completing that plan give meaning to the idea of time.

What children learn intellectually in the early years is massive in quantity and quality. Yet young children are ready—eager, in fact—to engage themselves with the world around them to acquire these cognitive skills. Fig-

ure 12-3 gives examples of activities that address the nine cognitive skills. By remaining aware of how much is to be learned, educators keep a realistic—and humble— appreciation for the “work” of children.

405CHAPTER 12 Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development

Role of the Teacher

Considerations When considering children’s intellectual development, teachers should keep the following in mind:

■ Education is exploration. Th e process of education is more than its products. Teachers enhance learn- ing by allowing children to interact with the envi- ronment. Th e teacher is a source of information and support rather than one who gives answers or commands. A project approach (see Chapter 10), based on the belief that children’s minds should be engaged in ways that deepen their understanding of their own experiences and environment, may be used. Consisting of exploring a theme or topic (such as shadows, houses, building a table) over a period of weeks, this approach refl ects Dewey’s progressive education and the British Open Schools (see Chapter 1) and is implemented regu- larly in the Reggio Emilia schools. Th e goal is to have children ask their own questions and create their own challenges.

■ Children do not think like adults. Children think and perceive in their own ways, as Piaget believed. Th ey think in sensory and concrete terms and come to conclusions based on what they see and touch.

■ Children’s thinking is legitimate and should be valued. Th eir thought processes and perceptions are as valid as those of adults. Teachers support those processes by asking questions to stimulate further thought and by providing materials for exploration.

■ Th e language of the teacher should support cognitive development. Th roughout their interactions with children, teachers help children use words, terms, and concepts correctly:

Mariko: (at water table): I need that suckup. Teacher: Th e baster really does suck up water,

doesn’t it?

■ Th eir questions are open-ended to help children think and often leave the child with something to ponder:

Teacher: I wonder why the turtle’s head went back in its shell when you put your fi n- ger close?

Teacher: If you want to play with José, how can you let him know?

Teacher: What do we need from the woodwork- ing shelf to make a spaceship?

Th e teacher must match the child’s cognitive capacity with the instruction. Child-centered, self-initiated learn- ing (see Chapter 10) is a great motivator, so observing children’s intensity with materials and asking questions to extend their thinking is recommended. Use conversa- tion, document children’s thinking, use drawing, and in- corporate problem solving.

“Back to basics” is a phrase commonly heard in conjunction with academic and cognitive curriculum. Its intention is to focus

attention on what is fundamental to be learned, and often refers to intellectual skills. Fondly known as the 3Rs—reading, ‘riting, and ‘rithmetic—these skills are often taught by whole-group telling and by drill- and-skill repetition.

But what should early childhood professionals be doing? Surely, the 3Rs cannot be taught as such in programs for children under age 5, and a program of only direct instruction has been criticized by developmental advocates. How do we teach “before the basics”?

Bev Bos has been teaching and demonstrating just this notion for over 30 years. She suggests giving one’s curriculum a “child-centeredness test.” See how your cognitive curriculum holds up (Bos, 1983):

■ Does this activity help the child’s sense of identity?

■ Is the activity open-ended—that is, can the child change this material?

■ Does this activity allow the child to create?

■ Does this activity provide a framework for the child to cooperate with others while retaining a sense of self?

■ Is the activity fun? Will it inspire laughter and a love of learning?

What Do

YOU Think?

406 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Th e teacher must consider, include, and plan for children with learning disabilities and other varied learning “styles.” Each type of learning disability (see Chapter 3) has its own description and treatment. Teachers must develop a wide range of techniques to address such disabilities. After the identifi cation and assessment phases, teachers and

families need to work with specialists and devise options (an individualized education plan, or IEP) that include the child and establish reasonable learning goals.

Figure 12-4 shows further how teachers’ use of lan- guage helps children think and develop cognitive skills as part of their early childhood experience.

Teacher’s Role in Developing Cognitive Skills

Skill Teachers Can Inquiry • Ask questions so children make statements about their conversations.

Example: “What do you notice about the guinea pig?”

• Try to be more specifi c if such questions seem overwhelming or if they elicit little response.

Example: “What sounds do you hear? What can you fi nd out by touching her?”

• Ask how children arrived at their answers.

Example: “How did you know that the marble wouldn’t roll up the ramp?”

Social knowledge • Try not to respond to unstated needs.

Example: “Do you want something? Can I help you?”

• Help children defi ne what they want or need, so that they learn how to ask for it.

Example: Marie: “I wonder who is going to tie my shoes?”

Teacher: “So do I. When you want someone to tie your shoe, you can say, ‘Would you tie my shoe?’”

Marie: “Would you tie my shoe?”

Teacher: “I’d be glad to.”

Classifi cation • Ask questions that will help children focus on objects and see differences and details.

Example: While cooking, ask

“Which things on the table do we put in the bowl?”

“What are made of plastic?”

“Which go in the oven?”

“What on the table is used for measuring? How do you know?”

“Now look carefully—what do you see on the measuring cup?”

“What do those little red lines mean?”

Spatial relationships • Ask for the precise location of an object the child asks for or is interested in:

Example: “Where did you say you saw the bird’s nest?”

“You can fi nd another stapler in the cabinet underneath the fi sh tank.”

Concept of time • Use accurate time sequences with children.

Example: Teacher: “Just a minute.”

Milo: “Is this a real minute or a ‘wait a minute’?”

Teacher: “You’re right. I’m with Phoebe now. I’ll help you next.”

FIGURE 12-4 Teachers’ use of language affects how children develop cognitive skills. The more children are allowed and encouraged to think for themselves, the more their cognitive skills will develop.

407CHAPTER 12 Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development

Curriculum Planning for Cognitive Development In the Early Childhood Setting Teachers can plan cognitive curriculum for their children by considering the class setting, both indoors and out, throughout the daily schedule. Each activity center can be used to encourage intellectual development with a variety of curriculum materials and methods (see High/Scope in Chapter 2). Th e environment and methods required to help children think include challenging situations, en- riching materials, and supportive adults. Most children under age 3 have a limited attention span and can be over stimulated unless the environment is kept simple. Th ree- to 5-year-olds can absorb more information and fi ner de- tail as they have more developed motor and perceptual skills. Older preschoolers and kindergartners learn best trying to solve real problems, and the child in primary school still benefi ts from discovery-oriented, “learn by doing” situations. Figure 12-5 shows how one activity (which can be done with nearly all ages) contributes to the development of children’s thought processes.

Teachers can create what Jensen (1998) calls high activity, low stress, brain-compatible learning environ- ments. An optimal environment will have several learn- ing centers for the children to choose from so that the brain is stimulated to be attentive, to absorb new infor- mation, and to store this information in long-term mem- ory. Teachers should aim to create a balance between meaningful experiences and optimal stimulation of the brain in their classrooms. “Such an environment off ers children experiences with real-life, hands-on, theme- based activities oriented to solving problems, such as children counting out play money when shopping at the store in the dramatic play center” (Rushton, 2001).

Indoor Areas Th e indoor environments described in Chapter 9 in- clude the basic ingredients of a stimulating cognitive en- vironment. Th e indoor areas might have some of the fol- lowing materials and activities:

■ Art. Include a “help yourself ” shelf for child-chosen projects. A variety of paper, drawing implements, and tools encourages children to re-create their own reality, using representational art forms that show how children see the physical and social worlds.

■ Blocks. Have paper models of each block shape on storage shelves to help children with classifi cation by shape and size. Be sure you put a priority on hav-

ing enough unit blocks (a 600� piece set for a pre- school class of 16) and provide enough space (40– 80 square feet per group) with a fi rm carpet that supports balancing towers and controls noise. Ac- cessories, such as animals and homemade trees and lakes, help children symbolize. As they experiment with blocks, they learn about physical laws and real- ity and have experiences in cooperative learning and living, all of which are cognitive tasks. Counting blocks, which builds on one-to-one correspondence rather than rote memorization, contributes to genu- ine understanding. Building structures with young children inspires them as young mathematicians and scientists (Chalufour & Worth, 2004).

■ Discovery/science. Rotate a display of “touch me” ma- terials. Th is gives children fi rsthand experience with plants, seeds, animals, magnets, sea shells, foods, and so on. Have a “Fix It” or “ Take Apart Shop” with non- working appliances and radios, equipped with plenty of screwdrivers, pliers, and containers for small parts. School-age children can fi nd out which plants grow in saltwater or freshwater by setting up plants in each environment and watching daily (“ Today something has changed!” wrote a 7-year-old. “Th e duckweed is not really green anymore. A second root is hanging”). If you can, have a computer available with develop- mentally appropriate software.

■ Dramatic play. Stock this area with materials for role playing, puppet making, and acting out adult activities. Have anatomically correct boy and girl dolls of a variety of races and some with disabilities. Include clothing for all types of work, equipment for carrying things, and babies that refl ect the homes of all the children in the group but also ex- tend the play to include new ways of dressing, eat- ing, and playing. When several pre-kindergarten children got haircuts, the class developed a “Hairy Heads” theme, transforming this area into a hair sa- lon with brushes, barrettes, and wigs. Th e dolls got plenty of shampoos that month!

■ Language/library. Choose books that focus on both the physical and social worlds. Children’s interests in numbers, symbols, and time can also be extended by selecting literature that refl ects their level of un- derstanding. Look for the message in children’s books and choose good stories that refl ect diversity, such as Helping Out (Ancona) and George the Baby- sitter (Hughes). Be sure to listen to the group’s in- terests, and make a point to place books that re- spond to those interests in the library.

408 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

■ Manipulatives (table toys). Th e manipulatives area is an ideal place for materials that encourage cognitive development; highlight this area with both favorites (Legos® or Crystal Climbers®) and new items (Con- strux® or sewing cards). Counting cubes aid in clas- sifi cation and seriation, whereas puzzles or nesting blocks focus on spatial relationships. Information processing theory emphasizes the importance of ex-

periences that develop children’s working memory and familiarity. Manipulative materials and games give children hands-on experiences with counting, sorting, and organizing that are both meaningful and socially natural. Homemade lotto games or puzzles with the children’s photos encourage self- esteem and group identity as well as cognitive and motor development.

Cooking as a Cognitive Activity

FIGURE 12-5 Each activity, such as cooking, can enhance cognitive development throughout the curriculum. A trip to the market can be an experience in classifi cation and calculation.

Cooking

knead

texture flavor aroma

sensory

physical development

squeeze cut peel

small stir

large roll

taking turns

sources of food

health cultural celebration

nutrition

uses of food

variety of food

sharing materials

results

clear up

social development

chemical refrigeration

heat changes in matter

discovery science

properties of matter

prediction observation

social studies

observation

color, texture, form

modeling

art

follow instructions

describe

recall

converse

language

count

measure classify

sequence

math lab

music

sounds sizzle, pop

rhythms stirring, knead

songs

409CHAPTER 12 Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development

Outdoor Areas Th e outdoor area provides opportunities for children to plan and organize their own thoughts. Off er your yard as a place for discovery. “A kinder garden needn’t be manicured or tamed. Shrubs and viney tangles are secret hideouts. Fallow beds are places where worms, roots, and rocks can be explored. Vegetables sometimes ignored at dinner are trailside snacks. Pests are pets” (Ross, 2000).

Toddlers can classify what they fi nd as they look for balls, sand buckets, and toy trucks hidden around the yard. Preschoolers in the sand pit predict how water will aff ect the sand, using their growing knowledge of the physical world. Children learn to classify water table and wheel toys and learn seriation when they select sand buckets by size. Counting shovels to see that there are enough to go around, building with large, hollow blocks, and watching the seasonal changes are all cognitive skills children gain as they play outside.

Physical and logical mathematical activities are easily incorporated into the curriculum outdoors. Piaget’s methode clinique (see Chapter 4) inspires experimenting and reasoning: “I wonder why?” or “What would happen if…?” are common teacher inquiries. Th e water table outdoors could have a large block of ice, a variety of ma- terials such as wood, cotton balls, straws, and cardboard, or containers of colored water and eyedroppers. Balanc- ing activities might mean hollow blocks, milk cartons, or beanbags (or all three). A hillside or long plank can be- come a site for predicting and trying out rolling, using diff erent sizes of balls or even bodies.

Routines, Transitions, and Groups Groups, transitions, and routines are more structured times and all play a part in developing children’s knowl- edge of the social world. As children learn to conduct themselves in school, they learn:

■ To enter a room and start to play (transition). ■ To take care of their own belongings and those of

their school (routines). ■ To concentrate on an activity with others around

(group times). ■ To interact with others while at the same time pay-

ing attention to a leader or task (group times). ■ To end an activity, an interaction, a school day

(transition).

Teachers plan environments, activities, and grouping of children to give the class experience in all these cognitive challenges. Look back at Figures 9-15 and 9-16 about routines and transitions in a daily schedule. Teachers use

signs, their own words, and helpful tips that illuminate for children what is happening, what is expected of them, and how they can express themselves in all three of these daily segments.

Moreover, many routine activities off er wonderful opportunities for cognitive learning. For example, con- sider the snack table. Incorporating math concepts into snack time will engender enthusiasm and skill develop- ment. Whether as a part of free choice time or a time period on its own, snack time becomes “think time” as children:

■ Fill out and use menu cards. ■ Learn the concept of sets (“Everyone needs fi ve of

everything, huh?”). ■ Work with the concept of uniform units (“Are the

ham and cheese pieces the same?”). ■ Understand the concepts of equal, less, and more. ■ Learn how to count “wet stuff ” and to count by the

spoonful or handful. ■ See geometry and fractions at work (circles for rai-

sins, triangles for sandwiches, “Break the graham cracker in pieces for everyone … fair!”).

Focus on Skills How can teachers help children develop specifi c cogni- tive skills? After observing the children carefully, teach- ers identify a particular skill and then list those processes, concepts, and vocabulary involved. For instance, the skill of inquiry can be encouraged in every part of the curricu- lum by asking questions. Teachers model curiosity by observing and asking questions about what they see and what children may be thinking. Th is stimulates children to look, wonder, and interact:

Teacher: I wonder which piece of wood you will choose to glue on your board next.

Teacher: What part do you want to play in our gro- cery store?

Teacher: How can we fi nd out how long your road of blocks is?

Figure 12-6 off ers key questions to ask children that stimulate their thinking.

Th e processes of mathematical literacy involve using representation, performing manipulations, making sense in math reasoning, and problem solving. For instance, help children as they use markers to “stand for” people or animals or dolls in place of real babies—this representa- tional thinking is a hallmark of the preschool period, and fantasy play can help in mathematical thinking if the teacher makes children aware. Using manipulatives can

410 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

help children add and subtract, and will make such op- erations understandable. Guessing games can be a fun way to elicit reasoning when the teacher asks “How did you know that?” once the child has made a guess. Re- member that children have limited knowledge and need to be encouraged to keep guessing, while you stimulate them to off er, justify, and question their ideas. Develop- ing math games based on children’s literature (Cutler, et al, 2005) is an inviting way to provide math experiences, so try using Ormerod’s Joe Can Count or McMillan’s Eat- ing Fractions with a small group and have circle time fol- low through.

Problem solving is mentioned often in early child- hood education circles, in social and artistic contexts as well as for cognitive development. For this to be success- ful, two issues must be addressed: problem posing and making investigations (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000). Problem posing is diffi cult for many children, and they will need guidance so that the problem is clear before the group or individual launches

into looking for a solution. Investigations are “authentic problem solving situations in which children work as mathematicians and have opportunities to develop math- ematical power” (Diezmann & Yelland, 2000). When children see that it is all right to ask “Why?” they feel en- couraged to ask questions. Brainstorming is a technique that helps children get ideas and use resources to fi nd out how many ways there are to make a kite or build a castle.

Outdoors, inquisitive children explore their environ- ment. Children ask questions: “Can we turn on the wa- ter? What if we bury all the toy bears in the gravel? Could we use the ladder to see over the fence? Let’s all hide from the teacher!” Th e way teachers handle inqui- ries from children about what they want to do sends a message that supports—or discourages—this cognitive skill. When there is no harm in asking (though the an- swer may be “No”), children are encouraged to develop further the skill of inquiry. Figure 12-7 illustrates exactly how the cognitive skills of reasoning and problem solv-

Questions to Help Children THINK

FIGURE 12-6 Teachers encourage children’s thinking when they ask questions. Posted in the classroom or given to students and parents, this chart serves as a reminder that to TEACH is to ASK more often than to TELL.

How can you find out? What would

happen if . . . ?

What’s happening?

How would you feel if . . . ?

What do you think the problem is?

Can you think of another way you could do this?

What else can you use?

Tell me how you did that.

What do you need to do next?

Phrases to Help Children Think and

Learn

411CHAPTER 12 Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development

Problem Solving: An Intellectual Pursuit

The Concepts: Selecting a course of action Making educated guesses Making and revising a plan Risking and evaluating the results

The Vocabulary: Guess Plan Problem Solution/solve What? why? how?

The Process: Activity area Process question

Art ................................ How many ways can you use the brush (pen, squirt bottle) to make a mark on the paper? Why is it dripping? How can you stop it when you’re ready?

Bathrooms/cubbies ..... You found Paul’s sweater. . . . How can you fi nd where it goes? Where did the water come from? How can you clean it up?

Blocks .......................... What makes the tower of blocks fall over? How can a block be used to connect two others?

Cooking ....................... How do we mix these ingredients together? What will happen when it is put in the oven?

Discovery/science ........ Why did the magnet pick up the nail and not the pen? What is the difference between the rabbit and the guinea pig? How are they alike?

Dramatic play .............. Who will be the dad? What happens when these other children want to play? How can you get to wear the costume you want?

Language/library ......... What happens next in the story? Why do you think so? Why did the child feel unhappy at fi rst? Then what happened?

Large group ................. Why can’t you see/hear the leader? What can you do about feeling too crowded? What can you do when your friend keeps whispering to you during storytime?

Gross-motor ................ How do you jump rope? What do you use to pump yourself on a swing? How will you fi nd a ball?

Manipulatives .............. How do you fi gure out what puzzle piece fi ts? Do you see a pattern on the peg board? What is it?

Sensory ........................ How do you get the water from the large pitcher to the small cup? How will you get the wet sand through the funnel?

FIGURE 12-7 Problem solving is a cognitive skill that involves problem posing and making investigations.

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412 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

ing could serve as the basis for curriculum development around the entire classroom.

Use of Themes A specifi c theme can be chosen for cognitive develop- ment. Th emes that bubble up from the children’s inter- ests will engage their thinking more than those imposed by the teachers. Units based on things in the physical world (season changes, pets, the garden), on unexpected or current events (a new load of sand, a community fair,

DAPDAP

road work nearby), or on the special interests of the children (sharing the African masks, swimsuits, or di- nosaurs) are all appealing. Current events must be cho- sen carefully because young children may have only passing knowledge or interest in most of them. Mean- ingful events might be a space shuttle mission or a solar eclipse. More likely, the event will be a local one, such as the discovery of ants on the playground or someone’s new baby. Figure 12-8 shows an investigation of rocks and sand.

DAP Compared with preschoolers and kindergarteners, school-age children are more logical and fl exible in their thinking, have more knowledge of the world, have improved memory, and can better sustain their attention. No matter what the subject area, teach- ers should keep learning concrete, relevant to children’s everyday lives, and connected to previously learned material.

Rocks and Sand: An Inquiry-Based Project in Cognitive Curriculum

A Topic Emerges We Investigate It Refl ecting on the Journey

FIGURE 12-8 An inquiry-based project uses the discovery method engages the chil- dren in scientifi c thinking and is related directly to their own thinking. (Adapted from Ogu & Schmidt, 2009.)

Kindergarten cubbies and pockets have collections of rocks and pebbles in them.

• Make a rock vocabulary list [boulders, crystals, fossils].

• Take a rock walk.

• Display our fi ndings with a table and poster.

• Make rock gift store with jobs.

• Set up a trading game with rules.

• Take photos for documentation boards and newsletters.

• Have a rock show and invite families.

• Ask questions that invite constructive input and validate prior knowledge. [What do you know about rocks?]

• Ask open-ended questions [What do you notice? What might happen if…?]

• Encourage children to wait a few seconds before giving an answer to allow time for thinking. [Close your eyes & think before you say your idea.]

• Repeat or paraphrase what the children say without praising or criticizing. [Joe thinks sand comes from rocks, and Andrea says it is dirt from the ocean. What do you think?]

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413CHAPTER 12 Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development

Th e critical point is to have a meaningful theme for children; rehashing the same old themes year after year may be easy for adults but can crowd out other interests of each unique group. Th e Project Approach (see Chap- ter 10) describes the use of themes in curriculum, mak- ing it accessible so that the children can interact and “own” it. Infants and toddlers will have less need for a theme; curriculum ideas for them concentrate on cogni- tive stimulation at their particular level of development.

Computers in the Classroom A computer can be as nonthreatening as a watercolor brush. In the hands of a child, it can be a tool for experi- encing the world. Early childhood classrooms are ar- ranged so that children learn about the world directly by piling blocks, molding sand and clay, and bouncing a ball. Th rough these experiences, children gradually form con- cepts about how the world works and how they can af- fect it. As children touch the keys of a computer, they are challenged to explore and discover in ways never before possible.

Th ere are two reasons why every classroom or child care center should have a computer—children love them, and they can provide a positive learning experience for every child, even the most diffi cult or contrary. Many professionals are skeptical of computers and other screen media. Th ey worry that children will become passive for long periods of time, unwilling and unable to disengage and become involved in physical and social play. Indeed, specialists such as Elkind (1998) and Haugland (1999) do not recommend computer use for children under age 3, maintaining that children at those ages need to be learning through their bodies and motor manipulation of objects. NAEYC has published a position statement on Technology and Young Children for Ages 3–8 (2005): “Computers will have the most positive impact when they provide concrete experiences; children have free ac- cess; children and teachers learn together; peer tutoring is encouraged; and children control the learning experience.”

Discovery-oriented experiences with computers en- hance children’s learning, especially in stimulating their cognitive thought processes. Unlike a teacher or play- mate, computers and screen games can wait patiently for a child in a nonjudgmental way, do not tease or exclude, and often can adjust to children’s diverse abilities and styles. Children design and control places and things of their own choosing, such as a house, the seashore, or a

face. Th en, they create events that challenge them to think through the consequences of their actions. More- over, computer programs can be process highlighters for children; the program can speed up or detail hidden processes and cause-and-eff ect relationships that are more diffi cult to observe, such as a plant growing, a face changing expression on command, or a dance put to- gether with a special sequence of steps.

Technology use is especially meaningful in primary classrooms. “Appropriate use of technology [includes] documenting events in the classroom using digital still or video cameras, creating multimedia electronic portfolios that document children’s learning, using informational software or websites to fi nd the answers to questions that come up in the course of ongoing learning, or work- ing with children to create multimedia slide shows to present to families during open house or parent events” (Murphy, DePasquale, & McNamara, 2003). School-age programs can create a website, make newsletters, and build interesting curriculum webs.

To integrate computers and take advantage of what they can off er children, educators should select develop- mental software, select appropriate websites, integrate using the computer as a resource into the program, and select the actual computers and support items.

Developmentally Appropriate Software Along with blocks and paints, the computer can become an expressive medium that encourages skills in a variety of ways. It is important that the computer be used in ad- dition to other concrete experiences, not instead of them.

Using the computers in a classroom can individualize a program and offer social experience.

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414 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

For instance, children need to have real materials on the art and manipulatives tables; only then is it meaningful to manipulate images of those same kinds of materials at the computer table. Children need to have many experi- ences with concrete items such as paint, crayons, and markers. Th ey are then ready to try their creative hand at computer graphics.

To use computers appropriately in the classroom, teachers must fi rst be comfortable with the computer themselves.

1. Put the computer area in a quiet spot of the class- room (such as in or near the library/ listening spot), against a wall to minimize damage to the equipment or cords.

2. To introduce the computer, show small groups of children the basic care and handling of the computer.

3. Th e computer can be one of many choices off ered during free play, or it can be a more limited choice with a waiting list.

4. Interaction between children can be encouraged by including space for two or more at the computer; assigning turns to a pair or small group of children, particularly if the computer seems to be dominated by a few; and watching to ensure that no one be- comes “stuck” at the computer or any other area.

It is in the area of software that teachers of young children have many choices. Th ese choices must be care- fully made. Not every program intended for children is developmentally appropriate, and teachers must pay thoughtful attention to the program and to what they know about their own group of children. Teachers must know what to look for and how to choose programs that will be useful and appropriate for the specifi c age of the group. Haugland and Shade (1990) suggest 10 criteria for evaluating computer programs. Computer software should:

1. Be age appropriate. 2. Allow children to control it (children setting the

pace and being active participants). 3. Include clear instructions. 4. Have expanding complexity. 5. Support independent exploration. 6. Be “process oriented” (having the software program

be so engaging that the product of using it is secondary).

7. Include real world representation. 8. Have high quality technical features (colorful, un-

cluttered, and realistic).

9. Provide trial-and-error opportunities. 10. Have visible transformations (the ability to aff ect

the software, for example, by transposing objects).

Selecting software can become easier by using a rating system (Haugland, 1997). Th e website, Children and Computers (http://childrenandcomputers.com), can help with software recommendations.

Websites Many centers will use a computer simply with software; others, particularly those with primary-age children, may be interested in using the Internet. Th e Internet has been less researched than software, and its potential is untapped. Th ere are a variety of learning opportunities using the Internet; however the sheer volume of Internet sites is overwhelming, and there has been no screening.

Th ere are four types of children’s websites:

1. Information. Information sites are great reference re- sources; for instance, the National Zoo from the Smithsonian (http://nationalzoo.si.edu) would be a wonderful introduction or follow up to a fi eld trip.

2. Communication. Th ese sites connect children to ex- perts to answer questions on projects, such as “Ask an Astronaut” (http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu) for an Outer Space theme.

3. Interaction. Th ese work like software programs, only more slowly. Th e program “Name-Jumping” asks children to jump around a fl oor-sized keyboard.

4. Publication. Th ese sites can post children’s work, such as Kid Pub® (http://www.kidpub.com).

In addition, there are many online resources on technol- ogy as a learning tool; while many websites change, a few that have stood the test of time include the Center for Media Literacy (www.medialit.org), Children and Com- puters (www.childrenandcomputers.com), Common Sense Media (www.CommonSenseMedia.org), and NAEYC’s Beyond the Journal (www.journal.naeyc.org).

Integrating the Computer into Learning Specifi c methods have been devised for teaching young children to work successfully with computers. For in- stance, a child must be able to maneuver a joystick or mouse, fi nd the keys on the keyboard, or even insert a disk into the computer correctly. Because very young children cannot read, they will need help getting started. Teachers must be able to help children learn by setting

415CHAPTER 12 Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development

up their classrooms with a computer positioned in a safe yet accessible place, structuring activities and the daily schedule to give children plenty of time to manipulate the machinery and programs, and choosing specifi c hard- ware and software that work with the class.

One of the most exciting aspects of computers in the classroom is their ability to support other learning. Teachers who use the computer eff ectively as an educa- tional tool integrate their program goals to use the com- puter with individual children. To maximize the benefi t computers can give children, teachers should attend to three components: access, availability, and home collabo- ration. In the classroom, be sure the computer is open regularly, enough so that the issue of crowding or frantic behavior around access is eliminated. Pay close attention to who is using the computer: by the time children are age 10, boys spend more time at computers than do girls.

Although this diff erence is not signifi cant at preschool age, teachers need to ensure that girls get access and that selected software is not catering to males only. Recognize that many of your families may not have a computer at home, yet computer use can be helpful to all children. Jackson (2006) found that a group of underperforming children whose families were provided with a computer and free Internet access had higher scores on standard- ized reading tests after six months and higher grade point averages nearly one and a half years after the start of the study than those who used one less ( Jackson in Packard, 2007). Regardless of your family population, be sure to communicate to parents about computer use and learning, and be ready to off er ideas, when appropriate, about quality software, supervision, and using the Internet.

In most early childhood classrooms, the computer center is where children freely choose to explore selected children’s software. Th is is a worthwhile activity for children to realize their skills in using software. Yet the possibilities for learning go far beyond the limits of the classroom when teachers use technology to create opportunities to examine and explore ideas, fi nd information, and communicate ideas. Along with the children, teachers can access software programs designed for classroom use, the digital camera and PhotoSuite, the In- ternet, and e-mail.

Just imagine … With technology, teachers, along with the children, can

fi nd more information and view pictures on practically any topic through accessing the Internet: When a small group of children found a strange-looking tiny insect on the classroom wall, the teacher heard the children’s attempt to label it. “It’s a-a-a ant,” “A frog ‘cause it has back legs.” “I know. It’s an ugly spider.” Mr. Ed had no idea what it was. Th ey put the strange creature in a collection jar for the afternoon. With children excitedly looking on, Mr. Ed downloaded photos and a large diagram of an ant, a frog, a spider, and an insect. Th ey com- pared the pictures and the creature. Th ey discussed the body parts and counted legs. “You found out it was an insect. Let’s search the Internet some more.”

With technology a group of children can generate ideas and develop plans: While developing the new topic about the study of earthworms, the group listed what they knew about earthworms as the teacher entered them on computer using a computer program. To add to the list, one child announced. “Th ey have eyes.” Several children agreed. Others did not. Th e group posed several questions they could explore to determine whether worms have eyes. Th is started a lengthy investigation over several days, looking at them through the magnifying glass, looking at diagrams, taking close-up photos and enlarg- ing them using PhotoShop, and asking the worms if they see their refl ection in the mirror they held up to it.

With technology, teachers can communicate the ideas and learning of children with parents: When the children returned from their short trip to visit “their class tree” in De-

cember, Renee was particularly concerned about what she called “our dead tree.” When Ms. Jonel, her teacher, sent a photo of the tree from this short trip via e-mail to parents, she also suggested that parents and children together look at trees around their house. She added a note to Renee’s mother about her daughter’s comment. Later that evening, Renee’s mother viewed the e-mail and the photo with her daughter. Together they looked out the window at trees and bushes nearby. Renee noted the diff erence between the green of the “growing trees” (evergreens) and “dead trees.” Outside they found dead leaves and small branches from “dead” and “alive” trees. Back inside, Renee looked at, smelled, and bent the deciduous branch. Later Renee thought aloud, “Maybe it’s sleeping in the cold.”

“Rather than being merely an enrichment or add-on to the curriculum, technology has taken a central place in early child- hood programs” (NAEYC, 2003). Teachers develop the knowledge and skills to use technology as a teaching tool. In this way, they show children how to use both the computer and other learning tools to discover more about their world.

References National Association for the Education of Young Children.

(2003). NAEYC standards for early childhood profes- sional preparation: Initial licensure programs. In M. Hy- son (Ed.), Preparing early childhood professionals: NAEYC’s standards for programs (17–64). Washington DC: Author.

Prairie, A. P. (2005). Inquiry into math, science, and technology for teaching young children. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Arleen Pratt Prairie, professor emeritus, taught Child Development in the City Colleges of Chicago for 25 years. In her teaching, she focused on pre- school education, infant and toddler care, and brain development in the early years. She developed a series of videos in Infant and Toddler Care, and also worked with the production of the video course, The Developing Child, of which she recently revised 12 of this series. Prairie earned a B.S. in Child Development from Iowa State University and a M.Ed. in Early Childhood Education from Erikson Institute. She resides in Chicago where she enjoys her two grandchildren and her love of sailing.

How Does Technology in the Early Childhood Classroom Relate to Children’s Learning? by Arleen Prairie, M.Ed.

416 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Insights from the fi eld

SUMMARY Cognition is the ability to learn, remember, and think abstractly. Children’s cognitive development is related to learning in all other skill areas. Early childhood educa- tors see cognitive development from an eclectic point of view and draw heavily from the works of Jean Piaget.

Cognitive skills in the early years can be put into sev- eral categories. Th e teacher’s role is to understand how cognition develops in children and to put that knowl- edge to work in the classroom. While creating curricu-

lum, teachers keep certain attitudes and ideas in mind. Th en they set about planning for their programs.

Th e methods of developing children’s cognition skills are as varied and creative as the teachers—and chil- dren—can be. By focusing on the class setting, a specifi c skill, or a theme, teachers help children acquire and use the skills of thinking to understand themselves and the world around them. Special consideration should be made when considering computers in the classroom.

417CHAPTER 12 Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development 417CHAPTER 12 Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development

KEY TERMS cognition physical knowledge discrimination logical mathematical knowledge inference

social knowledge rote knowledge meaningful knowledge intelligence transcurricular

dynamic inquiry classifi cation seriation software

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Write a working defi nition of cognition, including the connections between language and thought.

2. List at least three theories that off er a perspective on cognition and describe their contributions.

3. Match the cognitive skill with the appropriate activity.

inquiry being aware of others

physical world learning to locate things

social knowledge pretending to be a puppet

classifi cation asking questions

seriation sequencing events

numbers using nesting blocks

symbols expressing amounts

spatial relationships sorting objects

time manipulating materials

4. How does the teacher’s use of language aff ect how children develop cognitive skills? Give several examples of what discourages such growth; counter that with how what a teacher says encourages skills.

5. Name three considerations when planning for computer use in a classroom.

6. What is an activity in each environmental area that stimulates cognitive development?

418 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Look at the program in which you now teach, or recall your own fi rst classrooms. Find at least one example of

rote knowledge, social knowledge, and meaningful knowledge.

2. Take one cognitive skill and trace how it could be developed in each curriculum area of an early education setting.

3. Observe block play at your school. Make a chart as in Figure 12-3 that describes the learning processes involved.

4. Make a list of the classroom areas. Beside each, name one activity that would foster cognitive development and one that calls for language skills.

5. One theme often used in early childhood programs is that of the changing seasons. How can that theme develop language and thinking skills in younger preschoolers? Kindergarteners?

6. Consider the use of a computer in the following programs, and then answer the questions below:

■ toddler child care program

■ preschool half-day program

■ kindergarten

■ after-school primary program

Is a computer appropriate in each of them? Why and how? What guidelines, if any would be needed in each set- ting? What would be the adult’s role in each?

HELPFUL WEBSITES Center for Media Literacy http://www.medialit.org Children and Computers http://www.childrenandcomputers.com Common Sense Media http://www.CommonSenseMedia.org I Am Your Child http://www.iamyourchild.org National Association for the Education of Young Children http://www.naeyc.org Beyond the Journal (NAEYC) http://www.journal.naeyc.org National Child Care Information Center of the U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services http://www.nccic.org National Scientifi c Council on the Developing Child http://www.developingchild.harvard.edu/ SuperKids® Educational Software Review http://www.superkids.com Zero to Th ree http://www.zerotothree.org

Additional resources including the TeachSource Videos can be found on the premium website for this book. Go to http://www.cengage.com/login to register your access code.

REFERENCES Berger, K. S. (2006). Th e developing person through ado-

lescence (7th Ed). New York:Worth Publishers. Bos, B. (1983). Before the basics. Roseville, CA: Turn

the Page Press.

Bowman, B. (2007, May/June). Th e eff ects of culture on thinking. Exchange.

Buckleitner, W. (1995, January). Getting started with computers and children. Exchange.

419CHAPTER 12 Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development

Chalufour, I., & Worth, K. (2004). Building structures with young children. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Chen, J. Q., Isberg, E., & Krechevsky, M. (1998). Project Spectrum: Early learning activities. New York: Teach- ers College Press.

Chouinard, M. N. (2007). Children’s questions: A mechanism for cognitive development. Serial no. 296. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 73 (1).

Cutler, K. M., Gilkerson, D., Parrott, S., & Bowne, M. T. (2005, Spring). Developing math games based on children’s literature. Connections.

Diezmann, C., & Yelland, N. J. (2000). Developing mathematical literacy in the early childhood years. In N. J. Yelland (Ed.), Promoting meaningful learning. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Drew, W., Christie, J., Johnson, J. E., Meckley, A. M., & Nell, M. L. (2008, July). Constructive play: A value- added strategy for meeting early learning standards. Young Children 66(4).

Elkind, D. (1998). Computers for infants and young chil- dren. Child Care Information Exchange (123), 44–46.

Galinsky, E. (1997, Winter). New research on the brain development of young children. CAEYC Connections.

Geist, E. (2003). Infants and toddlers exploring mathe- matics. In D. Koralek (Ed.), Spotlight on young chil- dren and math. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Gopnik, A., Meltzoff , A. N., & Kuhl, P. K. (1999). Th e scientist in the crib. New York: HarperCollins.

Haugland, S. W. (1997). Th e developmental scale for soft- ware. Cape Girardeau, MO: K.I.D.S. & Computers.

Haugland, S. W. (1999, November). What role should technology play in young children’s learning? Young Children, 54.

Haugland, S. W., & Shade, D. D. (1990). Developmen- tal evaluations of software for young children. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Hoerr, T. (2004). MI: A way for all students to succeed. In A. Gordon & K. Browne, Beginnings and Beyond (6th Ed). Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Jensen, E. (1998). Teaching with the brain in mind. Al- exandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Cur- riculum Development.

Lally, J. R. (1998, May). Brain research, infant learning, and child care curriculum. Child Care Information Exchange, 121.

Lense, S. (December, 2008). Preschool curriculum: What’s in it for children and teachers. New York: Al- bert Shanker Institute, American Federation of Teachers.

Milken, E., & Hart, P. D. (1999). Public opinion poll, 1998. Available online at http://www.milkenex- change.org/publications.

Murphy, K. K., DePasquale, R., & McNamara, E. (2003, November). Meaningful connections: Using technology in primary classrooms. In Beyond the Journal: Young Children on the Web.

NAEYC. (2005). Position statement on technology and young children ages 3 through 8. Washington, DC: Author.

National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Res- ton, VA: NCTM.

National Scientifi c Council on the Developing Child. (2008). In brief: Th e science of early childhood develop- ment. Cambridge, MA: Author.

Nelson, K. (1995, July/August). Nurturing Kids: Seven ways of being smart. Instructor.

Ogu, U., & Schmidt, S.R. (2009). Investigating rocks and sand: Addressing multiple learning styles through an inquiry-based approach. Young Children 64 (2), 12–18. www.journal.naeyc.org/btj/200903.

Packard, E. (2007). It’s fun but does it make you smarter? In E. Junn & C. Boyatzis (Eds.). Annual Editions: Child Growth and Development, 09/10, 16e. New York: McGraw Hill.

Roberts, J. M., & Spitz, G. (1998). What does a con- structivist class look like? Unpublished paper devel- oped with the Advisory Board of “Under Construc- tion,” Monterey, CA.

Rogoff , B. (2003). Th e cultural nature of human develop- ment. New York: Oxford University Press.

Ross, M. E. (2000, March). Science their way. Young Children, 55.

Schiller, P., & Willis, C. (2008, July). Using brain-based teaching strategies to create supportive early child- hood environments that address learning standards. Young Children, 63, 4.

Schiller, P. (2001, July). Brain research and its implica- tions for early childhood programs. Child Care Infor- mation Exchange, 140.

Shore, R. (1997). Rethinking the brain: New insights in early development. New York: HarperCollins.

Siegel, D. L. (1999, November). Relationships and the developing mind. Child Care Information Exchange, 130.

Sarama, J., & Clements, D. H. (2009, March). Teaching math in the primary grades: Th e learning trajectories approach. In Beyond the Journal, Young Children on the Web.

© Cengage Learning

C H A P T E R

13

Planning for the Mind: Language Development

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

■ How do children learn through language experiences?

■ How does language develop in the early years?

■ What language skills are developed in an early childhood setting?

■ What is the teacher’s role in language development in young children?

■ How does the teacher include early literacy and children’s literature in a program?

NAEYC CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Th ese Core Values and sections from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct are ad- dressed in this chapter. As you read, note how the Core Values, Ideals, or Principles listed here apply to the topics in this chapter. (Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

Core Values: We have committed ourselves to basing our work with children on knowl- edge of child development.

Section I: I-1.5. To create and maintain safe and healthy settings that foster children’s social,

emotional, intellectual, and physical development and that respect their dig- nity and their contributions.

P-1.4. For every child, we shall implement adaptations in teaching strategies, learn- ing environment, and curricula, consult with the family, and seek recommen- dations from appropriate specialists to maximize the potential of the child to benefi t from the program.

Section II: I-2.3 To respect the dignity of each family and its culture, language, customs, and

beliefs.

421CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

Learning through Language Experiences Alexis: Laleña, will you help me full this pitcher

up? Laleña: No, because my ponytail is keeping me in

bothers. Veronique: Hey, come here! I accidentally dropped a

piece of bread and the birds yummed it right up!

Abhi: I know that’s what the tooth fairy did to my tooth.

Marty: I’m going to keep all my baby teeth in a jar and the next time a baby comes along I’ll give him my baby teeth.

Language is the aspect of human behavior that involves the use of sounds in meaningful patterns. Th is includes the corresponding symbols that are used to form, ex-

press, and communicate thoughts and feelings. Any sys- tem of signs used for communication is language. For the developing child, language is the ability to express one- self. Language is both receptive (listening, understand- ing, and responding) and expressive (articulation, vo- cabulary, grammar, and graphic language). In other words, as illustrated above, language is meaningful, en- joyable communication.

Language and thought are closely related. Th oughts are produced when people internalize what they expe- rience, and language is how they express or describe it. Language shapes the way thoughts are produced and stored.

“Language is a logical and analytical tool in thinking” (Vygotsky, 1962). Farmers who work the land develop tools to till the soil and language to describe their work. Th e child who comes to the bazaar with her mother learns the language of bargaining better than one who is in a shopping cart in a grocery store. Tribes who are snowbound develop tools to deal with the ice and

Research tells us that language experiences during preschool and kindergarten are re- fl ected in later literacy success.

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422 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

language to describe the many kinds of water conditions. Language and thought are tools to make sense of and in- teract with the world.

A baby may not start life with language, yet he or she always communicates. Crying, laughing, smiling, and wiggling are body language to express and transmit in- formation. Some communication is nonsymbolic (ges- tures or pointing), and some is symbolic (words). A child progresses naturally from nonsymbolic communi- cation (pointing at the window to mean go outside) to symbolic communication, when the child says “out go” or “me go out.” “Spoken language is by far the most com- mon form of symbolic language” (Willis, 1998). Th e growing child learns to use meaningful language to communicate thoughts; thus, language and thought are intertwined.

Language is also related to other areas of develop- ment. Children learn to off er an idea as well as use lan- guage as a prop to get social play started. Th ey use lan- guage to develop emotionally, as they learn to label, describe, question, and demand when they tell each other how they feel and what they want. Anyone who has heard a child talk himself down from a tree knows how language can be a great help in using physical skills.

Language Development Language seems to be an innate characteristic of human- kind. Wherever people live together, language of some form develops. Languages worldwide vary remarkably in their sounds, words, and grammatical structure. None- theless, young children around the world acquire language.

What Research Tells Us Research into language development and expression re- veals several interesting characteristics. First, the language of children is diff erent from adult language. Children’s lan- guage deals with the present and is egocentric, taking into account only the child’s own knowledge. Th ere ap- pears to be a lack of awareness on the child’s part of lan- guage form. Preschool children do show awareness of language structure (for instance, “feets” to mark the plu- ral form) but do not seem to know the parts of speech. In other words, children use language to communicate but seem to have no understanding of language as an en- tity itself.

Second, language is not learned simply by imitating adult speech. Child language is not garbled adult lan- guage, but rather is unique to the child’s age and lin- guistic level. Gardner lists language ability as one form of cognition (linguistic intelligence), and most language development theorists agree that there seems to be an innate human tendency toward language (Chomsky, 1993). Children are not just trying to imitate others and making mistakes but are trying to come to terms with language themselves. A child will try out theories about language in attempts to understand its patterns. In language, as in so many areas of cognition, children are involved as active participants in their own learning. Th e use of speech is not merely imitative but produc- tive and creative.

Th ird, experiences help build language. Th e more ex- periences a child has, the more she has to talk about; thus, vocabulary is built on fi rsthand life. “Th e size of a child’s vocabulary is strongly correlated with how much a child is talked to, cuddled, and interacted with. Re- cent research shows that at 20 months of age children who have mothers who frequently talk to them average 131 more words than children of less talkative moth- ers” (Willis 1998).

Fourth, the language experiences during the fi rst fi ve years are refl ected in later literary success. High quality programs can reduce the degree of delay for high risk children in communicative skills, and personal interac- tions in a stimulating environment increase children’s communication eff ectiveness (Isbell and Phillips, 2001). Th ree dimensions of children’s experiences that relate to later literary success (Dickenson & Tabors, 2002) are: exposure to varied vocabulary; opportunities to be part of conversations that use extended discourse; and home and classroom environments that are cognitively and lin- guistically stimulating. Th e level of language and literary skills that young children acquire provide a strong base for their later years; indeed “the scores that the kinder- gartners achieved on the measures were highly predictive of their scores on reading comprehension and receptive vocabulary in fourth and in seventh grade” (Dickenson & Tabors, 2002).

Finally, language development is a process of experience and maturation. Teachers must be aware of children’s di- verse language skills and challenges, particularly in the areas of bilingualism, speech or language disorders, and dialects, all of which are addressed in this chapter. Just as in the development of cognitive skills, there are stages of language growth that follow a specifi c sequence. Th ere are also variations in timing that are important to remember.

423CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

Stages of Language Development Children follow a six step sequence in language develop- ment. Except in cases of deafness or trauma, this se- quence seems invariable regardless of what language is being learned.

1. Infant’s Response to Language. Babies begin by at- tending to speech, changes in sound, rhythm, and intonation. Th ese are the precursors of speech, and young infants are especially sensitive to some sound diff erences. Infants need to hear speech, and plenty of it, to develop the foundations of sound.

2. Vocalization. By 3 to 4 months of age, infants begin cooing and babbling. Babbling increases with age and seems to peak around 9 to 12 months. Th is is a matter of physical maturation, not just experience; children who are deaf or hearing impaired do it at the same time as those whose hearing is normal. Furthermore, similar vocalization patterns are seen among diff erent languages.

3. Word Development. Th e child must fi rst separate the noises heard into speech and nonspeech. Th e speech noises must be further separated into words and the sounds that form them. Th e growing infant starts to shift from practice to playing with sounds. Th e end result is planned, controlled speech.

Children begin playing with sounds around 10 to 15 months of age. From this point, the development of speech is determined as much by control of motor movements as by the ability to match sounds with objects.

Most children can understand and respond to a number of words before they can produce any. Th eir fi rst words include names of objects and events in their world (people, food, toys, animals). Th en the child begins to overextend words, perhaps using “doggy” to refer to all animals. Finally, single words can be used as sentences: “Bye-bye” can refer to some- one leaving, a meal the child thinks is fi nished, the child’s going away, a door closing.

4. Sentences. Children’s sentences usually begin with two words, describing an action (“Me go”), a posses- sion (“My ball”), or a location (“Baby outside”). Th ese sentences get expanded by adding adjectives (“My big ball”), changing the verb tense (“Me jumped down”), or using negatives (“No go out- side”). Children learn grammar not by being taught the rules but as they listen to others’ speech and put together the regularities they hear.

Child language, although not identical to that of adults, does draw on language heard to build a lan- guage base. Children incorporate and imitate what they hear to refi ne their own language structures.

5. Elaboration. Vocabulary begins to increase at an amazing rate. Sentences get longer, and communica- tion begins to work into social interaction. In the hospital corner of a nursery school, this conversa- tion takes place:

Chip: I’m a nurse. Brooke: I’m going to try to get some patients for

you. Megan: Do I need an operation? Chip: Yeah, if you don’t want to be sick anymore.

6. Graphic Representation. By late preschool and kin- dergarten, reading and writing emerge as children become aware of language as an entity itself and of the written word as a way of documenting what is spoken. Awareness of print and emerging literacy are the outgrowth of this last stage of development.

In fact, alphabet knowledge and phonemic aware- ness are predictors of early reading success (Wasik, 2001). Children who learn to read well and most easily in fi rst grade are those with prior knowledge of the al- phabet and the understanding of the sounds that letters represent. Within the guidelines of developmentally ap- propriate practice, the teaching focus must be on creat- ing meaningful experiences and will be addressed in the section on “Early Literacy” later in this chapter.

As children create a linguistic representation of their cognitive understanding, they see the potential of lan- guage reading and writing as a tool for communicating. Known as literate thinking, this is the hallmark of the last early childhood developmental stage in language devel- opment. Later sections on “Reading and Writing” and “Children’s literature” address this area. Figure 13-1 is a sample of a child’s developing language skills.

Dual Language Learning Children who begin formal schooling ready to learn are more likely to succeed in meeting the academic and so- cial challenges they encounter. In 1994, the U.S. Con- gress passed the “Goals 2000: Educate America Act” that stated all children in America should start school ready to learn (see Chapter 15). A major challenge facing the education system in the United States and other coun- tries is the increased number of students in public schools who speak English as their second language

424 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

(NCELA, 2007a). In the United States, “the majority of these children are born in the United States and thus from a very young age are acquiring both the language of their family as well as the language of the larger commu- nity. Th ese very young children are dual language learn- ers [DLLs]” (NCELA, 2008).

Th ese learners may not have had access to those early learning experiences that prepare children for learning in school. Th ey may not have had quality preschool experi- ences, may live in poverty, have parents with low levels of education, and have not had access to health care services. Research on instruction indicates that young DLLs:

■ Benefi t from instructional techniques that work to include them in classroom social interactions and recognize the value of their home language

■ Require suffi cient time (4 to 6 years) to become profi cient in their second language

■ Benefi t from explicit vocabulary instruction ■ Can transfer literacy skills from their fi rst language

and retain the benefi ts of fi rst language literacy through eighth grade measures of reading profi - ciency (NCELA, 2008)

Schools, communities, and families can work together to get children ready to succeed in education. Children who are age 3 to 5 are still in the process of acquiring their fi rst language, even as they are also acquiring their second. At the same time, DLLs are diverse in their lin- guistic backgrounds:

Th ey may diff er in terms of the amount of English that their parents speak (from very little English at all to fl uent English). Th eir parents may also diff er in terms of the extent that they speak one or more languages in the home. In some families, parents may speak one language at home and another at work. In other families, parents may speak two lan- guages interchangeably. Family members may come from diff erent language backgrounds, so a child may speak English to a parent but Spanish to a grand- parent living in the home. Dual language learners arrive at school with language backgrounds and skills which are substantially diff erent from mono- lingual English speakers. (NCELA, 2008)

Th e sections that follow address some of these issues. Th e strategies for dealing with bilingualism and dialect

DAPDAP

Language Skills: Ages and Stages

Stage Age (approx.) Sample

1. Response 0–6 months Smiles, gazes when hearing voices

2. Vocalization 6–10 months Babbles all types of sounds, creating babble- sentences Uses vocal signals other than crying to get help

3. Word development 10–18 months Mama, Dada, Doggie Bye-bye, No-no

4. Sentences 18 months–3 years Me want chok-quit (I want chocolate) She goed in the gark (She went in the dark)

5. Elaboration 3 to 5 or 6 years You’re my best Mommy, you can hold my turtle at bet-bis (breakfast) (Cough) That was just a sneeze in my mouth

6. Graphic representation 5 plus to 8 years

FIGURE 13-1 Children’s language skills develop with both age and experience.

DAP Teachers attend to the particular language needs of English language learners and children who are behind in vocabulary and other aspects of language learning. They engage the child more frequently in sustained conversations and make extra efforts to help them comprehend.

425CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

diff erences overlap with those of developmentally appro- priate practices for helping all children acquire language skills.

Bilingualism In early childhood terms, bilingualism (or multilingual- ism) is the ability of a person to communicate in a lan- guage other than their native language with a degree of fl uency. Baker (2004) explains:

Th ere is not just one dimension of language. We can examine people’s profi ciency in two languages in their listening (understanding), speaking, reading and writing skills. Calling someone bilingual is therefore an umbrella term. Underneath the umbrella rest many diff erent skill levels in two languages. Being bilingual is not just about profi ciency in two lan- guages. Th ere is a diff erence between ability and use of language. … In practice, a person may be bilin- gual, although ability in one language is lacking (but improving steadily).

A bilingual child must learn to comprehend and produce aspects of each language and to develop two systems of communication. Th is is a lengthy and complicated process of getting used to a new culture and a new language before feeling comfortable enough to use it in a classroom.

Second language learning occurs in two general ways. Simultaneous acquisition happens if a child is exposed to two languages from birth. Th ese bilingual children

tend to lag behind in vocabulary development in the early years, often mixing sounds or words. By 4 or 5 years of age, however, most children have separated the lan- guages successfully.

Th e second pattern is known as successive acquisi- tion. Th is occurs as a child with one language now enters the world of a second language, as when children with one home language enter a school that uses another lan- guage. A common pattern among immigrants and many children in the United States, this learning seems to fa- vor younger children in their accent and grammar, but there is no evidence that younger children are any more successful with vocabulary and syntax.

With more bilingual/bicultural children in early child- hood classrooms, it helps to understand how children learn a second language and how to apply this research in practical ways. Since language is a key to every child’s suc- cess, teachers must understand the myths and truths relat- ing to bilingualism (Figure 13-2). Research shows that the process of learning a second language in childhood de- pends, in part, on the individual child (NCELA, 2007a, 2008). Cognitive, social, and linguistic skills are all at work in acquiring a second language. Moreover, the child’s cul- ture, unique temperament, and learning style play a part as well. For instance, Tjarko is of Swiss-German ancestry, so is it any wonder he pronounces an English “v” like an “f,” as in “Can I haff one of those?” Sachiko, who has moved from Japan within the year, complains, “My neck hurts when I drink,” and disagrees that it is a sore throat since “neck” is the word she knows.

First and second language acquisitions are similar in many ways. Language acquisition is a natural process. However, children need to be exposed to language in meaningful ways. A particularly important point for all early educators to understand is the eff ect of a new lan- guage on a child in the classroom and at home. First, children of linguistically and culturally diverse back- grounds may face isolation at school. In an English- speaking school, for instance, the child who does not yet understand or speak English may fi nd it diffi cult to in- teract appropriately with children and teachers. Lack of a mutual language can result in the child being treated as nearly invisible or like a baby by other children, or as less intelligent or capable by teachers:

Th ey are caught in what I call the double-bind of second language learning: To learn a new language, you have to be socially accepted by those who speak the language; but to be socially accepted, you have to be able to speak the new language. (Tabors, 1998)

Providing books that are in tune with all children’s cul- tures and language backgrounds expands everyone’s world.

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426 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Moreover, children acquiring language in an English- dominant classroom often begin to isolate themselves from their families. Th ey may refuse to use their home language anymore, as it is diffi cult to use both, and Eng- lish may have greater status in the children’s eyes. Fami- lies sometimes promote this, as they wish their children to learn English. However, if they themselves do not speak English, they become unable to communicate at length with their children. Th e lack of a mutual language then grows at home, creating problems of family cohe- siveness and harmony.

Teachers need guidance in educating second lan- guage learners. Support for second language acquisition includes environmental organization, language tech- niques, classroom activities, and family contact (see Fig- ure 13-3). Th e following recommendations serve as guidelines for teachers of children who are acquiring a second language:

1. Understand how children learn a second language. Th ere is a developmental sequence of second lan- guage acquisition. First, children may continue to speak their home language with both those who speak it and those that do not. Next, children begin to understand that others do not understand their

language and give up using it, substituting nonverbal behavior that may appear less mature. Allowing them to watch and listen and also interpreting and inviting children into play will help. Th ird, children begin to break out of the nonverbal period with a combination of telegraphic and formulaic language. One-word phrases such as “no, yes, mine, hey” all telegraph meaning, as do catch-words such as “ok, lookit, I dunno” that are used as formulas for com- municating. Finally, productive use of the new lan- guage appears:

She describes an activity (“I do an ice cream”), an idea (“I got a big”), or a need (“I want a play dough”). Because she is no longer using memo- rized phrases, it may seem that her language ability has actually decreased because there will be many more mistakes. (Tabors, 1998)

Th e perceptive teacher will see that it is a positive step in a cumulative process.

2. Make a plan for the use of the two languages. Try to have bilingual staff or at least one teacher who spe- cializes in each language. Th e children are then ex- posed to models in both the home language and

Myths and Truths about Bilingualism

Myths Truths

Children who are exposed to more than one language get confused.

Young children have the brain capacity and the neural fl exibility for learning two or more languages without becoming confused.

Bilingual achildren are slower than monolingual children in developing speech.

There is no evidence regarding a later age in developing speech for bilingual children.

Mixing languages or “code switching” is a sign of the child being confused.

“Code switching” is a normal part of bilingual language development and a common communication strategy for bilingual children and adults.

Home language interferes with children’s ability to learn English.

Home language does not interfere with the ability to learn English. In fact, a strong foundation in the home language positively impacts the learning of a second language.

Children can learn a second language very quickly.

It takes two years for children to incorporate a conversational level in a second language, and fi ve to seven years to achieve an academic level (e.g., school-related skills, language of text).

FIGURE 13-2 Myths and truths related to bilingualism. (Developed by the Early Child- hood Language Development Institute, a project of San Mateo County Offi ce of Educa- tion, Redwood City, California. June 2005. Reprinted by permission of the author, Soodie Ansari.)

427CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

English. Many programs in communities in which the children and educators have the same fi rst lan- guage background use the children’s home language while learning English in a naturalistic setting. Th ey may start a year with the language of the children and gradually use more English until the languages are equal.

3. Accept individual diff erences. Take note of both the style and the time frame of language learning. Chil- dren bring a range of individual diff erences to learn- ing a second language. Motivation to learn, exposure to the dominant language, the age of the child in re- lationship to the group, and temperament can all af- fect language acquisition. Do not insist that a child speak, but do invite and try to include the child in classroom activities. Assume developmental equiva- lence: that is, that the children, although diff erent, are normal. For example, Maria Elena just will not come and sit at group time. Allow her to watch from a distance and believe that she is learning, rather than be worried or irritated that she is not with the group yet.

4. Support children’s attempts to communicate. Encour- aging children’s communication bids rather than correcting them will help children try to learn. Rec- ognize developmentally equivalent patterns. For in- stance, Kidah may not say the word “car” but can show it to you when you ask. Receptive language precedes expressive language.

5. Maintain an additive philosophy. Recognize that children are acquiring more and new language skills, not simply replacing their primary linguistic skills. Asking Giau and his family about their words, foods, and customs allows teachers to use a style and content that are familiar to the Vietnamese, thus smoothing the transition and adding onto an already rich base of knowledge.

6. Provide a stimulating, active, and diverse environment. Give many opportunities for language in meaningful social interactions and responsive experiences with all children:

Two aspects of classroom organization can help second language learning children. Th e fi rst is to have a set routine for activities so that children can catch on and get into the fl ow of events… Th e second is to provide safe havens in the class- room [so that] children can spend some time away from the communicatively demanding ac- tivities and develop competency in other skill ar- eas besides language. (Tabors, 1998)

Make use of story time, increasing the amount of time when you tell or read aloud stories; the predict- able plot and repetitive language help children follow along and understand. Choose chants, fi nger plays, and songs for the same reasons. Allow children to “assume a new identity—second language learners are often willing to speak when they can use another

1. Help children make sense of language. What is their “language dictionary”? What can their family experts tell you?

2. Provide comprehensible input. What information talk can you provide in

the moment? What multisensory experiences can you

plan?

3. Be prepared for the “silent period.” How do they communicate when they

aren’t speaking? What sign of progress and learning do you

see? In what ways is the child able to

communicate?

4. Be sensitive to the affective fi lter. How can you tell when the child is in

emotional discomfort? When do you invite participation?

5. Create a connection. What is your morning greeting? What is the predictable schedule? When does the child need your support?

6. Build a community of acceptance. Does the environment refl ect the child’s

life? How is the child’s home language

validated? Have you helped the child fi nd buddies? How have you worked with the family?

7. Examine teacher behaviors. When/how are teachers helpful and

encouraging? When/how have teachers ignored or been

unhelpful?

FIGURE 13-3 A checklist for teachers to examine their own daily practices with children who are acquiring a second language (with help from Soodie Ansari, 2005).

Checklist for Language-Friendly Classroom Practices

428 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

identity (puppets, masks, costumes)” (Chesler, 2002).

7. Use informal observations to guide the planning of ac- tivities. Provide spontaneous interactions for speak- ers of other languages. Teachers will need to expand the types of observations used for assessment to see a child’s physical, cognitive, or emotional abilities in language-free situations. Additionally, a home visit observation may help to learn how a child is doing in fi rst language development. Also, only by actively watching will a teacher fi nd special moments in a classroom to help a child be accepted and join in. Seeing a group of girls building a zoo, a teacher gives a basket of wild animals to Midori. Walking with her to the block corner, she off ers to stock the zoo and then helps all the girls make animal signs in Japanese and English. Th us, Midori enters the play in a positive and strong way.

8. Find out about the family. Establish ties between home and school. School learning is most likely to occur when family values reinforce school expecta- tions. Parents and teachers do not have to do the same things, but they must have a mutual under- standing and respect for each other and goals for children. For example, Honwyma’s parents and his teacher talk together about what of the Hopi lan- guage and culture can be brought into the class- room. When there are diff erences between the Hopi patterns and those of the school, teachers will try to accommodate.

9. Provide an accepting classroom climate. It must value culturally and linguistically diverse young children. Teachers must come to grips with their own cul- tural ethnocentricity and learn about the languages, dialects, and cultures beyond their own. It is critical to value all ways of achieving developmental mile- stones, not just those of the teacher’s culture or edu- cational experience.

Th e challenge to young children and their teachers is enormous. With informed, open-minded teaching, chil- dren can learn a second language without undue stress and alienation. As of this date we can conclude that:

■ Children can and do learn two languages at an early age, though the process and time vary with the indi- vidual child.

■ Two languages can be learned at the same time in a parallel manner. Th e depth of knowledge of one language may be diff erent from that of the other, or the two may develop equally.

■ Th e acquisition of languages may mean a “mixing” of the two, as heard in children’s speech when they use words or a sentence structure of both languages.

■ Learning two languages does not hurt the acquisi- tion of either language in the long run.

Dialect Differences Teachers may encounter diff erences in the way words are pronounced or grammar is used, even among English- speaking children. Th ese diff erences refl ect a dialect, or variation of speech patterns within a language. When we travel to New York, for example, our ear is attuned to the unique pronunciation of “goyl” (girl), and when we move north we hear “habah” (harbor). Southern speakers are easy to identify with elongated vowel sounds such as “Haiiiii, yaaw’ll!” In addition to regional dialects, there are also social dialects that are shared by people of the same cultural group or social class.

Italian, Russian, and numerous other languages have regional and social dialects. Linguists, the scholars who study languages, argue that there is no such thing as a good or a bad language. Each language and dialect is a legitimate system of speech rules that governs communi- cation in that language. Some dialects, however, are not viewed favorably within the larger society and often carry a social or economic stigma. In the United States, the dialect that has received the most attention and con- troversy is Ebonics, or Black English.

Th e unique linguistic characteristics of African- American children have been studied for decades. Th e name “Ebonics” is made up of the words ebony and pho- nics. “It has a West African base with English vocabulary superimposed on top,” says Hoover (1997). “It’s based on the grammar of West African languages.” Th us, you might hear a child using Black English say “I been done knowed how to read!” while in the book corner.

Th e debate over the signifi cance of Ebonics was thrust into the public spotlight in 1997 when the Oakland, California, school district voted to view Eb- onics as a separate language and adopt it to help im- prove student learning. Critics cite educators who claim the dialect will interfere with reading achievement, whereas supporters insist that the real barrier to aca- demic success is teachers’ low expectations of dialect speakers. Th e National Head Start Association has spoken out against Ebonics, emphasizing that all chil- dren must be taught to use language in ways to increase their power, not to segregate.

Often cited in the argument is the concern for how nonstandard speakers will fare in adult society. Negative

429CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

views of Black English or any nonstandard dialect are of concern to parents who want better opportunities for their children. Th e early childhood educator would be prudent to develop the goal of “communicative compe- tence” (Cazden, 1996) or “language power” (Saxton, 1998) for all students. Th is goal would strive to em- power each child to be a comfortable and capable speaker in any situation demanding “standard” English or the language of his own “speech community.”

Language Skills Teachers translate language development theory into practice as they work with children. Language skills in the early childhood setting include articulation, receptive language, expressive language, graphic language, and en- joyment. Children’s conversations, their ways of talking, some children’s lack of expressive language, and their ways of asking questions all off er glimpses into children’s language skills.

Articulation Articulation is how children actually say the sounds and words. Children’s ability to produce sound is a critical link in their connecting the sounds to form speech. Mis- pronunciation is common and normal, especially in chil- dren under 5 years of age. Th e preschool teacher can ex- pect to hear “Th ally” for Sally, “wope” for rope, and “buh-sketty” for spaghetti. Children who repeat sounds, syllables, or words in preschool are not stutterers; 85 percent of 2- to 6-year-olds hesitate and repeat when talking. As children talk, teachers listen for their ability to hear and reproduce sounds in daily conversation. Can they hear and produce sounds that diff er widely, such as “sit” and “blocks?” Can they produce sounds that diff er in small ways, such as in “man” and “mat?”

How adults respond to disfl uencies can help a child through this normal stage of language development. Chesler (2002) suggests:

■ Pay attention to the child when she talks to you. Do not rush her.

■ Do not demand speech when a child is upset or feels stressed.

■ Do not put children on exhibition by asking them to recite or talk when they do not want to.

■ Avoid interrupting a child when she is talking; avoid completing a sentence for her.

■ Statements like “slow down” or “think before you talk” draw attention to his speech and usually cue the child that there is something wrong with the way he talks.

■ Do make an example of your speech by talking slowly, smoothly, and distinctly.

Receptive Language Receptive language is what children acquire when they learn to listen and understand. It is what they hear. With this skill, children are able to understand directions, to answer a question, and to follow a sequence of events. Th ey can understand relationships and begin to predict the outcome of their behavior and that of others. Th ey develop some mental pictures as they listen.

Children begin early and can become experts in re- acting to words, voice, emphasis, and infl ection. How many times does the child understand by the way the words are spoken?

“You fi nally fi nished your lunch.” (Hooray for you!) “You fi nally fi nished your lunch?” (You slow poke.)

Children learn to listen for enjoyment, for the way the wind sounds in the trees, the rhythm of storytell- ing, or the sound of the car as it brings Mom or Dad home.

Expressive Language Expressive language in the early years means the process and steps involved in expressing ideas, feelings, and in- tentions in language. Th is includes words, grammar, and elaboration.

Words Expressive language is the spoken word. Children’s fi rst words are of what is most important to them (Mama, Da-Da). Adults help children extend their knowledge and vocabulary by using the names of objects and words of action (walk, run, jump) and feelings (happy, sad, mad). By describing objects in greater and greater detail, teachers give children new words that increase their skills. Children are then ready to learn that some words have more than one meaning (the word “orange,” for ex- ample, is both a color and a fruit) and that diff erent words can have the same meaning (such as “ship” and “boat” as similar objects, or “muñeca” and “doll” as the same word in diff erent languages).

430 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Lan- guage Development: Oral and Literacy-Related Ac- tivities in an Early Childhood Setting.” After you study the video clip, view the artifacts, and read the teacher interviews and text, refl ect upon the following questions:

1. How does preschool teacher Maranatha Falaise help children develop oral language and listen- ing skills?

2. Why is it important to develop receptive and ex- pressive language skills in young children?

TeachSource Video

❙ ❙

Teachers and children can share intimate moments when they enjoy using language together.

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Grammar Basic grammatical structure is learned as children general- ize what they hear. Th ey listen to adult speech patterns and use these patterns to organize their own language. It helps to hear simple sentences at a young age, with the words in the correct order. Next, children can grasp past tense as well as present, plural nouns along with the singular. Finally, the use of more complex structures is understood (prepositions, comparatives, various conjugations of verbs).

Elaboration of Language Elaboration of language takes many, many forms. It is the act of expanding the language. Th rough description, narration, explanation, and communication, adults elab- orate their own speech to encourage children to do the same. For instance, communication for children includes talking to themselves and others.

Verbalize a pro- cess aloud.

“I’m trying to get the plant out of its pot, but when I turn it upside down it doesn’t fall out.”

Give and follow directions.

“It’s time to make a choice for cleanup. You fi nd something and I’ll watch you.”

Ask and answer questions.

“How do you feel when she says she won’t play? What can you say? Do?”

Stick to the subject.

“I know you want to go play kickball, but fi rst let’s solve the problem of the wagon.”

Use speech to get involved.

“What a great house you built. How do you get inside?”

Graphic Language “ Talk written down” is the essence of graphic language. Th e child now learns that there is a way to record, copy, and send to another person one’s thoughts. Learning to put language into a symbolic form is the gist of the read- ing and writing process. Children learn about print when they are read to regularly, when they see adults reading and writing, and when they are surrounded with a print- rich environment. Because words and letters are simply “lines and dots and scribbles” to young children, the teacher and parent must demonstrate how meaningful graphic language can be. Moreover, the translation of talk into print is a cognitive task (that of symbols, see previous section), so children’s intellectual development as well as their language abilities are at play when learn- ing about the printed word. See later section on “Chil- dren and Writing.”

Enjoyment To encourage language is to promote enjoyment in using it. As teachers converse with children, parents, and other adults, they model for children how useful and fun lan- guage can be. Knowing the power and pleasures of lan- guage gives children the motivation for the harder work of learning to read and write.

Children learn to enjoy language by participating in group discussion and being encouraged to ask questions. Reading and listening to stories and poems every day are essential parts of any program. Th e program should also include children’s literature and stories children dictate or write themselves.

Word play and rhyming are fun as well as educa- tional. Group language games are useful, such as asking the question, “Did you ever see a bat with a hat? A bun

431CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

having fun? A bee with…?” and letting the children add the rest. Begin a song, for instance, “Do You Know the Muffi n Man?” and add the children’s names. Whatever contributes to the enjoyment of language supports its growth, from varying voice and tone to fi t the situation (in storytelling, dramatic play, and ordinary activity peri- ods) to spontaneous rhyming songs.

Role of the Teacher

Considerations When considering how to work with young children in language development, teachers should keep several things in mind:

1. Children need an “envelope of language.” “Babies al- ready read; think about how they read you,” says Miller (2001). Start with creating a language-rich environment. Magda Gerber encourages people to be a play-by-play announcer, providing language la- bels for everything the child does and touches. When you expose children to quality literature ev- ery day, be sure there is an emotional response to reading that conveys that it is a warm and pleasant thing to do and they are learning how books work.

2. Children must use language to learn it. Adults often spend much of their time with children talking—to, at, for, or about them. “Be careful not to dominate when talking with children. Lean toward more child than adult talk “(Epstein, 2009).

Children’s conversations with each other are im- portant in learning the basics of how to take turns and keep to one topic and of saying what they mean, getting their ideas and themselves heard and ac- cepted. Time with peers and adults, in both struc- tured (group times) and nonstructured (free play) situations, allows children to practice and refi ne lan- guage skills. Children as young as age 2 can engage in talk time, as described here:

Our talk time program has three governing rules: only one person at a time may speak; ev- eryone gets a turn to choose a subject; and we don’t leave the talk time table until everyone has had a turn and the activity is offi cially over. (Selman, 2001)

Talk time cannot be used to correct children’s lan- guage or ideas and yet is a useful way to help delayed talkers.

3. Th e most verbal children tend to monopolize lan- guage interactions. Research shows that teachers

interact verbally with the children who are most skilled verbally. Seek out and support language development in those with fewer skills, generally by drawing them out individually through (a) reading the unspoken (body) language that com- municates their ideas, needs, and feelings and (b) helping them express verbally those ideas, needs, and feelings.

4. Adults should know the individual child. Consistency in adult–child relationships may be as important for language as for eff ective development during the early years. If so, teachers must have a meaningful relationship with each child. Th is includes knowing the parents and how they communicate with their child.

5. Home languages are to be invited into the program. “Th e explanations for home language are several fold,” writes Chang (1993). “First, when centers do not use the home language, they reinforce existing societal messages that a child’s language is lower in status than the dominant language, English…Lan- guage and culture are closely related since the lan- guage of an ethnic group is usually the vehicle through which the community transmits to its young its customs and beliefs…Th e development of a child’s primary language skills is integral to help- ing a child succeed academically and to eventually develop skills in English.”

6. Dialect diff erences expand your speech community. Di- alects are as much a part of children’s culture and identity as is their home language. Providers may

Children can use story time as “talk time” as well as for engaged listening.

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mistakenly see children speaking their own dialect as less capable, or even delayed. We need to not make the assumption that diff erent means “less than.”

7. Some children may have speech and language disor- ders. Early detection of and intervention for speech and language disorders is possible without the teacher being a speech therapist. With a basic knowledge of typical speech development and sign- posts of speech and language problems, the percep- tive teacher can alert families and recommend spe- cialist assessment and input. Once a child with a disability comes into a program with specifi c learn- ing objectives, the staff needs to plan how to address those needs in the curriculum and with the chil- dren. “For children with learning challenges, adult communicative input can often make or break the child’s chances for optimizing learning potential” (Klein, Cook, & Richardson-Gibbs, 2001). Th ey suggest the following strategies:

a. Follow the child’s lead. b. Use progressive matching (also known as ex-

pansion: modeling language just slightly more complex than the child’s current capability).

c. Use labels and specifi c descriptors. d. Repeat key words and phrases. e. Use appropriate pacing. f. Give children ample time to respond. g. Create the need to communicate.

See Figure 13-4 for a checklist for supporting lan- guage development in children with communication and language disorders.

8. Th e language of the teacher infl uences the classroom. What teachers say—and how they say it—is impor- tant. Moreover, it is often what they do not say that communicates the most to children in their struggle to gain mastery of the language. Teachers provide a rich environment and a high quality of interaction with the child that encourages all language skills:

■ Articulation. Reinforce clear speech by letting them practice frequently. Alter your speech to use a higher pitch, short utterances, and repeating the child’s language attempts.

■ Receptive language. See the strategies for de- veloping receptive learning in Figure 13-5.

A Readiness Checklist

Ask yourself these questions, then complete the checklist.

FIGURE 13-4 A checklist for getting your program ready for children with communica- tion and language disorders. (Watson & McCathren, 2009, adapted with permission.)

Is information presented in multiple formats? Use pictures, picture schedules, symbols, and words to communicate with children.

Do teachers supplement spoken words with eye contact and gestures?

Do teachers modify their language to refl ect the developmental levels of the children they are speaking to? For example, use shorter sentences when talking with 3-year-olds and longer ones with 5-year- olds.

Do teachers frequently check to make sure children understand what was said? Look for signs such as eye contact and gestures; consider asking children to repeat back what they heard.

Do teachers encourage children to “use their words” and then model appropriate language?

Does the classroom library include a variety and range of books suitable for different ages and developmental levels?

Do teachers read books with children one-on-one in addition to reading aloud to a group?

Do teachers encourage children who use language to ask for materials and join in activities?

Do adults have frequent conversations with children on topics of interest to the children?

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433CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

■ Expressive language. Use short, concise sen- tences to frame or highlight a word. For ex- ample, if a child says, “Look!” you might reply, “Is it a butterfl y or a bee?”

a. Have them describe their own actions or thoughts in words.

Michelle: I have something to show you. Teacher: Can you give us some clues? Michelle: It’s not a record and it’s not a

book, and you can’t play with it. Teacher: Can you hold it in your hand? Michelle: No, silly, it’s a kiss! b. Make a statement describing the child’s be-

havior or actions. c. Encourage listening and repeat one child’s

words to another. “Bahrain, did you hear what Joanna said about the sand truck?”

d. Help children stick to the subject. “Stevie, now we’re talking about our fi eld trip to the track. You can tell us about your new dog next.”

■ Graphic language. Th is can be developed in hundreds of ways. What is now called “emer-

DAPDAP

gent, or early literacy” is a broad view of reading and writing as developing, or emerging, out of language development as a whole. Rather than a simple set of skills, early literacy involves a set of attitudes, behaviors, and understandings re- lated to written language. See the section “Early Literacy” at the end of this chapter.

DAP Teachers engage in conversations with both individual children and small groups. Whenever possible there are sustained con- versations (with multiple conversational turns, complex ideas, rich vocabulary) and decontextualized language (talk about events beyond the here and how) concerning what is past or future or imaginary (“What do you think we will see at the fi rehouse?”).

Helping Children with Receptive Language

1. Give clear directions. “Please go and sit on the rug next to the chairs,” instead of “Go sit over there.” 2. Let children ask questions. Give them acceptable answers. For example, repeat a phrase from the child’s last

sentence that asks the child to try again: “You want what?” or “You ate what?” Or cast the question back to a child by changing the phrase “Where did you put it?” into “You put it where?”

3. Give instructions in a sequence. “Put your lunch on your desk, then wash your hands. Then you are ready to go to lunch.” It often helps to ask the children what they think they are to do: “How do you get ready for lunch? What comes fi rst? Next?”

4. Try to understand what the child means, regardless of the actual language. Look for the purpose and intent beyond what the child may have said. This is particularly important with toddlers, non-English speakers, and newcomers.

5. Ask children to state their thoughts out loud. “Tell me what you think is going to happen to the eggs in the incubator. Why do you think some might hatch and some might not?”

6. Use literature, poetry, and your own descriptions. Give children an idea of how words can be used to paint verbal and mental pictures. Ask questions about children’s own images and dreams. To older children read aloud from books without pictures.

FIGURE 13-5 Teachers do more than insist “Listen to me” to encourage receptive language.

What is your home language? What do you remember of your fi rst schooling experiences and language? Was it easy to

speak up? How did you interact with your teacher and with other children when using language? What can you remember about learning to read? Was it easy or diffi cult? Can you recall reading aloud to others? How do these memories inform your educational practices?

What Do

YOU Think?

434 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Curriculum Planning for Language Development Teachers who plan curriculum for language skills, just as for cognitive development, focus on the class setting, specifi c skills, and themes. Th ey organize the environ- ment and activities to help children acquire linguistic skills of their own (NAEYC, 2005).

In the Early Childhood Setting Indoors. Teachers arrange space so that children will practice speaking and listening and, in programs for older children, reading and writing. Indoor areas can be arranged to enhance language development as follows:

Art ■ Have signs and pictures that show where things

are kept. ■ Ask children to describe the materials they use.

Blocks ■ Ask children to give each other directions for

where blocks go and what they are used for. ■ Label block shelves with shapes and words. ■ Sketch children’s structures and then write their

verbal descriptions. Cooking

■ Label utensils. ■ Describe actions (pour, measure, stir). ■ Use recipe cards with both pictures and words.

Discovery/Science ■ Label all materials. ■ Ask questions about what is displayed. ■ Encourage children’s displays, with their dictated

words nearby. ■ Graph growth and changes of plants, animals,

children, and experiments. Dramatic Play

■ Provide a variety of equipment for a diversity of gender play, including male and female clothes.

■ Set up spaces in addition to a “house/kitchen,” such as a “reader’s theater” in which children choose a story to act out and eventually write their own scripts.

■ Off er cooking and eating utensils, objects, and tools that refl ect cultural and linguistic diversity, such as a tortilla press and molcajete in the kitchen and diff erent kinds of combs and brushes for the dolls, beginning with the cultures of the children in your program and then adding other groups.

■ Have plenty of child-sized mirrors. Language/Library

■ Label the bookshelf, cassette player, and com- puter in children’s languages.

■ Help children make their own books that involve description (My family is …), narration (It is winter when …), and recall (Yesterday I …).

■ Have children “write” notes, lists, or letters to one another, the teachers, and their families.

■ Develop a writing center with a typewriter, offi ce supplies, etc. (see Figure 13-12).

Manipulatives ■ Recognize this area as a place for self-

communication, as children talk and sing to themselves while they work.

■ Explain similarities and diff erences of materials and structures.

Outdoors. Outdoors, motor skills can be described and pointed out by teachers and children, as both use words of action and of feeling. For example, what actions does it take to get a wagon up the hill? How does a child’s face feel when swinging up high? How do people sit? move? carry things? (see Figure 13-6)

Routines, Transitions, and Groups Transitions and routines are more manageable if the children understand what is happening and exactly what they are to do. Teacher language helps talk children

Small groups are language-intensive activities that call for teachers to provide material and experiences in every- one’s home language.

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435CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

A language-rich environment includes a welcoming spot for books and reading.

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Environmental Elements that Promote Acceptance

Classroom posters, signs, bulletin boards a. Hello, Buenos Dias, Ciao, Jambo . . . in as many languages as you have or want to learn.

Children as ambassadors a. Every new child gets a “buddy for the day” for as long as they want. b. The small group builds a “talkalot kit” for a new child to take home, a collection of materials that they can

talk/show/add to at home.

Reading, math, science materials a. Plenty of books and signage in several languages. b. For older children, a ”writer’s briefcase” fi lled with stationery items such as paper, blank books, pens or

crayons, envelopes, paper clips and brads, scissors and stapler, stickers; children check it out overnight, and their creation is shared at school.

c. A preschool alternative is “My Sleepover,” a favorite toy, such as Curious George, takes turns going home in a bag with a journal. Families write or listen to their children’s adventures with George, to be read in school.

Music, dance, and activities a. Families bring in music or teach songs and dances to the teachers and children. b. Teachers bring in materials that honor diverse cultures, teach songs in more than one language, and

incorporate both in daily activities.

FIGURE 13-6 Teachers consider environmental elements to promote a sense of accep- tance and belonging.

436 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

through the process so that they can internalize what they are asked to do. Arrival is an easy time to reinforce name recognition. Mark cubbies with names and photos:

Each day, encourage children to fi nd their own cubby. Point out their printed name. It is also help- ful to point out other children’s names and to notice the diff erences. “Oh look, here’s Robert’s name. His starts with an R just like yours. And here is Ann’s. Her name starts with an A. Her name is very short.” (Klein, Cook, & Richardson-Gibbs, 2001)

Children’s belongings should also be labeled. Th ese steps take a little time to make but can increase children’s awareness of print.

A chart that shows in pictures and written language the steps children are to take from lunch to nap is invalu- able, and children will refer to it daily. Pillow Talk is an- other ritual one Head Start class began to ensure that children have regular and predictable one-on-one con- versations with a teacher:

Once children are settled on their cots, Nancy sits on the fl oor next to a child. Her prompt “Do you have anything you want to talk about today?” initi- ates the conversation. Most children are eager to share a personal statement about themselves or their families…Nancy closes the conversation with a warm and aff ectionate gesture, such as a light pat on the shoulder. Th e fi nal step in the routine is to tell the child that it is time to be very quiet and take her nap, accompanied with the message, “I’ll see you when you wake up.” (Soundy & Stout, 2002)

Finally, a teacher can write a note to “Please save” for the child who does not have time to fi nish a project, or they can write children’s dictated notes to parents.

Group times, with fi nger plays, songs, and stories, are language-intensive activities. Children’s articulation skills are strengthened, as is receptive language through listen- ing to others. Group times are also opportunities for children to express themselves. When children discuss daily news and important events, brainstorm ideas about a subject, or report on what they did earlier in the day, they gain experience in listening and speaking. Children can also dramatize familiar stories and fi nger plays. Snack tables at one preschool began to exchange notes (“Dear Teacher Adrienne’s Table: What are you doing? What are you eating?”), passing notes to each other’s groups, including the sign language two children used (“How do you sign banana? What’s the sign for graham crackers?”).

Using visual aids or name cards gives children experi- ence in graphic language. Th ese might include having felt letters for the song “B-I-N-G-O,” numbers for the fi nger play “One, Two, Buckle My Shoe,” or name cards for the activity “I’m Th inking of Someone…” Children enjoy the cadence and rhythm of language spoken or chanted.

Focus on Skills Recall that language skills are the ability to articulate, to learn vocabulary and put words together into complete sentences, and to understand when others speak. It also refers to the pragmatics, the appropriate and eff ective use of language in social communication. Speech skills refer to the ability to produce sounds (phonemes) that make words and articulate those sounds in meaningful, under- standable ways (Klein, Cook, & Richardson-Gibbs, 2001).

Teachers can plan curriculum based on any one of the skills:

■ To increase speech, vocabulary, and awareness of other languages, get a familiar book such as Th e Very Hungry Caterpillar (Carle) from the Children’s Braille Book Club and also make name cards in Braille for every child.

■ To encourage receptive listening skills, have children bring a favorite item from home or choose some- thing from the class or yard and hide it in a “guess- ing bag.” Children take turns looking into the bag and describing their item until others guess it. Th ey can then pull it out and talk about it with the group.

■ To emphasize expressive language, teachers allow children to express themselves by practicing words and grammatical structure and by elaborating on their own expressions. Outdoors, 4-year-old Hadar describes her actions: “ Teacher, look at me! I’m taller than you!” Th e teacher responds, “You climbed up the ladder to the top of the tunnel. Now, when you stand up, your head is above mine.”

■ For developing graphic language, consider activities that extend the age range experiences of the chil- dren. For example, a kindergarten class makes a group story about “Th e Mystery of Space.” Th en, they separate into small groups with second grade helpers to write their own books in story form, complete with illustrations.

Themes How could an emerging project or theme for curriculum planning be used to develop language skills? One unit with universal appeal is “Babies,” charted in Figure 13-7.

437CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

Other units that elicit an extensive use of language are:

1. Harvest. Activity: Ask children (2 � years) to bring food from home for a “feast corner.” Make a display of food from a harvest feast in the past or change the housekeeping corner into a “feast for all” area.

Group time: Begin a group story using the sen- tence “I am thankful for …” Special project: Plan a feast, with the children creating the menu and preparing both the food and the table for their families at the school.

2. Friends. Activity: Choose a favorite book (3 � years) to introduce the topic; the Story Stretchers book se- ries (Raines & Canady, 1989) has several sugges- tions, such as Heine’s Friends.

Group time: Talk with the children about the kinds of things friends like to do together. Make a list; then read the book. Later, select children to act out the animal parts. Do not worry about reading lines; keep it imaginative! Special project: Put a fl annel board in the library corner with characters and props from the book. Encourage the children to tell the story from the perspective of the various animals and then the farmer.

3. Th e Earth Is Our Home. Activity: Have the group (5 � years) make a large circle in a shade of blue, sketching the continents. Provide brown, green, and blue paint in pie tins and let children make a hand print on the ocean or land. Next, have the children bring from home the names of the countries of their family’s ancestry. Help them locate those areas and attach their names to those parts of the world.

Group time: Sing “Th e Earth Is Our Home” (Greg and Steve) and “One Light, One Sun” (Raffi ). Read Just a Dream (Van Allsburg) and Where the Forest Meets the Sea ( J. Baker). Special project: Help make a class recycling area or compost heap. Take a fi eld trip to recycle the materials, or visit a garden that uses compost. Young children can learn about endangered spe- cies through Burningham’s Hey! Get Off Our Train; older children can do research on an ani- mal and make its natural habitat in a shoebox.

Although preschool and school-age children are chal- lenged by specifi c themes, curriculum for infants and toddlers does not usually need this kind of focus. Cur- riculum for younger children should emerge naturally from their developmental level and interests. A gentle, supportive environment with adults who listen and respond to sounds made can be expanded on themes of favorite stories or activities.

Theme: Babies

Art: Limit art materials to just what toddlers and infants can use.

Cooking: Make baby food.

Discovery/science: Display baby materials, then bring in baby animals.

Dramatic play area: “The baby corner” with dolls, cribs, diapers.

Manipulatives: Bring in several infant and toddler toys.

Gross-motor/games: Make a “crawling route,” an obstacle course that requires crawling only.

Field trip/guest: A parent brings a baby to school to dress, bathe, feed.

Large group time: Sing lullabies (“Rock-a-Bye-Baby”)

Small/large group: Children discuss “What can babies do?”

Joshua: Babies sleep in cribs. They wear diapers. Babies can’t talk.

Becky: They sometimes suck their thumbs. Babies cry when they are hungry.

Dennis: Babies go pee in their diapers.

Stevie: Babies sit in highchairs. Babies eat baby food that looks like squashed bananas.

Corey: Babies sleep in a bassinette. Then they crawl and bite your fi nger.

FIGURE 13-7 Teachers plan a unit to promote the skills they are focusing on in the class. A “babies” theme brings out the expert in all children and encourages language.

438 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Early Literacy Th e ability to read and write does not just happen when children reach a certain age. Th eir readiness for graphic language must be nurtured. A child’s language profi ciency will determine readiness for reading. Research shows that gaps at kindergarten end up being consistent with those in later grades (Cannon & Karoly, 2007). Many entering kindergarteners (20 percent in California, for instance) have no familiarity with basic reading skills, including not knowing how to read words left to right or top to bottom or how to recognize letters of the alphabet. Suc- cessful readers see a relationship between spoken lan- guage and the written word. Th ey are aware that sounds are how language is put together. So, teachers plan activi- ties that make connections between what is said and what is written.

With the emphasis on early reading, the growth of early learning standards, and legislation such as No Child Left Behind (see Chapter 15), teachers feel pres- sured to bring direct instruction into their early educa- tion programs. It is important to emphasize that early literacy is not equivalent to early direct instruction. Yet much must go on in the early years for a child to be ready to read in primary school.

How exactly do infants (and adults) strive to make sense of everything they encounter in the world? Th ey read it. Reading is the most natural activity in the world…We read the weather, the state of the tides, people’s feelings and intentions, stock market trends, animal tracks, maps, signals, signs, symbols, hands, tea leaves, the law, music, mathematics, minds, body language, between the lines, and above all we read faces. “Reading,” when employed to refer to interpretation of a piece of writing, is just a spe- cial use of the term. We have been reading—inter- preting experience—constantly since birth and we continue to do so. (Smith, 2004)

Language-rich interactions and relationships with peers and challenging, well-planned curricula off er depth, fo- cus, choice, engagement, investigation, and representa- tion. Actively promoting concept and skill development can be achieved only in connection to young children’s interests and abilities. Figure 13-8 describes some of these strategies.

Th ere is an important role for teachers of young chil- dren in the early stages of reading and writing. Teachers can infl uence positive attitudes toward reading and writ- ing. Th ey encourage children to talk and converse with others about what they see and do; this gives them

Essential Early Literacy Teaching Strategies

Rich teacher talk Engage in conversation, use rare words, extend their comments.

Storybook reading Read aloud once or twice a day.

Phonemic awareness activities Play games or sing songs that involve rhyme, alliteration, match sounds.

Alphabet activities Use magnetic letters, alphabet blocks and puzzles, alphabet charts and books.

Support for emergent reading Provide a well-designed book center, repeat reading children’s favorites, have functional and play-related print.

Support for emergent writing Encourage scribble writing, invented spelling, provide a well-stocked writing center and play-related writing materials.

Shared book experience Read Big Books, draw attention to basic concepts of print such as left- to-right and top-to-bottom, cover and title page.

Integrated, content-focused activities Investigate topics of children’s interest, helping children gather data and record it, engage in dramatic play, use emergent writing to record what they learn.

FIGURE 13-8 The pressure of early reading instruction can be relieved by encouraging early forms of reading and writing that also give play a prominent role (Roskos, Christie, & Richgels, 2003).

439CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

increasing experience in using and attaching experiences to words. Taking the time to write down what children say and then reading it back gives a sense of importance to children’s language and their ability to express them- selves. Organizing the environment to support literary development and learning to teach toward reading in de- velopmentally appropriate ways are all part of building an early literacy curriculum. In these ways, teachers can help children get involved with print in natural and un- pressured ways.

Children and Reading Th e role of the adult is one of engaging children with print in ways that make sense to them. By creating an environment that provides rich opportunities to use the printed word, teachers help motivate children toward reading. High quality preschool is a powerful force in building language and cognitive skills. Research shows that children who attend quality Pre-K score higher on school readiness measures at kindergarten entry (Karoly, et al, 2008). Early literacy experiences are the fi rst step in closing the achievement gap.

But what are developmentally appropriate early liter- acy experiences? Adults and even children often have a stereotypical concept of reading. Th ey think the ability to read is only the literal translation of signs and symbols on a printed page (called decoding). Learning to read is also attaching experiences and knowledge to words and understanding the use of the written word in daily life. In fact, learning to read is a complex process that in- cludes both language and literary competencies. Building upon these skills takes time and has tremendous indi- vidual variation; thus, it is known as emergent literacy.

Emergent Literacy Emergent literacy involves the “skills, knowledge, and attitudes that are developmental precursors to conven- tional forms of reading and writing. Th ese skills are the building blocks for learning to read and write. Interven- tions in preschool should focus on emergent literacy skills since very young children are not yet engaged in conventional literacy” (Shanahan, 2005). Th e processes involved in helping children with emerging literacy in- clude beginning literacy awareness and involvement be- fore kindergarten, using reading and writing concur- rently and in an interrelated manner, interacting with the written word in everyday activities, and using it to inter- act with the world. Literacy development is part of the total communication process that includes listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

Th e International Reading Association (IRA, 2006) declares that most children pass through fi ve stages of early literacy development:

1. Awareness and exploration 2. Experimenting with reading and writing 3. Early reading and writing 4. Transitional reading and writing 5. Conventional reading and writing.

Teachers can help children succeed as they travel these stages. First, help them learn that print is a form of lan- guage. Read them books fi lled with magic, messages, and mystery (prereading). Next, be sure they hear stories, poems, chants, and songs many times. Programs such as Raising a Reader and other take-home book bag preliter- acy programs help children and families access books in an enjoyable, consistent way. Look in “Helpful Websites” for several resources. Th ird, help them rehearse by chant- ing, singing, resaying, and “reading along” as we read to them (prereading). Fourth, observe as they learn to rec- ognize words (see Figure 13-9). Th ey read and know the text and begin to use some phonics to discover which words say what (beginning reading). Finally, children start to read more and more on their own or with a friend. Now the task is to make them better readers (reading).

Adults encourage children’s writing by taking their at- tempts seriously.

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440 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Starting Out Right (1999) outlines the fi ndings of a major report of the National Research Council entitled “Preventing Reading Diffi culties in Young Children” (1998). It divides the reading process into two stages in the early years.

1. Growing up to read (birth to 4 years old). Falling in love with words and using everyday narrative are followed by fi rst attempts: pretending to read, learn- ing about print, and nourishing the mind with high quality books. Toward the end of this period, chil- dren know that alphabet letters are a special cate- gory of visual graphics and may recognize some. Th ey pay attention to separate and repeating sounds in language, show an interest in books and reading, and display reading (signs in the local environment) and writing attempts (name on a birthday card; tak- ing orders in a pretend restaurant).

2. Becoming real readers (kindergarten through third grade). To become real readers, children need well- integrated instruction that focuses on three core ele- ments: (1) identifying words using sound spelling correspondence and sight word recognition; (2) us- ing previous knowledge, vocabulary, and compre- hension strategies to read for meaning; and (3) reading with fl uency.

■ During kindergarten, children should gain a solid familiarity with the structure and uses of print, be familiar with sound-by-sound and word-by- word analysis of language, and have an interest in the types of language and knowledge that books can bring them.

■ First grade makes a transition from emergent to “real” reading. Children continue phonemic awareness, letter knowledge, and print awareness

A Language Experience Chart

FIGURE 13-9 A language experience chart involves children through the subject mat- ter and the way in which information is displayed.

441CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

to help with writing attempts and fl uent reading. Spelling becomes a focus during the year, starting with invented spelling and growing into a sensi- tivity to conventional spelling. Literacy activities are done voluntarily, such as choosing stories to read or writing a note to a friend.

■ Second and third grades help children build au- tomatic word recognition, spelling skills, and reading fl uency. Comprehension improves, along with recall of facts and participation in creative responses to texts, and children move toward producing a variety of written work. “Learning to read” is now shifting toward “reading to learn.”

Whole Language or Phonics? Th e concept of whole language has many familiar and exciting elements from the early childhood tradition. An approach that was popular in the early 1980s but has suff ered in the early 21st century as direct instruction has dominated, whole language (Cruikshank, 1993):

…is diff erent in both theory and practice from the traditional basal [direct instruction] approach. Be- cause it is child-centered rather than teacher- dominated, curriculum activities arise from chil- dren’s current interests, needs, and developmental levels. Making connections is emphasized, and it is through meaningful integrative themes that stu- dents acquire knowledge and skills. Children are also encouraged to share ideas and work with oth- ers, as socialization is valued. Evaluation focuses on the child’s growth over time, and both pupil port-

folios and anecdotal reporting are common assess- ment tools.

Goodman (1986) off ers key principles of the whole lan- guage approach:

■ Whole language is a way of viewing language, learn- ing, and people (children, teachers, parents) in a ho- listic, integrated way. All the language arts are related to each other. For instance, a teacher might read a story to the children and then ask them to make up their own endings. Th e class would be listening (to the story), speaking (telling their ideas), writing (try- ing their hand at spelling and handwriting), and reading (their creations to a friend or the class at the end of the lesson).

■ Meaningful content is when children use language in a purposeful way, developing naturally through a need to communicate. Th e young child who is read stories and engaged in conversations from infancy is then led smoothly to reading and writing as another extension of language use.

■ Whole language encourages this extension of func- tion into form; that is, children’s own mastery of oral language and unique interests are drawn on in teach- ing the “rules” of sounds, letters, and words. See Figure 13-10 for the elements of whole language.

Critics of whole language argue that this approach leaves out teaching the decoding skills, which a tradi- tional phonics approach emphasizes. Phonics is a means of teaching reading that makes associations between let- ters and sounds. But even before teaching formal read-

Early Literacy Comes to the Classroom

1. Have a cozy library corner, giving children lots of time to explore and read all kinds of books. 2. Make a writing corner with different kinds of supplies, using this area to develop grouptime activities

(children’s stories), meaningful themes (post offi ce), and connected learning (writing and sending letters). 3. Take fi eld trips, pointing out print as they fi nd it (street signs, store shelves, bumper stickers) and writing

about it afterward. 4. Use large charts for poems, fi ngerplays, and songs as well as for listing choices available and for group

dictation. 5. Plan activities that incorporate print: read recipes for cooking projects, make menus for lunch and snack,

follow directions in using a new manipulative toy, write sales tickets for dramatic play units, bring books into science displays.

6. Use written notes regularly, sending a regular newspaper home that the children have written or dictated, writing notes to other team teachers that children deliver, encouraging children to send notes to each other.

FIGURE 13-10 Whole language in the primary classroom means integrating graphic language activities in a natural, meaningful way.

442 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

ing, teachers can help children develop phonological and phonemic awareness—a sensitivity to the sound struc- ture of the language. Children who can detect and ma- nipulate sounds in speech are beginners in the decoding process. Th e ability to discern syllables is an important part of learning to understand how sounds translate into individual and combinations of letters.

Noticing and manipulating the sounds of a spoken language are related to later success in reading and spell- ing. “In English—and many other languages—the writ- ten language is predominantly a record of the sounds of the spoken language. With a few exceptions, the English language is written out by sound” (Yopp & Yopp, 2009). Th erefore, children must be able to grasp the sounds of

speech if they are to understand how to use a written system that records those sounds.

Current knowledge concludes that, to learn, primary children benefi t from both specifi c phonics instruction and a rich background in literature (such as being read stories). Th is approach blends early phonics instruction in the teaching of reading while at the same time stressing the importance of balance (see Figure 13-11). In addition, it must be repeated that children under 5 years of age are not yet ready for an onslaught of conventional, direct in- struction methods. Th ere is a lack of agreement in the fi eld over what count as emergent literacy skills, and more research is needed along with more refi ned understanding of the skills involved. Learning graphic language is a cre-

DAPDAP

DAP Teachers understand the typical trajectory of phonological skill development for preschool children—rhyming, alliteration, sylla- ble segmenting, onset/rhyme blending, and segmenting. Teachers add challenges to learning experiences as children make progress along the skills continuum.

Activities for Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic Awareness Includes Teachers

1. Oral vocabulary 1. Encourage talking, learning new words and phrases, singing, fi nger plays, and remembering and refl ecting verbally.

2. Auditory discrimination (the ability to detect sound differences)

2. Create sound discrimination boxes in the science area, a “listen-to-the sound” walk, guessing games with musical instruments, and activities that teach letter sounds by using the children’s names.

3. Phonological awareness 3. Help children play with individual sounds, both larger and smaller as well as different types of manipulations. The song “Old MacDonald” has 5 sounds (E-I-E-I-O), and playing with “apples/bapples/dapples” focuses attention on sounds.

4. Syllable awareness 4. Encourage children to listen and segment words into syllables, such as playing word games (me-mama-granpapa each have a different number of sounds: You want a drink of wa…ter, let’s fi x a sand…wich).

5. Onset-rime awareness 5. A more complex skill, onsets are the consonant sounds that precede a vowel in a syllable (d is the onset in dog, fr in frog) and rimes are a vowel plus any sound that follows it (og is the rime for dog and frog), so games that play with each “end” of a word help children hear the sounds.

6. Phoneme awareness 6. The smallest unit of speech are phonemes, which vary widely among languages; English has about 44, Spanish closer to 24 (Yopp & Yopp, 2009). Besides extending children’s natural play with sounds, read aloud books, poetry, and songs that play with sounds, and play games such as “I Spy” that focus on a sound (I spy something that begins with /sh/…shoes!)

FIGURE 13-11 Children gain early literacy skills through activities for phonemic awareness.

443CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

ative process that involves both an art (literature, rhyming songs, and invented spelling) and a science (the nuts and bolts of decoding). It is the teacher’s job to be the master craftsperson in helping children put the two together.

Children and Writing Children learn about words in print much the same as they learn about reading and other aspects of language: that is, by seeing it used and having plenty of opportuni- ties to use it themselves. Writing can be as natural for children as walking and talking. “What is written lan- guage? For a child, print is just another facet of the world, not yet comprehended, perhaps, but not diff erent from all the complex sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and textures in the environment—not especially mysterious or intimidating” (Smith, 2004). Children’s emergent writing begins when they fi rst take a pencil in hand and start to scribble. Later, they can write a story by drawing pictures or by dictating the words and having someone else write them down.

A Print-Rich Environment Labels, lists, signs, and charts can make print a meaning- ful part of the classroom environment. Often, children are involved in making the signs to indicate where things go and what things are. Using the languages of the group expands this “literate room,” as do helper charts, daily schedules, and even attendance charts. Road signs can be made for the block corner, recipe cards for cooking. “Do not touch” may be written for an unfi nished project, as can “Inside voices here” for the library corner. For specifi c literary practice, Schickedanz (1999) suggests labeled picture cards for rhyming games, alphabet puzzles, mag- netic letters, and scrabble games, as well as opportunities for children to give dictation, write grocery lists, and compose letters to friends and family.

Writing materials can be available throughout the room and yard. Paper and pencils come in handy in the dramatic play area. Menus, shopping lists, prescriptions, and money are but a few uses children will fi nd for writ- ing equipment. Th e block corner may need traffi c signs; the computer, a waiting list. Outdoors, pictures can label the location of the vegetables in the garden; markers in- dicate where children have hidden “treasures” or where the dead bird is buried.

Th e early childhood classroom heightens an interest in writing through a writing center (see Figure 13-12). It can be part of a language area or a self-help art center. Wherever it is located, this center will include a variety of things to write with, to write on, and “writing helpers.”

Children write with pencils (fat and thin, with and with- out erasers), colored pencils, narrow and wide marking pens, and crayons. Th ey enjoy having many kinds of pa- per products, including computer paper, old calendars, data-punch cards, and colored paper. Children also enjoy simple books, a few blank pages stapled together. Carbon paper, dittos, and lined paper will add variety. “Writing helpers” might be a picture dictionary, a set of alphabet letters, a print set, an alphabet chart, a chalkboard, or a magnetic letter board. All of these serve to help children practice writing skills.

Emergent Writing Children’s fi rst attempts at writing will likely include drawing or scribbling. Because drawing helps children plan and organize their thoughts (and, thus, their text), teachers encourage children to tell them about their sto- ries and can ask for a child’s help in “reading” these writ- ings. As children begin to work with words themselves, adults can help them sound out words or spell words for them. Spelling development is similar to learning to speak: Adults support the eff orts, do not correct the

A literate classroom includes plenty of opportunities for experiences with writing.

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444 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

mistakes, and allow children to invent their own spelling of words. Picture dictionaries and lists of popular words help children use resources for writing. Figure 13-13 is a sample of invented spelling in a kindergarten.

Th e language experience approach involves taking dictation, writing down and reading back to children

their own spoken language. It is important to use the child’s exact words so they can make the connection be- tween their speech and the letters on the page. Th is is true for group stories, for children’s self-made books, or for descriptions of their own paintings. A useful tech- nique in taking dictation is to say the words while writ-

Suggested Writing Center Materials

• Alphabet board

• Alphabet stamps

• Binders—yarn, string, “twist ties,” to bind homemade books

• Book-binding machine (used by adults to bind special books)

• Cardboard—cereal/cracker boxes provide cardboard for covers

• Clipboards

• Collage materials—magazines, wall paper, and wrapping papers

• Colored pencils

• Crayons

• Envelopes (local card store will sometimes donate leftovers)

• Fabric

• Laminate (factories will sometimes donate end rolls)

• Magnetic letters

• Markers

• Mini books (½ - and ¼ -size sheets of paper, about 4–5, stapled. Another recommendation: ½ sheets of lined paper, about 30 pages for longer works.

• Name cards (children’s names)

• Notebooks, notepads, stationary, odd-shaped/colored papers (printshops will sometimes donate these)

• Offi ce-style rubber stamps and ink pads

• Old cards, invitations, and business cards

• Old date books and calendars

• Paper crimping tool (roll a piece of paper through and it comes out corrugated—found at a rubber stamping or craft store)

• Paper punches (with large button that can be easily pushed by children)

• Recycled paper (different sizes)

• Rulers

• Scissors

• Stamps: wildlife and other nonpostage stamps. (Homemade stamps can be made by painting the backs of pictures with “lick’em, stick’em”—one part strawberry gelatin and one part water. Apply to shiny magazine pictures, dry and then they can be licked and used as stamps.)

• Stapler (kindergarten)

• Stencil shapes

• Stickers

• Word wall (words and their corresponding pictures—whenever the children need to know how to write a new word, it goes up there.)

FIGURE 13-12 A writing center needs plenty of materials to stimulate graphic lan- guage development (Chesler, 1998).

445CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

ing them, allowing the child to watch the letters and words being formed. When the content is read back, the child has a sense of completion.

In her book Teacher, Sylvia Ashton-Warner describes one technique for introducing printed language to young children. A kindergarten teacher who believed strongly in children’s innate creativity and curiosity, Ashton-

Warner developed a system of organic reading in which the students themselves build a key vocabulary of words they wish to learn to read and write. Th is method was eff ective for her classes of native Maori children in New Zealand, for whom the British basal readers held little meaning. Ashton-Warner’s personal, culturally relevant teaching works well because it fl ows naturally from the

Invented Spelling

FIGURE 13-13 Early writing usually involves children’s attempts at words of their own in- vention. Invented spelling can be treated with respect for the efforts and as a foundation for successful writing experiences. (Courtesy of Kim Saxe. Reprinted with permission.)

446 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

child’s own life and interests. Figure 13-14 is an example of these kinds of language experiences in classrooms of 3-, 5-, and 6-year-olds.

Story maps help children see the parts and sequencing of the writing process. Depicted as a body, the head serves as the beginning (with facial features called “topic,” “charac- ters,” and “setting”), the body as the middle, and the legs as the end (“Finally…”). A primary child can write in the var- ious parts of the story and read it from the map or con- tinue to elaborate with full sentences in a more traditional

manner. In these ways, teachers help raise awareness of the use and enjoyment of the printed word.

Many teachers use a combination of key words, jour- nals, and phonics along with holistic strategies such as DEAR (Drop Everything and Read), huddle groups (you choose who to work with), book bragging time (ei- ther in large or small groups), and BEAR/SST (sus- tained silent reading with a timer, usually done in grades one through three) as they teach reading in developmen- tally appropriate ways (Bobys, 2000; Reisner, 2001). DAPDAP

The Language Experience Approach

1. Start with a leading sentence.

If I were an instrument . . . Michelle: I would be a piano with strings and lots of sparklies on top. And you could play me even if you were

blind. Janette: I would be a drum. I would be hit and I wouldn’t be happy because they would make me hurt. Dennis: I would be a violin. Someone would play me with a bow and I would make a beautiful sound.

2. Take dictation on topics and pictures of their making.

“On Our Halloween Nights” Ehsan: There was a witch and skeleton and ghost in my room on Halloween night. Lionel: Costume night. A cow jumping over the moon. The little rabbit sleeping. Martine: There was a big pumpkin and a big bat and a bear and a pirate. There was a jack-o-lantern and the

light glowed. Andrew: There was a smiley monster and Aka-Zam! Luke: We went to my church for hot dogs and cider.

3. Ask for stories of their own.

Once upon a time there’s a boy named Timothy and he punched all the bad guys dead. And he was very strong and he can punch anything down. And he can do anything he likes to. And he makes all the things at winter. And he was so strong he could break out anything else. And he had to do very hard work all day long and all day night. And he had to sleep but he couldn’t. And he had a very small house and cup. And then he did everything he want to all day long. The End. Tim (signed)

4. Make a group book (including illustrations).

All By Myself (our version of the book by Mercer Mayer) “I can put on my overalls all by myself.” (Stephanie) “I can brush my hair all by myself.” (Lindsey) “I can make pictures all by myself.” (Jessica) “I can buckle my jeans all by myself.” (Megan) “I can make a drill truck with the blocks all by myself.” (Lionel) “I can jump in the pool all by myself.” (Andrew)

FIGURE 13-14 The language experience approach takes many creative forms in a classroom. (Special thanks to Gay Spitz for example 1 and to Ann Zondor and Lynne Conly Hoffman and the children of the Children’s Center of the Stanford Community for several of the examples in 2 and 4.)

DAP Teachers plan activities that give children a motivation to engage in writing (“How about we write a menu for your restaurant?”). They focus on capturing children’s ideas, recording their dictated words in charts, stories, or messages to parents or others, and then reading the dictation back (using their fi nger to indicate the words so the child can follow along).

447CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

Children’s Literature Children’s books bring us back to ourselves, young and new in the world. Our bones may lengthen and our skin stretch, but we are the same soul in the making…Children’s books are such powerful trans- formers because they speak, in the words of the Quakers, to one’s condition, often unrecognized at the time, and remain as maps for the future…In children’s books, we preserve the wild rose, the song of the robin, the budding leaf. In secret gardens we know the same stab of joy, at whatever age of read- ing, in the thorny paradise around us. (Lundin, 1991)

Literature does indeed have an important place in the curriculum today. Th rough the use of good books, teach- ers can help children broaden their interests and con- cepts. Books that are primarily used for transmitting in- formation expand the child’s knowledge base. Th oughtful books that draw on children’s everyday experiences widen their understanding of themselves and others. For in- stance, children can learn to see things in a variety of

ways. Five diff erent books will describe and illustrate the behavior of cats in fi ve diff erent ways. Exposure to Mil- lions of Cats (Gag), Angus and the Cats (Flack), and Th e Cat in the Hat (Dr. Seuss), as well as to the cats por- trayed in Peter Rabbit (Potter) or Frog Went A-Courtin’ (Langstaff ), will enlarge the child’s concepts of cats. Dif- ferent cultures are also represented in any number of children’s books, teaching a greater awareness of all of humankind (see Figure 13-15 and “Insights from the Field” at the chapter’s end).

Teachers have an opportunity to encourage divergent thinking through the use of children’s literature. Chil- dren gain more than facts from books; they learn all manner of things, providing they can interpret the story rather than just hear the individual words. Quizzing children about whether the dinosaur was a meat- or plant-eater will bring about responses that are predict- able and pat, but comprehension does not have to be joyless.”Would a brontosaurus fi t in your living room?” will get children to think about Danny and the Dinosaur (Hoff ) or Kent’s Th ere’s No Such Th ing as a Dragon or Most’s If the Dinosaurs Came Back in new ways that get them involved in the story.

FIGURE 13-15 Using multicultural literature helps each child get connected with books and expands all children’s outlooks (courtesy of de Melendez & Ostertag, 1997).

Activities Cook Mexican dish. Mexican hat dance. Children can experience a pinata.

Activities Make dreidel spinners with Hershey Kisses. Class will explore Jewish holiday customs. Class participates in a dance. Discuss Hanukkah and meaning of the Candles.

Activities Eat a rice dish using chopsticks. Bring in authentic Asian art. Develop a Japanese Kamishibai presentation (using The Crane Wife, or The Funny Little Woman).

ASIAN AMERICAN

NATIVE AMERICAN

HISPANIC AMERICAN JEWISH AMERICAN

Cultures in America

Corn Is Maize, by Aliki When Clay Sings, by Byrd Baylor The Other Way to Listen, by Byrd Baylor The Girl Who Loved Horses, by Paul Goble Rat Is Dead and Ant Is Sad, by Betty Baker The Legend of the Bluebonnet, by Tommie de Paola Squanto, The Indian Who Saved the Pilgrims, by M. Grant

Activities Make pottery from clay. Make totem poles from boxes. Dance ceremonial dances. Take a "listening" nature walk.

Molly's Pilgrim, by Barbara Cohen The Remembering Box, by Eth Clifford It Could Always Be Worse, by Margot Zemach Mrs. Moskowitz and the Sabbath Candlesticks, by Amy Schwartz Light Another Candle: The Story and Meaning of Hanukkah, by Miriam Challdn One Little Goal: A Passover Song, by Marilyn Hirsh

AFRICAN AMERICAN

The Patchwork Quilt, by V. Floumoy What's So Funny Kelu?, by Verna Aardema My Brother Fine with Me, by Lucille Clifton Who's in Rabbit's House? by Verna Aardema Black Is Brown Is Tan, by A. Adoff Oh! Kojo, How Could You, by Varna Aardema Bringing the Rain to Kapiti Plain, by Verna Aardams Why Mosquitos Buzz in Peoples Ears, by Verna Aardema My First Kwanza Book, by D. Chocolate

Activities Discuss Kwanza, the African Christmas. Make Kwanza hats, red, green, and black. Cook the Thanksgiving foods. (corn, peas) Recite African Poems. Students make a quilt patch.

Yeh Shen, by Ai-Ling Louie The Crane Wife, by Sumiko Yagawa The Funny Little Woman, by Arlene Mosel How My Parents Learned to Eat, by Ina Friedman

~

Santiago, by Pura Belpre Yagua Days, by Martel Cruz Hello Amigosl!, by Tricia Brown Para Chiquitines, by Jiminez Holguin The Riddle of the Drum, by Varna Aardama Nine Days to Christmas, by Hall Ets The Rainbow Colored Horse, by Pura Belpre

448 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Selection of books is important (see Figure 13-16). The wise teacher will choose books that invite partici- pation. Everyone can “roar a terrible roar, gnash their terrible teeth, and show their terrible claws” during a rendition of Where the Wild Things Are (Sendak). Meaning for children lies more in action than in words. When Andrea was struggling to find the words to describe a large amount, Mitra began to recite: “Hundreds of cats, thousands of cats, millions and billions and trillions of cats!” (Gag’s Millions of Cats). As Trelease (1982) states, “ If our first problem is not reading enough to children, our second problem is stopping too soon.” Whether age 1 or 10, children

need and thrive on being read aloud to regularly. Teachers could ask for no better activity to promote good listening habits than a wealth of good children’s books.

Creating a Rich Literary Environment Th e newspaper comics of yesterday are far outdistanced by the television and video games of today. How can teachers give children experiences in literature in the face of such competition?

Selecting and Reading Children’s Books

4. ____ Is the book written with an understanding of my group’s age characteristics?

5. ____ Is the author’s style enjoyable?

____ Can the children understand the sequence?

____ Is there repetition of words or actions?

____ Does it end in a satisfying way?

____ Are there humorous parts?

6. ____ Does it have educational value?

1. ____ Could I read this book enthusiastically?

2. ____ Are the contents of the book appropriate for the children?

____ Is it age appropriate?

____ Is it suitable for the individual child(ren)?

____ What are the cultures and languages of the group?

3. ____ Is this book biased?

____ Are illustrations stereotyped or showing tokenism?

____ What is the story line: What is the standard for success; how are problems presented and resolved; what is the role of women, people of color, or the heroes?

FIGURE 13-16 Selecting books for children involves careful study (derived from Owocki, 2001, Machado, 1999, & Derman-Sparks & Olsen Edwards, 2010.)

During reading: Make predictions. Pause and reflect. Create mental images. Summarize. Read it again, pointing to words and pausing.

Before reading: Look at the cover. Talk about pictures and text. Activate prior knowledge. Ask for personal connections. Set a purpose.

After reading: Make connections. Create reenactments. Perform retellings.

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449CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

Th e fi eld of children’s literature is rich in its variety, including both great classic stories and those of present day situations and concerns. Fiction and informational books, children’s magazines, and poetry add balance to the literary curriculum. Every classroom should con- tain representative works from each of these areas and should:

■ Provide plenty of time for using books and other mate- rials. Children need time to browse, to fl ip through a book at their own pace, and to let their thoughts wander as they refl ect on the story line. Th ey also enjoy retelling the tale to others. Be sure to plan enough time to read to children every day.

■ Make a space that is quiet and comfortable. In addition to soft pillows or seats, locate the reading area where there is privacy. Crashing blocks and messy fi nger painting will intrude on the book reader. A place to sprawl or cuddle up with a friend is preferable.

■ Have plenty of books and supporting materials. Th e language arts center might contain a listening post, with headsets for a CD or tape player. Perhaps there is even a place where books can be created, a place supplied with paper and crayons. Th ere may even be an old typewriter, puppet stage, or fl annel board nearby so that stories can be created in new ways.

■ Display children’s literary creations. Th e eff orts of chil- dren’s stories and bookmaking should be honored by establishing a place in the room where they can be seen and read. Children then see how adults value the process of literary creation and the fi nal product.

■ Model how to care for a book and keep classroom books in good repair. Children can come to realize that a book is like a good friend and should be given the same kind of care and consideration.

■ Foster children’s reading at home. Th is is one of the important contributions a teacher can make to the reading process. Family literacy programs are devel- oping for all families to gain skills in English; check your local community for availability. Families whose home language is not English face enormous challenges when encouraging reading; research sup- ports development of the home language as a foun- dation for learning other languages (Kirmani, 2007), so programs should attempt to off er book bags to families with books in their home language as well as plenty of picture books that allow parents to “read” the pictures with their children (Teachout & Bright, 2007). Attitudes about reading are com- municated to children from the important people in

their lives. Posting the local library hours, establish- ing a lending library, and providing parents with lists of favorites will reinforce the child’s interest in literature. Figure 13-17 gives parents ideas of help- ing children at home.

■ Use books around the room. Do not confi ne them to just the book corner or the book shelf. Demonstrate their adaptability to all curriculum areas by display- ing a variety of books in the activity centers. Ask children to help you retell or emphasize parts of a story (see the storytelling section), and ask them questions informally afterward: “How many bowls of porridge were on the kitchen table? Which one did Goldilocks like best? How did you know?” Fig- ure 13-18 shows how books can enhance play and learning throughout the school room.

Extending Literary Experiences Good literature comes in many forms and can be pre- sented in a variety of ways. A creative teacher uses books and literature to develop other curriculum materials. Translating words from a book into an activity helps a child remember them. Books and stories can be adapted to the fl annel board, storytelling, dramatizations, pup- pets, book games, and audiovisual resources.

1. Have daily conversations with your child. 2. Keep lots of printed materials and writing

materials in your home. 3. Set up a reading and writing space for your

child. 4. Let your child see you read and write. 5. Read with your child every day. 6. Call your child’s attention to reading and

writing in everyday activities. 7. Make a message board. 8. Encourage your child to read. 9. Display your child’s writing. 10. Make a bank or fi le of words your child likes to

write. 11. Go to the library with your child. 12. Use television and technology wisely.

FIGURE 13-17 Teachers foster reading at home by of- fering families practical ideas (Epstein, 2002).

12 Things Parents Can Do to Help Their Preschooler Become a Reader

450 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Storytelling Storytelling is as old as humanity. Th e fi rst time a human being returned to the cave with an adventure to tell, the story was born. Storytelling is the means by which cul- tural heritage is passed down from one generation to an- other. Children’s involvement with a story that is being told is almost instantaneous. Th e storyteller is the me- dium through which a story comes to life, adding a

unique fl avor through voice, choice of words, body lan- guage, and pacing.

“Th e experience of hearing a story told is more per- sonal and connected to the reader,” states Isbell (2002). “Storytelling promotes expressive language develop- ment—in oral and written forms—and presents new vocabulary and complex language in a powerful form that inspires children to emulate the model they have

Literature Across the Curriculum

Living Together: Refl ecting Diversity Knots on a Counting Rope (Martin, Jr., & Archambault) The Big Orange Splot (Pinkwater) Mei Li (Handforth) Gilberto and the Wind (Ets)

FIGURE 13-18 When literature is a natural part of the environment, children learn to appreciate and use it.

Creating Art Black Is Brown Is Tan (Adoff) Start with a Dot (Roberts) Little Blue and Little Yellow (Lionni)

Dramatic Play: On Our Heads! Martin’s Hats (Blos) Caps for Sale (Slobodkina) Hats Hats Hats (Morris)

Discovery/Science: Grow, Growing, Growest! Growing Vegetable Soup (Ehlert) The Carrot Seed (Krauss) From Seed to Pear (Migutsch)

Building Blocks Changes Changes (Hutchins) The Big Builders (Dreany) Who Built the Bridge? (Bate)

Families When You Were a Baby (Jonas) All Kinds of Families (Simon) Whose Mouse Are You? (Kraus)

ABC, Just Like Me! K Is for Kiss Goodnight: A Bedtime Alphabet (Sardegna) A to Zen (Wells) Grandmother’s Alphabet (Shaw)

Math Lab: 1,2,3, Count with Me! How Much Is a Million? (Schwartz) Roll Over! A Counting Song (Peek) Ten, Nine, Eight (Bang)

Making Music Hush Little Baby (Aliki) Ben’s Trumpet (Isadora) One Wide River to Cross (Emberley)

Books for Zero to Threes Goodnight Moon (Brown) Brown Bear, Brown Bear (Martin, Jr.) Duerme Bien, Pequeno Oso (Buchholz)

Having Friends Friends (Heine) George and Martha (Marshall) Frog and Toad Are Friends (Lobel)

Books for Early Primary Charlotte’s Web (White) How Many Days to America? (Bunting) Ramona (Cleary)

451CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

experienced.” Th e oral tradition is strong in many cul- tures, and the telling of the tale is memorable.

Instead of focusing on a book page, the teacher in- volves the children directly, with expressions and ges- tures that draw in the children. Repetition and questions get the children so involved they feel that they have cre- ated the story. Young readers will want to fi nd the book, and young writers will want to draw and retell the story or create their own.

Teachers can use any familiar story, be it Th e Th ree Little Pigs or Madeline. Props can be added to draw at- tention to the story. Flannel board adaptations of stories are helpful; they give the storyteller a sense of security and a method for remembering the story. Children can be involved in the action by placing the characters on the felt board at the appropriate time. Puppets or an assort- ment of hats can be used as props. Good storytellers en-

joy telling the story and communicate their enthusiasm to children.

Dramatizing Stories Acting out characters from a favorite story has univer- sal appeal. Young preschoolers are introduced to this activity as they act out the motions to fi nger plays and songs. Th e “Eensy Weensy Spider” and its accompany- ing motions is the precursor for dramatization. Story reenactment helps children learn to work together so that their social development is enhanced, as is the cognitive ability to engage in collective representation. As an extension of Steiner’s theories, Waldorf kinder- gartens include fairy and morality tales. “Fairy tales are told to the children on successive days for up to two weeks, culminating in the tale as a puppet show off ered to the children by the teacher or as a play with cos- tumes acted out by the children with the teacher nar- rating” (Waldorf Staff , 1994). Whether the child is an observer, walk-on, mime, or actor, the learning is real in each step of the continuum.

Stories such as Caps for Sale (Slobodkina) and Swimmy (Lionni), as well as fairy tales, are popular choices for reenactment by 4- and 5-year-olds. Th ey need plenty of time to rehearse, and simple props help them focus on their role. A red scarf helps Jeannada be- come Little Red Riding Hood; an old pair of sunglasses transforms Joaquin into a character from Goggles (Keats).

Older children may choose to write (or dictate) parts or scripts; it is appropriate for 6-to 8-year-olds to have their playmates act out original stories. Once the “right” story has been chosen, the teacher helps the children to retell the story together, set the stage, and let the play begin.

Puppet Shows Puppet shows can involve a large number of children as participants and audience. Children of all ages enjoy watching and putting on a puppet show. Because pup- pets are people to young children, they become confi - dants and special friends. Children will confi de in and protect a puppet, engaging in a dialogue with one or more puppets that is often revealing of the child’s inner struggles and concerns. Teachers can support their ef- forts by helping them to take turns, suggesting questions and dialogue to them, and involving the audience. Th e project of puppet making can be quite elaborate and very engaging for older children.

Acting out characters from a favorite story is culturally relevant and has universal appeal.

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452 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Book Games Book games are a good way to extend the literary expe- rience. Buy two copies of an inexpensive book with readable pictures, such as Th e Carrot Seed (Krauss). Tear out the pages, and cover each page with clear plas- tic. Children must then read the pictures to put the book into proper sequence. A book of rhymes, such as Did You Ever See? (Einsel), lends itself to rhyming games. Children can act out the rhymes from the story

line or match rhyming phrasing from cards the teacher has made.

Audiovisual Resources Audio fi les and videos enlarge the child’s experience with books. Th e auditory and the visual media reinforce one another. Putting in a “listening post” so that a few chil- dren can listen to a story with headphones adds interest to stories. Music brings literature alive; besides tapping into the musical aspect of intelligence, it appeals to all children to move and express themselves and, thus, enjoy literature and books even more. Th e pictures can show children new aspects of the words; sometimes the music or the voices bring the book to life. Often both happen. Hundreds of children’s stories—classics and modern day—have been translated to these media. Be judicious with videos, so that the images from the children’s imagi- nations do not get erased by the dominance of the visual movie pictures.

Books are no substitute for living, but they can add immeasurably to its richness. When life is absorbing, books can enhance our sense of its signifi cance. When life is diffi cult, they can give a momentary relief from trouble, aff ord a new insight into our problems or those of others, or provide the rest and refreshment we need. Books have always been a source of information, com- fort, and pleasure for people who know how to use them. Th is is as true for children as for adults (Arbuthnot & Sutherland, 1972).

A listening post can provide additional interest in books and stories.

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With a continuous high rate of immigration, cultural and linguistic diversity is already a pattern that char- acterizes early childhood education where an increasing num- ber of young English language learners (ELL) are commonly found in preschool and primary classrooms around the coun- try. Working with ELLs calls for teachers to be mindful and sensitive about the child’s needs as they encounter a new con- text. Getting a sense that one belongs and that you are part of the group is an important factor that infl uences individual achievement. It is important to consider that some may come from settings with diff erent cultural behaviors and that, in ad- dition, they may have limited or no exposure to English. Com- ing into a classroom where social behaviors diff er from those they know and where interactions are in a language diff erent from theirs could be a challenging and, to an extent, a frighten- ing experience. How to address these needs begins with the careful planning and organization of the environment. Envi- ronments are a powerful teaching and learning element that communicate ideas and expectations. Th ey also help to vali- date the child’s fi rst language and heritage. Literally, environ- ments “speak” to the child, a reason why at all times they should say, “Th is is your classroom.” Successful environments for ELL children are characterized by having welcoming mes- sages, meaningful content, and high child-appropriate expec- tations. Careful planning is the key to creating contexts that meet the needs of young children who are learning English.

A fi rst step in planning a welcoming environment for young ELLs, as well as all children, is to think about the mes- sages and impressions that the classroom communicates. Ask yourself if what hangs on the walls, what is displayed, and the materials off er a welcoming feeling for culturally and linguisti- cally diff erent children. Check the charts, bulletin board, and signs and see if they include postings in languages other than English and especially those refl ective of the children’s fi rst languages. Th is would already communicate to the child “your language is valued!” For the ELL child, it also means fi nding something familiar, which is reassuring, helping her to feel a part of the setting. Visual impressions are compelling com- municators of ideas, too, so take time to examine the images and illustrations posted. Check if these are representative of children and families from diverse backgrounds. Also, be sure to provide images that are inclusive of diff erent social groups. You want to make everyone feel welcome!

Best practices remind us about the importance of making learning meaningful to the young ELL child. Eff ective envi-

ronments for ELL should foster opportunities to connect ex- periences with what they know, which is another key step in creating a well-planned context. Take time to examine the themes that are explored in your classrooms. See if these relate to the children’s experiences and backgrounds. Meaningful connections happen when the context includes opportunities such as listening and reading stories with themes and charac- ters representative of the children’s backgrounds. Th is sup- ports their culture and language and provides experiences fa- miliar to the child where opportunities abound to activate and link prior knowledge with what is learned in the classroom. Use of realia such as coins or tools and manipulatives carefully linked to what is explored also contributes to connecting con- cepts and content in meaningful ways.

Environments are also characterized for communicating expectations, another essential step in planning a supporting context for ELL children. Interactions with children and peers, use of materials, and nonverbal exchanges all communi- cate expectations in diff erent ways to the young English lan- guage learner. Classroom contexts for children who are learn- ing English should communicate and encourage them to participate in experiences fostering the sense “Yes, I can!” While building their linguistic profi ciency, they should also explore rich and challenging content. Take time to refl ect on the expectations that you hold for the young ELL child. Re- member, knowledge about the individual needs and progress level guides the planning and selection of content that should match the child’s learning level. Maintaining equitable expec- tations requires early educators to balance activities while set- ting up engaging and challenging experiences.

While these three aspects—environment, content, expec- tations—are essential, the key to a welcoming context is a sensitive and caring early childhood educator who will fi nd that working with young ELL children is another exciting ex- perience that calls for attention to meeting the child’s linguistic needs.

Wilma Robles de Meléndez, Ph.D., is program professor of early childhood education at the Fischler School of Education and Human Services of Nova Southeastern University (FL) where she teaches and coordinates the gradu- ate program in early childhood education and early literacy. Her research interests include research in services for young children with cultural and linguistically diverse backgrounds, multicultural education, social studies for young children, and early literacy development. She is the author of Teach- ing Young Children in Multicultural Classrooms (2007) and of the Lee y serás’ Child Care Providers Conversations Series (2005), a national Latino early lit- eracy initiative.

Welcoming English Language Learners to the World of Language and Literacy by Wilma Robles de Meléndez, Ph.D.

453CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

Insights from the fi eld

454 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

SUMMARY Planning for language development is a huge part of a teacher’s curriculum work. Language and thought are intertwined, and recent research on brain development and early literacy both indicate the importance of the early years in language acquisition and literacy skills. Children follow a sequence of language development. Language skills in early childhood include articulation, receptive and expressive language, graphic representative, and enjoyment.

Th e teacher’s role requires an understanding of sev- eral considerations. Knowing language development and the role of home language is critical. Keeping individual children in mind and watching for dominance by the

most verbal children helps. Th e teacher also needs an understanding of bilingualism and dialect diff erences and a working knowledge of speech and language disor- ders. Th e language of the teacher—both spoken and nonverbal—will infl uence children’s use of language in a program.

Special topics emerge in language curriculum. Early literacy involves children in reading and writing experi- ences. Children and books belong together. Good litera- ture gives insight into how to play peek-a-boo, escape a hungry lion, make a friend, and be brave. Th e early years should lay a foundation in literature upon which chil- dren can build throughout their lives.

KEY TERMS receptive language expressive language extended discourse precursors phonemic awareness dual language learners bilingualism

simultaneous acquisition successive acquisition dialect Ebonics articulation elaboration

phonemes decoding emergent literacy invented spelling whole language emergent writing

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are the stages of language development?

2. Describe dual language learning and how teachers help children who are English language learners.

3. List the fi ve language skills and one way early education can help their development.

4. Th e teacher has several roles in language development; name at least three with an example of how to implement the consideration.

5. Describe three curriculum activities for language development. Simplify them for infants/toddlers/2s and elabo- rate for the primary-aged youngsters.

6. Name the two major steps in the development of children’s reading, and how they can be encouraged in a program.

7. What is a “print-rich environment”? Give at least three examples that encourage children’s writing.

8. How does one select good children’s books?

455

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Observe the children in your care. Identify the stages of language development of three children. Give concrete

examples that validate your assessment.

2. Choose a child in your care whose primary language is not English. How is that child processing language? What are you doing to foster the child’s emerging English skills? How is that child’s fi rst language being sup- ported in your program? What can you do to involve the family?

3. Teaching reading readiness involves trying to develop oral language and listening skills. What could a teacher of toddlers plan for each? A kindergarten teacher?

4. Describe three ways children’s books and literature can be extended in the curriculum.

5. Select four or fi ve books from a bibliography of multicultural children’s books. What themes are addressed? How does the vocabulary or speech style of the story characters teach children about diversity?

HELPFUL WEBSITES American Library Association http://www.ala.org Braille Institute http://www.brailleinstitute.org Children’s Book Council http://www.cbcbooks.org Early Childhood Research Institute on Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services http://clas.uiuc.edu/

links.html National Association for Bilingual Education http://www.nabe.org National Association for Multicultural Education http://www.nameorg.org National Association for the Education of Young Children http://www.naeyc.org National Black Child Development Institute http://www.nbcdi.org National Center for Family Literacy http://www.famlit.org National Task Force on Early Childhood for Hispanics http://www.ecehispanic.org/about.html Raising a Reader Early Literacy Program http://www.raisingareader.org Reading Is Fundamental http://www.rif.org

REFERENCES

Additional resources including the TeachSource Videos can be found on the premium website for this book. Go to http://www.cengage.com/login to register your access code.

Ansari, S. (2005). English Language Development Insti- tute. Redwood City, CA: San Mateo County Offi ce of Education.

Baker, C. (2004). A parents’ and teachers’ guide to bilin- gualism (2nd Ed). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters Ltd.

Cannon, J. S., & Karoly, L. A. (2007). Who is ahead and who is behind: Gaps in school readiness and student

achievement in the early grades. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.

Cazden, C. B. (1996, March). Communicative compe- tence, 1966-1996. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for Applied Linguistics (ERIC No. ED 399764), Chicago, IL.

CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

456 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Chang, H. (1993). Affi rming children’s roots: Cultural and linguistic diversity in early care and education. Oakland, CA: California Tomorrow.

Chesler, P. (2002). Bilingualism: Literacy development and activities for the young child. Unpublished.

Chomsky, N. (1993). Language and thought. Wakefi eld, RI: Moyer Bell.

Derman-Sparks, L., & Olsen Edwards, J. (2010). Anti- bias education for young children and ourselves. Wash- ington, DC: NAEYC.

Dickenson, D. K., & Tabors, P. O. (2002, March). Fos- tering language and literacy in classrooms and homes. Young Children, 57(2).

Epstein, A. (2009, January/February). Th ink before you (inter)act: What it means to be an intentional teacher. Exchange.

Hoover, M. (1997, March/April). Ebonics insider. Stan- ford Magazine.

International Reading Association (2006). Position statement: Literacy development in the preschool years. Retrieved from www.reading.org

Isbell, R. T. (2002, March). Telling and retelling stories: Learning language and literacy. Young Children, 57(2).

Isbell, R., & Phillips, L. (2001, Spring/Summer). Oral language development in learning centers. Play, Pol- icy, and Practice Connections VI (1).

Karoly, L., Ghosh-Dastidar, B., Zellman, G., Perlman, M., & Fernyhough, L. (2008). Prepared to learn: Th e nature and quality of early care and education for preschool-age children in California. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.

Klein, M. D., Cook, R. E., & Richardson-Gibbs, A. M. (2001). Strategies for including children with special needs in early childhood settings. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Miller, K. (2001, September/October). Caring for the little ones: When do you teach them to read? Child Care Information Exchange (141).

NAEYC (2005). Position statement on responding to lin- guistic and cultural diversity: Recommendations for ef- fective early childhood education. Washington, DC: Author.

National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisi- tion (NCELA) (2007a). Th e growing numbers of limited numbers of English profi cient students: 1995/96–2005/06. Washington, DC: Author. Re- trieved from www.ncela.gwu.edu

NCELA (2008). Dual language learners in the early years: Getting ready to succeed at school. Washing-

ton, DC: Author. Retrieved from www.ncela.gwu. edu.

Saxton, R. R. (1998, July). Diff erent dialects. Personal communication.

Selman, R. (2001, May). Talk time: Programming com- municative interaction into the toddler day. Young Children, 56(3).

Soundy, C. S., & Stout, N. L. (2002, March). Pillow talk: Fostering the emotional and language needs of young learners. Young Children, 57(2).

Tabors, P. O. (1998, November). What early childhood educators need to know: Developing eff ective pro- grams for linguistically and culturally diverse chil- dren and families. Young Children, 53(6).

Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Th ought and language. New York: MIT Press and John Wiley and Sons.

Wasik, Barbara, A. (2001, January). Teaching the al- phabet to young children. Young Children, 56(1).

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Willis, C. (1998, May/June). Language development: A key to lifelong learning. Child Care Information Ex- change, 121.

Special Topics: Early Literacy and Children’s Lit- erature

Arbuthnot, M. H., & Sutherland, Z. (1972). Children and books (4th Ed). London: Scott Foresman.

Bobys, A. R. (2000, July). What does emerging literacy look like? Young Children, 55(4).

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de Melendez, W. R., & Ostertag, V. (1997). Teaching young children in multicultural classrooms. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Derman-Sparks, L., & the ABC Task Force (1989). Th e anti-bias curriculum. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Goodman, K. (1986). What’s whole in whole language. Portsmouth, NH: Heinmann Educational Books.

International Reading Association and NAEYC (1998, July). Learning to read and write: Developmentally appropriate practice for young children. Young Chil- dren, 53(4).

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Lundin, A. (1991, Summer). Secret gardens: Th e litera- ture of childhood. Childhood Education, 67(4).

Machado, J. M. (1999). Early childhood experiences in language arts. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

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Owocki, G. (2001). Make way for literacy. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Raines, S. C., & Canady, R. J. (1989). Story stretchers. Mt. Rainier, WA: Gryphon House.

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Teachout, C., & Bright, A. (2007, July). Reading the pictures: a missing piece of the literacy puzzle. Young Children, 62(4).

Trelease, J. (1982). Th e read-aloud handbook. New York: Penguin Books.

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Yopp, H. K., & Yopp, R. H. (2009, January). Phonolog- ical awareness is child’s play. Young Children, 64(1).

CHAPTER 13 Planning for the Mind: Language Development

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C H A P T E R

14

Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

■ How do children learn through psychosocial experiences?

■ What are emotional growth and skills?

■ What is social growth in the early years?

■ How is creativity developed?

■ How can teachers address spiritual growth?

■ How can art help children’s psychosocial development?

NAEYC CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Th ese Core Values and sections from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct are ad- dressed in this chapter. As you read, note how the Core Values, Ideals, or Principles listed here apply to the topics in this chapter. (Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

Core Values: We have committed ourselves to helping children and adults reach their full potential in the context of relationships that are based on trust, respect, and mutual regard.

Section I: I-1.5. To create and maintain safe and healthy settings that foster children’s social,

emotional, intellectual, and physical development and that respect their dig- nity and their contributions.

P-1.4. For every child, we shall implement adaptations in teaching strategies, learn- ing environment, and curricula, consult with the family, and seek recommen- dations from appropriate specialists to maximize the potential of the child to benefi t from the program.

Section II: I-2.3 To respect the dignity of each family and its culture, language, customs, and

beliefs.

459CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

Learning through Psychosocial Experiences Th e heart and soul of any good program for young chil- dren is a commitment to help children as they struggle with (1) the reality of emotions, (2) the awareness of the need for social skills, (3) the creative urge, and (4) ac- knowledgment of the spirit. Together, these four areas comprise the psychosocial, or aff ective, side of develop- ment. Closely related to the child’s self-concept and self- esteem, aff ective growth takes place in the context of per- sonal identity. “Identity is tied to culture. In the critical early years, children begin to develop a sense of self as families hand down beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors” (Nakahata, 2001). It is primarily through psychosocial experiences that children learn who they are; only then can they see themselves successfully in relation to others. “K-12 standards have often focused on academic subject matter rather than including other domains…Because research has emphasized how powerfully early social and emotional competence predicts school readiness and later success, and because good early environments help build this competence, this domain should be given explicit at- tention in early learning standards” (NAEYC, 2002).

Each section of this chapter—emotional, social, cre- ative, and spiritual growth—is explored individually to give a greater understanding of its importance to the de- veloping child. An overview of development is followed by a discussion of the skills children learn in the pre- school years. Th e crucial role of the teacher is empha- sized next, followed by curriculum planning to reinforce each area.

The Psychosocial Domain Th e fi rst thing one notices on entering an early child- hood classroom is the children at play. A quick survey of the area shows who is playing together, whether there is crying or fi ghting, and how happy or sad the children look. Th is overview gives an immediate sense of the emotional, social, and creative climate in that early child- hood setting.

■ Emotional. Toddler Abier giggles as she runs her hands across the water table, then cries after she splashes soapsuds in her eyes and needs to be com- forted.

■ Social. Preschooler Danny wants his favorite red wagon, so Pat, the student teacher, helps him nego- tiate a turn with Christa.

■ Creative. Kindergartners Fabio, Erika, and Benjy work steadily to build a tall, intricate block struc- ture. When it is fi nished, the three children stand back and marvel at their creation.

■ Spiritual. Th e children see a nest being built in the backyard of Teresa’s family childcare home. “How do the birds know how to make the nest?” wonder the children. Th ey make daily checks and then hear the peeping sound of the newly hatched baby birds. “It’s magic!” whispers Neefara, and the children sit quietly and reverently every time they see the mother return.

Together, these factors—emotional mood, social dy- namics, creative, and spiritual tone—defi ne the overall atmosphere in which children play and work.

Th e components of well-being are woven together in the developing child. Children who are sensitive to their own feelings and moods are able to begin understanding other people and, thus, become more socially eff ective and successful. Children with experience in many cre- ative endeavors have the self-confi dence that comes from having an outlet for self-expression. Children who are spiritually curious are likely to ask questions such as “How did the little seed do that?” when gardening, or they want to write a letter to their dead pet to make sure all is at peace.

Th e psychosocial domain is the third area of hu- man development. It includes the development of emo- tions, of temperament, and social skills. Areas of self- concept and self-esteem are also in this realm. “Family, friends, the community, the culture, and the larger soci- ety are particularly central to the psychosocial domain. For example, cultural diff erences in appropriate sex roles or in family structures are part of this domain” (Berger, 2007). Th e domain is sometimes labeled aff ec- tive as it deals with feelings, or socio-emotional, as the social and emotional areas are key components. Th e di- vision into the three domains makes it easier to study, but development is holistic, not piecemeal, as seen in the following segment.

Th ese four areas are also linked to other aspects of the child’s growth. Below are four examples of how the developmental domains connect:

■ Creative/Physical. Physical skills can defi ne and limit children’s creative abilities. Two-year-old Andrea, whose physical skills do not yet include balancing objects, plays with blocks by piling them on top of one another, fi lling her wagon with blocks, and dumping them or lugging them from place to place.

460 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

■ Social/Cognitive. It is hard for 5-year-old Karena to share her best friend Luther with other children. Her intellectual abilities do not yet allow her to consider more than one idea at a time, so she cannot understand that Luther can be her friend and Dana’s at the same time.

■ Emotional/Language. Tyler is upset with his teach- er’s refusal to let him go outdoors during story time. “I hate you!” he screams, “and you aren’t the boss of me!” Children learn to label and express their emo- tions through words.

■ Spiritual/Creative. Th e children make their daily trek to the henhouse as soon as outside time begins. Th ey fi rst gasp as they discover a raccoon has pried open the wire and killed their pet. After all the que- ries about what happened, Ellie speaks up, “I want to make a picture for Henny-Penny to take with her.” Th e group paints a multicolored mural, for which each one dictates ideas. “I am sad you died,” says Ellie. “But don’t worry, you will rise again!” A child’s spiritual notions are allowed to express them- selves in creative ways.

It is diffi cult to measure the child’s growth in these areas; it is easier to determine a child’s progress in physi-

cal, cognitive, and language development. After all, a child counts or does not count, is either 40 inches tall or is not, and speaks in full sentences or in short phrases. Aff ective expressions are more subtle and subjective. Talbot may feel rejected and sad if no one greets him as he enters the playhouse. He may mistake the children’s busy-ness as an act of exclusion. In reality, the children did not even notice he was there. Teachers can play a critical role in helping children express their inner selves and feelings.

Traditionally, early childhood educators have con- cerned themselves with children’s well-being, knowing that in the early years the foundations must be laid for children to understand themselves and others. Social growth, creative expression, and experience with a wide range of emotional behaviors also help children develop a strong self-concept with positive self-esteem.

Building self-image is complex, multidimensional, and ever-changing. It aff ects everything we do and is af- fected by everything we do. Crucial to children’s self- image is how children interpret the response of the envi- ronment to their actions. And much of a self-image is based on the way society views the child. Teachers play an important role as they provide an essential ingredient of self-image: the quality of human interactions.

A Sense of Self Children need to have several key experiences in the early years in order to develop and consolidate a sense of self (see Figure 14-1). “Kindness and hostility go hand in hand as children exercise their growing abilities to un- derstand and aff ect the feelings of others” (Curry & Johnson, 1990). At the same time, the early years include formative experiences that shape a child in terms of moral worth, wrestling with good/nice and bad/mean. Th e curriculum can foster the development of the whole child. Th is will mean including the children’s and their families’ lives and incorporating multicultural and anti- bias elements (see Chapters 9 and 10).

Transformative education recognizes that all of us are socialized to take our place in society. Our sense of self is infl uenced by prevailing social values, and our social skills are shaped by social practices. Th e social realities of sexism, racism, classism, ethnocen- trism, and heterosexism shape children’s self- identity and the formation of prejudice and discrim- inatory behavior. Transformative education fosters a positive and knowledgeable self-identity by strengthening children’s connections to their

Building self-image is complex, multidimensional, and ever-changing.

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families, cultural communities, and geographic com- munities. (York, 1998)

A psychosocial curriculum that prepares children to be active and involved and promotes social action and prob- lem solving helps children develop into involved citizens with a positive self-identity. In a curriculum for infants and toddlers, the emphasis is on relationships. In pre- school, it is part of the traditional emphasis on social and emotional development. For school-age programs, it is often known as character education.

Affi rming Identity As children experience messages from others and through their own perceptions, they construct an understanding of race, ethnicity, gender, and ability. Th is will shape their self-image and, by extension, their relationships to oth- ers. Starting Small (1997) suggests activities to assist in promoting children’s identity, which are incorporated in the theme/project in Figures 14-1 and 14-7.

Self-Esteem An individual’s sense of personal worth and an accep- tance of whom one is helps them make judgments about themselves as they confront the world. To the extent that children feel worthy and capable, they are ready to suc-

ceed. If children disapprove of themselves, they may feel like failures and expect to do poorly.

Self-esteem develops as a refl ection of experiences. Th e way people respond to you gives you some indica- tion of your importance or value. Newborn infants have no concept of self and no past experience to judge their own worth. A young child who has positive experiences with others will more likely have a higher sense of self- esteem than one who has felt unloved or unnoticed.

Th ere appear to be four components of self-esteem:

1. A sense of one’s own identity. 2. A sense of one’s uniqueness. 3. A sense of self (power). 4. A sense of belonging (connectedness).

Early in life, self-esteem is tied to family, friends, and other important people, such as teachers. Figure 14-2 shows how curriculum can develop each of these charac- teristics. Planning for children’s success builds self- esteem. It includes the following four components, which we call the “Four I’s”:

■ I. When children enter the classroom, the message they receive is “I am important and this is my place.” Th e physical environment, the daily schedule, and the curriculum are designed to give all children per- mission to express themselves. Th is gives children a sense of identity and uniqueness.

■ Initiative. Children are encouraged to initiate their own learning, to make contact with others, to take action, and to make choices. Power is important to young children; they want to know how to take (and when to let go) of control, and how to use power to get what they want and need.

■ Independence. Self-management tasks of dressing, eating, and toileting are given an important place in the curriculum. Children are assisted in taking care of their own belongings and in developing indepen- dent judgment about events and activities. Every culture and group has its own intricate rules about when and how to be independent, and an early childhood group can give them experience.

■ Interaction. Social interaction has a high priority in the program. Th e room and yard are busy places, with children moving about and talking among themselves and with adults. Confl icts are accepted as a natural consequence of social life. In the spirit of John Dewey (Chapter 1), democratic group living encourages children to interact. In respect for cul- tures that value collaboration and group harmony, such interaction fosters a consciousness of interde-

Growing a Sense of Self

Growth Help Children Age Focus with . . . Infants Relationship Attachment

Toddlers Awareness Self-regulation

Twos Curiosity Interactions with others

Preschool Self-concept Testing and evaluating self

Authority Testing their limits in play, making friends

Kindergarten Self-in-the-world Feeling effective

Primary Competence Managing failure/mistakes, fi nding their strengths

FIGURE 14-1 Children’s emotional and social growth is an ongoing challenge as they enter new settings in their expanding world.

462 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

pendence. Th e need for relationships with other people is crucial, and interaction gives children a sense of connectedness.

A positive sense of self is critical for young children. Re- search (Marshall, 1989) shows that low self-image is correlated with poor mental health, poor academic achievement, and delinquency. In contrast, a positive self-concept is correlated with good mental health, aca- demic achievement, and good behavior. Children with a positive self-image are ready to meet life’s challenges. Th ey will have the self-confi dence to deal with the reality of emotions, the changing nature of social interaction, the joys of creativity, and serenity of spirituality.

Emotional Growth

The Development of Emotions Emotions are the feelings a person has—joy and sorrow, love and hate, confi dence and fear, loneliness and belonging, anger and contentment, frustration and satisfaction. Th ey are responses to events, people, and circumstances. Feelings are an outgrowth of what a person perceives is happening. Emotionally healthy people learn to give expression to their feelings in appropriate ways. Th ey do not allow their feel- ings to overshadow the rest of their behavior. Th e optimal time to learn these skills is in the early years.

Curriculum for Psychosocial Development

Curriculum: Activity (Use of Sense) • Use rocks of various sizes with balances, so that

children can touch and hear when they move things around.

• A malleable material such as play dough can be used fi rst alone, then with tools.

• Make “oobleck,” a mixture of cornstarch and water, in separate tubs for each child. Children can manipulate it in their own ways.

• Water play offers the child choices: pour into any of several containers, fi ll or empty the jug, use a funnel or a baster to squirt the water, make waves or splash hands.

• When fi ngerpainting, the teacher can describe what it appears the child is feeling. Children can identify their feelings as the teacher describes them while they use the materials.

• Whether the sensory material is clay, soapy water, or fi ne sand, the issues of ownership and use of materials arise. Then, teachers refl ect children’s feelings and help them take responsibility for their own feelings.

• As children begin to use the sensory materials, they need to communicate to others. Usually the issues are about wanting more material and personal space.

• When children share in a sensory activity, such as a feeling walking through tubs of small pebbles, sand, and soapsuds, they have the delightful experience of enjoying their own feelings with another.

Emotional Skill Development Self Esteem

1. Identity: ”Look at what I can do, the noise I can make, the weight I can pick up and move!”

2. Connectedness: ”I can make the same snakes as you; we can all make cakes.”

3. Uniqueness: “I’m pouring mine; you’re dripping yours; and she is squeezing her stuff out her fi ngers!”

4. Power: “I can make this water go anywhere I want; look out for the tidal waves!”

Deal with Feelings

1. Identifi cation (to notice and label): “Does it feel very smooth, slippery, slidy? Is it soft and soothing?”

2. Mastery (to accept): “She took your baker’s dough and that made you angry. You can tell her you don’t like it when she grabs what you are using.”

3. Expressing (to express appropriately):

Child: “Tami has all the big pitchers.”

Teacher: “How can you let her know you want one?”

Child: “And she splashed me two times!”

Teacher: “If you feel too crowded, you need to tell her so.”

4. Feelings (to deal with others): “Whee! Yuk! Mmm! Ha!”

FIGURE 14-2 A psychosocial curriculum offers sensorimotor opportunities to deal with materials in a nonstructured way. Because children relax with open-ended activi- ties, they will often share their feelings as they use sensory materials in a comfortable atmosphere.

463CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

Research in brain development (Pool, 1997; Goleman, 1995; Chapters 4 and 12) has identifi ed key areas of the brain involved in emotional expression and development. An area in the limbic section of our brains is the control center of our emotions. Two almond-shaped organs be- hind our eyes, called the amygdala, are in constant com- munication with the rest of the brain (for thinking and perceiving).

Th e emotional brain scans everything happening to us from moment to moment to see if something that happened in the past that made us sad or angry is like what is happening now. If so, the amygdala calls an alarm to declare an emergency and to mobilize in a split second to act. And it can do so, in brain time, more rapidly than the thinking brain takes to fi gure out what is going on, which is why people can get into a rage and do some- thing very inappropriate that they wished they had not. It is called an “emotional hijacking” (Goleman, 1995).

Children experience this constantly, and educators must help children develop dimensions of emotional intelligence: self-awareness, handling emotions gener- ally, motivation, empathy, and social skills. Th ese grow over time, with maturation and experience both at work. In infancy, there are fi rst only two identifi able emotions: contentment and distress. Infants respond in agitated emotion whether wet, hungry, hurt, or bored. Gradually, the expression of the emotion becomes more refi ned and varies with the situation. Curiosity and anger begin to appear. A toddler’s cry of frustration is diff erent from the cry of discomfort or hunger. As children get older, their emotional expressions change as they gain control over some of their feelings and learn new ways to express them. “New emotions appear toward the end of the sec- ond year: pride, shame, embarrassment, and even guilt. Because these emotions require an awareness of other people, they emerge from the family setting, which is it- self infl uenced by the culture” (Berger, 2007).

Th ese strong external forces include parents, family members, teachers, and friends as social infl uence. Th ey help the young child learn socially acceptable behavior, and can mediate aggressive or withdrawing behavior. Much of what children learn is by example (see Chapter 4). Th erefore, children learn more from adult models than from simply being told how to behave and feel. In the preschool years, emotional regulation is a key chal- lenge, which can lead to competence within every culture and domain (Matsumoto, 2004). Th e emotional founda- tion of the fi rst fi ve years is carried forth into school-age, as a friend, the peer group, and validation from adults help build resilience and coping skills for dealing with stress.

Emotional Skills in Early Childhood Th e emotional skills children learn in their early years are substantial. Research shows that some emotions— interest, disgust, distress, to name a few—are observable in the newborn, and it is posited that all the basic emo- tions are present within the fi rst few weeks of life. Th ese include happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust. Th e more complex emotions of shame, guilt, envy, and pride emerge later, once children have had the social experiences of observing these emotions in others or have been in situations that might evoke such feelings. Th ese expressions have been observed in a wide range of cultural and ethnic groups.

In early childhood, children learn to respond to new situations and to react and connect with a teacher, both very emotional experiences. Good teachers stimulate an emotional response to themselves and the curriculum that is a balance between interest and overwhelming fear. Creating the “right” emotional conditions is a primary way to gain access to a child’s capacity for learning. Young children are not yet limited by social mores and standards of conduct that prevent them from sincere and truthful self-expression. Teachers observe children and learn how youngsters feel about facing their own feel- ings, the feelings of others, and the range of skills catego- rized as emotional growth.

Ability to Deal with Feelings Dealing with feelings involves four steps. Each builds on the other so that they follow a developmental sequence; the learning that takes place at one level aff ects the devel- opment of what follows. Figures 14-2 and 14-4 describe how the early childhood classroom and teacher help children deal eff ectively with their feelings.

To Notice and Label Feelings. Th is ability is the fi rst step and corresponds to Goleman’s “self-awareness” di- mension. Th e sobbing 1- or 2-year-old may have many reasons for feeling distress. As parents recognize the cries of hunger, hurt, and fear, they name these feelings. Th e child will learn to notice what the feeling is and recognize it. Teachers know how to “read” children’s faces and body language to give them the words for and ways to express those feelings (see Figure 14-3). Chapter 6 has sugges- tions for becoming a skillful observer. For instance, we can help young children produce a label for their feeling of anger or sadness by teaching them that they are having a feeling and that they can use a word to describe their an- gry feelings. We can ask them to “Use your words” only

464 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

after we have helped them learn and fi nd those specifi c words.

Toddlers and 2-year-olds can be taught simple words for sad, mad, and glad. Preschoolers are quite verbal and curious about language and ready to learn words that de- scribe a wider range of feelings. Th ey can learn “lonely,” “scared,” “silly,” “sad,” and “happy.” Labeling what one feels in- side is a critical skill to learn. It is a healthy fi rst grader who can say, “I have tried to cut this string three times and the scissors aren’t working. I am frustrated. I need some help!”

To Accept Feeling. Teachers recognize that children are capable of strong feelings. Children can feel over- whelmed by the very strength and intensity of a feeling, be it one of anger or of love. As children come to accept feelings, they learn how to handle the depth of the feel- ing and not let it overpower them. Th e changing nature of feelings is also part of accepting the feeling. It can be a source of comfort and relief for young children to dis- cover that the strong emotion they experience now will pass. Adults who work with young children help them work through those feelings safely.

For instance, 3-year-old Carlos feels sad as his mother prepares to leave. His teacher walks them to the door, then bends down and puts an arm around him as his

mother waves good-bye. Acknowledging that he is sad, the teacher stays with Carlos, reminding him that his mother will return and that the teacher will take care of him while he is at school. Because the child is allowed to feel the sadness that is natural in leave-taking, the tense feelings are over in a few minutes. Th e teacher smiles and encourages Carlos to fi nd something fun to do. Once he has recovered his composure, the teacher can point out that he’s “okay now,” and Carlos can feel proud for having lived through and grown from saying good-bye. Ac- knowledgment of the feeling and his ability to accept it help give Carlos the confi dence to move on.

To Express Feelings in an Appropriate Way. Ex- pressing feelings appropriately is a two-part process. First, children must feel free to express their feelings; second, they must learn ways of expression that are suit- able to their age and to the situation. Many beginning teachers are uncomfortable because children express themselves so strongly (and often aggressively). Yet the child who is passive and unable to express feelings freely should be of equal concern and should be encouraged in self-expression.

When teachers create a safe emotional climate, they can eff ectively help children learn to understand and

Learning to “Read” Feelings

Behavioral Defi nition Pale face, alert eyes, tense mouth, rigid body.

Wide eyes, eyebrows uplifted, involuntary cry or scream, quick intake of breath.

Red face, eyes staring, face taut, fi sts and jaw clenched, voice harsh or yelling, large gestures.

Smiling face, shining eyes, free and easy body movements, laughing.

Head held high, smiling face, jaunty walk or strut, tendency to announce or point out.

Red face, glazed and downcast eyes, tight mouth, tense body, small and jerky movements, soft voice.

Unsmiling face, downturned mouth, glazed and teary eyes, crying or rubbing eyes, limp body, slow or small movements, soft and trembly voice.

Puckered brow, pale face, tight mouth, whiny voice, jerky movements, lack of or diffi culty in concentration.

Raised brow, shining eyes, perhaps tense body in absorption of the object of curiosity; often hand movements to touch and pick up object; sometimes mouth agape.

Feeling 1. Fear

2. Surprise

3. Anger

4. Joy

5. Pride

6. Embarrassment

7. Sadness

8. Anxiety

9. Curiosity

FIGURE 14-3 As we observe children’s behavior, we understand how their feelings are expressed. Expressions of fear, anger, sadness, disgust, and happiness are uni- versal, and learning to read faces and body stance is essential to guiding emotional development.

465CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

express themselves. “Adults who most eff ectively social- ize … convey a simple, fi rm, consistent message, [for ex- ample,] acknowledging a child’s right to feel anger while prohibiting expression of anger in destructive or hurtful ways” (Marion, 2006). Knowing how to handle upset- ting feelings or impulses is the root of emotional intelli- gence. “I can see you are upset about Joaquin taking the zoo animal,” you might say, “But I cannot let you hit him—and I will not let him hit you, either.”

Encouragement to act out every emotion is not ap- propriate, for instance, for African-American children. “Living under oppressive conditions mandates learning

to handle oppression in ways … [such as] to learn where to express feelings and who it is safe to let know your feelings,” says Cooper (1992). “Th eir reluctance to engage should be respected, not viewed as a challenge.”

As children grow, they acquire the modes of expres- sion that are developmentally appropriate for their age. Babies and toddlers without language cry to express their feelings; thus, this type of crying calls for the same kind of immediate response given to other forms of com- munication in later years. Two-year-olds express their displeasure by pushes and shoves; 4-year-olds use their verbal power and argue. By age 6 or 7, children learn to

Young children feel their emotions strongly. Learning to read faces and body stance is es- sential to guiding emotional development and for children to be successful socially.

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tell others—clearly and with reasons—what they are feeling. Th e ability to express feelings is intact, but the methods of expression change as children grow. Expres- sion of feelings also has a cultural dimension. Some cul- tures are open in their display of emotions, whereas oth- ers are reserved.

To Deal with the Feelings of Others. Dealing with the feelings of others is the culminating step in the de- velopment of emotional skills. Feelings are the spark of life in people: the fl ash of anger, the “ah-hah” of discov- ery, the thrill of accomplishment, the hug of excite- ment. Because recognizing and expressing emotions are closely interwoven, children who can distinguish among diff erent emotions and have some experience in taking the perspective of others by observing their feelings develop empathy. With increasing social awareness and decreasing egocentrism (see Chapter 4), two other emotions emerge: empathy, a true understanding of the feelings of another; and antipathy, intense dislike of other people. Toddlers may cry or gather near the

teacher when a playmate is hurt or sad; preschoolers smile at another’s laughter; and kindergartners imagine themselves vividly in another’s predicament during a story. Like the complex emotions discussed earlier, em- pathy requires cognitive abilities, such as seeing oneself as separate from other people (see Erikson, Chapter 4) and also as connected in some way to others (see Vygotsky, Chapter 4).

Older children, who are better able to put themselves in another’s place (see Piaget, Chapter 4) and who un- derstand a wider range of emotions, can respond to oth- ers in distress. Conducting class meetings to help chil- dren “ Talk It Out” (see Figure 14-11) guides children through a process that builds problem solving, compas- sion, and community. Empathy is aff ected by early expe- rience and needs nurturing to grow. Helping children to tolerate and appreciate how diff erent people express their emotions leads to understanding and cooperation.

Ability to Handle Change It is remarkable that, as one of the most adaptable spe- cies on the planet, we humans resist change so much. Even as our brains are programmed to fi nd pattern and sameness, it is change that is inevitable. Th e very act of being born is a change, marking the beginning of a life in which stress is part of the act of developmental achieve- ment. Witness the toddler’s numerous falls toward walk- ing, the separation of parent and child at the nursery school doorway, the concentration and frustrations of the 6-year-old on roller skates. A measure of positive stress encourages a child to strive and achieve, to fi nd out and discover.

Stress can arise from several factors—both internal (severe colic) or external (moving to a new home). Some stresses are acute in a child’s life, such as a hospitalization, whereas others are chronic, such as living in an alcoholic household. Inadequate housing, poverty, and war are eco- logical stressors (see Chapter 15). Family changes—the birth of a sibling, death or loss of a close family member, marriage problems, and divorce—are sources of stress on a personal level. Inept parenting practices that neglect or abuse children are especially troublesome as they hurt children and provide them with poor role models for learning how to cope with stress.

Helping children fi nd a haven and creative interests also helps develop a protective buff er against diffi culties in school or home. Perhaps the single most important intervention is you, the teacher, who is a confi dant or a positive role model. Figure 14-4 lists the stages of stress and teacher strategies.

Children learn to appreciate and understand feelings as their feelings are accepted by teachers who can show them how to deal with feelings and changes.

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Teachers can help children accept change in several ways:

■ Anticipate changes that are likely to occur and iden- tify the process for children. “Junko, your mother will be leaving soon. We will go looking for that fa- vorite puzzle after you say good-bye to her.”

■ Notify children of changes in the daily routine. “We will not be having snacks inside today; let’s use the patio table instead.”

■ Model acceptance of unanticipated changes. When children are informed that change is anticipated, ac- cepted, and not necessarily disrupting, they become more relaxed about handling the unpredictable.

■ Be a resource for helping children cope in ways that are appropriate to the child and the situation at hand. “It’s okay to cry when you are sad or scared,

Akbar. It is hard to fi gure out what to do when they say they do not want to play.”

Ability to Exercise Judgment Th e ability to exercise judgment is an important skill, for it helps children to make decisions and fi gure out what to do in new situations. On entering a program, a child faces many decisions: Where shall I play? Who shall I play with? Who will I turn to for help when I need it? Judgment is selecting what to do, when to do it, with whom to do it, and when to stop.

Making choices is an essential part of decision mak- ing. Children are bombarded with choices in America— too many choices, some people say. Some children must decide about issues that, in other times, only adults han- dled. But children have diffi culty discriminating between

Coping with Stress: The Teacher Helps

The Teacher Helps Notices when child is stressed (sees changes in behavior). Listens. Offers words for child’s feelings. Offers age-appropriate explanations. Is accepting of unpredictable behavior. Reassures child of teacher’s constant availability. Alerts parents and others of child’s state. Takes preventive actions to lessen other stressful events.

Listens. Offers age-appropriate explanations. Helps child see situation more positively. May make a simple list of the problem. Reassures that the problem will be solved. Alerts other adults to the importance of child’s work.

Listens. Asks for the child’s ideas. Helps child list possible solutions. Tells parents and others of child’s solutions. Demonstrates self-control and coping skills him/herself. Encourages and enhances child’s self-esteem.

Listens. Observes child’s implementing a solution. Gives supportive feedback about relative success or failure of the plan. Helps child refi ne or revise strategy as needed. Encourages child’s efforts.

Stage Alarm

Appraisal

Search

Implementation

FIGURE 14-4 Stages of and strategies for coping with stress: the teacher is observant of the child throughout, makes regular time to talk individually, and encourages the child to use art, books, and class members as supports.

Behavior Feels arousal, fear, confusion. Has swift mood changes.

Attempts to understand the problem.

Looks for coping strategy. Selects from what is at hand.

Tries out a coping strategy. Applies a solution to the problem.

468 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

big choices and little choices. Every choice is a big one for most children. Learning to make good choices takes thought, guidance, and lots of practice.

Th ere is no easy way to teach children how to make decisions because each situation must be dealt with on an individual basis. Th e judgment a child exercises in choosing a friend to play with today may have other fac- tors to consider tomorrow. Instead, teachers help chil- dren base their decisions on the best judgment they are capable of in each instance. One way to encourage deci- sion making is to provide opportunities for choice (see “Focus on Skills” for specifi c suggestions).

Another aspect of judgment is a child’s self- regulation. Research suggests that children can develop the capacity to plan and guide themselves. In contrast to self-control, in which we teach children to respond to an external rule, children’s self-regulation is a combination of the cognitive and emotional realms.

During the early childhood years, there is a great in- crease in self-regulation …[T]his increase is a “cen- tral and signifi cant” developmental hallmark of the early childhood period. During these years, the child makes tremendous progress towards regulat- ing emotional responses and is increasingly able to

comply with external requests, control behavior in familiar settings, control attention, and engage in self-directed thinking and problem-solving self- regulation. (Bronson, 2000)

Th e teacher can encourage this process by serving as a Vygotsky-like mediator, making children participants in their own learning (thinking), and by supporting chil- dren’s focus on self-competence (emotional). As they mature, children are able to sort out what judgments might be made here, what factors need to be considered there.

Enjoying One’s Self and One’s Power Teachers want children to feel powerful—to know that they can master their lives and feel confi dent in their own abilities. Th is feeling of power is particularly impor- tant in the early years, when so much of what a child can see is out of reach, both literally and fi guratively.

Responsibility and limits, however, go hand in hand with power. Th e child who is strong enough to hit some- one has to learn not to use that strength unnecessarily. Th e child who shouts with glee also fi nds out that noise is unacceptable indoors. By holding children responsible for their own actions, teachers can help children enjoy their power and accept its limitations.

One kind of fantasy play most teachers encounter is that of superheroes. Common to children as young as 2, superhero play is exciting and rowdy, usually active and loud, playacting of heroic roles that give children powers they lack in everyday life. Superhero play attracts chil- dren who are (Hoff man 2004):

■ Investigating power and autonomy ■ Balancing the desire for power with the need for

friendship ■ Testing physical limits ■ Exploring feelings ■ Answering big questions about the world, such as ■ What is right and what is wrong, good, and bad? ■ What is fair and what is unfair? ■ What is life and what is death? ■ What is a boy and what is a girl? ■ What is real and what is fantasy?

Imaginary companions often join superheroes, although they just as often accompany children on their own. Th is second type of fantasy play sometimes concerns adults. Piaget believed that they refl ected immature thinking of the preoperational stage and should disappear by the time a child began elementary school (Chapter 4). More recent research by Carlson and Taylor (2005) suggests

Enjoying one’s self includes being aware of one’s power and learning to use it well, making important things hap- pen without harming self or others.

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that imaginary friends off er companionship and enter- tainment, and can help children through diffi cult times.

[T]he creation of an imaginary companion is healthy and relatively common…[C]hildren with imaginary companions appear to be less shy, more able to focus their attention, and to have advanced social understanding when compared with other children…Th e bottom line is that although imagi- nary companions and other fantasies have some- times been interpreted as signs of emotional distur- bance, a break with reality, or even the emergence of multiple personalities, they are really just a variation on the theme of all pretend play.

Children need guidance to learn how to express them- selves appropriately and exercise their growing powers responsibly. Fantasy play is an important component of children’s cognitive and emotional development. Teach- ers can help children learn to appreciate and enjoy them- selves. Each time a child is acknowledged, a teacher fos- ters that sense of uniqueness: “Carrie, you have a great sense of humor!” “Eric, your power bracelets are helping to collect all the trash here.” “Freddie, I love the way you and your ‘dog-friend Dan’ sing so clearly.” Saying it aloud reinforces in children the feeling that they are enjoyable to themselves and to others.

Resilience Resilience is the ability to bounce back or recover from adversity. “Resiliency is not a fi xed attribute; rather, it is

a set of protective mechanism that modifi es a person’s response to risk situations” (Breslin, 2005). Research in- dicates that resilient children are more successful in deal- ing with stressors than those who are not (Ginsburg, 2006). No one stressor inevitably causes great harm, yet any stress can be staggering, and cumulative stress can overwhelm.

A number of factors have been identifi ed that con- strain children’s abilities to adapt. “For individuals, these factors include low intelligence, diffi culty in emotional self-regulation, poor health, and low frustration toler- ance” (Bowman, 2005). Losing a primary relationship such as through divorce or deportation, homelessness, abuse, and exposure to violence in the neighborhood are also contributing factors.

At the same time, some children who experience ter- rible circumstances or individual factors become happy, healthy adults. Nurturing children’s capacity to develop resiliency is not simple, but teachers can help by knowing the protective mechanisms that promote resiliency. Th ese include:

■ Th e child’s personality and behavior: help a child fi nd his strengths and sense of humor

■ Th e family attributes: fi nd someone or something that refl ects the child’s capacity to succeed and meet high expectations

■ Th e social environment: use your relationship to identify the child’s competences and develop self- confi dence

Resilient children have hope, and good self-esteem. Both of these are under the infl uence of the teacher and curriculum.

Role of the Teacher Considerations Th e fi rst step in helping children develop healthy emo- tional growth is for adults to acquire good patterns themselves. For instance, are you a person who labels others? What happens when a child is diffi cult or does not meet your expectations? Looking inside, stepping back to think about what we are feeling, is helpful. Com- ing up with a positive label for every child may also help teachers deal better with the emotions and behavior of the children in their care.

Another step is to develop and use a “feeling” vocabu- lary. Words of an emotional nature can be used to label and identify feelings as teachers talk with young chil- dren. Th ere are many ways to develop a list of words re- lated to emotions. Identify some of the feelings children

• Help children recognize humane characteristics of superheroes.

• Discuss real heroes and heroines.

• Talk about the pretend world of acting.

• Limit the place and time for superhero play.

• Explore related concepts.

• Help children de-escalate rough-and-tumble play.

• Make it clear that aggression is unacceptable.

• Give children control over their lives.

• Praise children’s attempts at mastery.

FIGURE 14-5 Superhero play is a special type of dra- matic play that calls for special handling.

Superhero Play: Exercising Power Responsibly

470 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

express; then describe how the children look and act when experiencing those emotions. Th is practice helps to build a vocabulary and an understanding of children’s emotional expressions (see Figure 14-3).

Making the classroom a comfortable place for chil- dren is the third step to a healthy emotional climate. Teachers can also become more attuned to the emo- tional climate in the classroom by knowing when and how feelings are expressed. “Caring as total presence is a matter of attitude. Sometimes doing ‘less’ is doing ‘more’” (Rofrano, 2002), particularly in curriculum for young children. To gain insights, teachers might ask themselves:

■ What causes children in the class to become ex- cited? Frightened? Calm? Loud? How does this knowledge guide curriculum planning? How can it help a teacher handle an unplanned event or change in the schedule?

■ How do I anticipate children’s emotional behavior? How do I follow through?

■ What can teachers do to handle children’s emo- tional outbursts and crises?

■ What happens to the rest of the class when one teacher is occupied in an emotional incident with one or more children?

■ What do I do when a child shows emotion? How do I feel when a child displays emotion?

■ What types of emotions are most common with the young child?

In the early childhood setting, teachers help children come to grips with their strong feelings by discussing those feelings openly. Th ey take the time to help children fi nd names for feelings, to speak of their own feelings, and to begin to be aware of the feelings of others (see Figure 14-6).

When teachers perceive that children are ready to talk about their feelings, small group discussions or individual conversations can be helpful. Good books that touch on sensitive issues (being excluded, being blamed, caring for others) off er possibilities for teachers and children to talk about feelings. Games, joking, and teasing can help chil- dren to feel relaxed and to explore feelings in an accepting way. Classroom problems (not sharing materials, pushing on the climbers) off er topics for discussion.

Th e ability to express emotions verbally gives chil- dren the power to deal with them without resorting to inappropriate behavior. Social referencing involves “re- lying on another person’s emotional reaction to form one’s own appraisal of an uncertain situation” (Berk, 1999). Making use of others’ emotional cues can help infants to deal with stranger anxiety, toddlers to calm themselves after saying good-bye, preschoolers to avoid overreacting to a fall, and school-aged children to begin to recognize that people can feel more than one emotion at a time. Th e teacher who runs to the rescue after a mi- nor spill can engender “learned helplessness” and cause children to be overly dependent on others. Conversely, the teacher who fails to respond to children when they express emotions may give children the message that others’ distress is to be ignored.

When adults show an understanding of feelings, children come to believe that adults are able to help them with their emotions, and the children become more at ease with their own feelings. When something painful happens to a child, adults can express what the child is feeling—“It really hurts to bend your knees now that you have scraped them” or “You look so sad now that Gabi is playing with someone else.” Children then be- come familiar with ways to express how they feel in a va- riety of emotional situations.

Adults can also help children become aware of the emotional states of others. “Look! Paul is crying. Let’s

Observing children’s feelings, such as the joy and pride in this child’s face, helps teachers understand the children they teach.

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go over and see if we can comfort him.” Teachers can encourage children to help care for each other’s hurts and needs. A child can ease the pain of a friend by sit- ting nearby as a wound is cleansed or by giving a hug when an achievement is made. Teachers must be sure to allow children to express their concern and to help them learn ways to respond to the emotional needs of others.

Curriculum Planning for Emotional Growth

In the Early Childhood Setting. Teachers set up their classrooms and yards to promote emotional growth. Materials and activities enhance self-esteem and self- expression. How activities are presented and carried out is also a factor. In the class setting, the how is as critical as the what in curriculum planning for emotional devel- opment. Refer to Figure 14-8 to see how curriculum can be developed to encourage emotional growth.

Select materials that enhance self-expression. In- doors, children’s inner thoughts and feelings are best ex- pressed through:

■ Th e Arts. Clay or dough lets children vent feelings, because it can be pounded, pinched, poked, slapped,

and manipulated. Finger painting and painting on broad surfaces with large brushes encourage a free- dom of movement that permits children to express themselves fully.

■ Blocks/Manipulatives. Vary the materials regularly to help children adjust to change and to allow them to exercise judgment about playing with diff erent materials. A variety of props—motor vehicles, ani- mals, people, furniture—gives children the opportu- nity to reenact what they see of the world.

■ Discovery/Science. Often, science projects are geared toward cognitive and language development. Th ey need not always be; some activities can focus on feelings. Caring for pets, for instance, brings out feelings of nurturing and protectiveness. Making “feeling clocks” can emphasize emotions. Blank clock faces are used as a base upon which children draw or paste pictures of people showing various emo- tional states. Display these at children’s eye level so they can be changed frequently.

■ Dramatic Play. Home-life materials give children the props they need to express how they see their own world of family, parents, and siblings. Th rough play, the child who is afraid of being left with a sit-

The Teacher’s Role in Children’s Anger Management

1. Create a safe emotional climate . . . by having clear, fi rm, and fl exible boundaries.

2. Model responsible anger management . . . by acknowledging when you are upset.

3. Help children develop self-regulatory skills . . . by giving children age- and skill-appropriate responsibilities and encouraging problem-solving with support.

4. Encourage children to label feelings of anger . . . start with “mad” and expand to include “upset, annoyed, irritated, furious, steamed,” etc.

5. Encourage children to talk about anger-arousing interactions . . . by talking about situations when they aren’t happening. “I felt mad when . . . ” can start a lively conversation; cards with realistic scenarios can do the same, as can puppets.

6. Use appropriate books and stories about anger to help children understand and manage anger . . . see Figure14-7.

7. Communicate with parents. . . . Introduce the books or puppets, let them borrow them overnight. Tell them what you do in your program, and ask what they do.

FIGURE 14-6 When children come to grips with their strong feelings, their emotional growth is encouraged (categories from Marion, 2003).

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ter may become the parent leaving the child-doll at home and then returning; the child who is afraid of the doctor can sometimes be seen gleefully giving shots to all the stuff ed animals. Mirrors, telephones, and dress-up clothes encourage children to try out their emotional interests on themselves as well as each other.

■ Language/Library. Stories and books in which char- acters and situations refl ect a wide range of emo- tions are readily available (see Figure 13-20 and Fig- ure 14-7 for some suggested titles). Children enjoy looking at photographs of people and guessing what the person in the photo is feeling. Th is activity en- courages children to fi nd words that label feelings; their responses can be recorded and posted nearby. Once children seem at ease in using feelings words, the discussion can continue when the teacher poses the question “Why do you think this person is sad/ happy/angry?”

■ Music/Movement. Music of all kinds encourages self-expression and permits an endless variety of movement and feelings to be shown openly and freely. Children can be introduced to classical, eth- nic, jazz, or rock music while dancing with scarves or streamers or marching with rhythm sticks, as well as singing and dancing to children’s record- ings. Because musical knowledge is the earliest of human intellectual competencies (see Chapter 12), music can be part of the curriculum for children as young as toddlers. Pounding on drums and danc- ing both relieve tension in a socially acceptable manner. More structured activities, such as show- ing children how to use musical instruments, must be balanced by plenty of freedom for individual musical expression.

Outdoors, the environment itself encourages self- expression. Whether in the sand or on a swing, children seem to open up emotionally as they relax in the physical freedom the out-of-doors fosters. Outdoor games are usually highly emotionally charged. Running, chasing, and the dramatic play of superheroes provide emotional release for children.

Th e outdoor area is an ideal place for large, noisy, and messy activities. It is ideal for tracing body outlines, for instance. Th ese life-size portraits of each child reinforce self-concepts and encourage a feeling of pride in one’s self. Woodworking is an outdoor activity that allows children to vent anger and tension. Nails will not be hurt no matter how hard they are pounded; there is satisfac-

tion in sawing a piece of wood into two pieces. Music of- fers numerous opportunities for self-expression. Chil- dren can dance with scarves or streamers, march through the yard with drums pounding, imitate “Th e Wild Th ings” (of Sendak’s picture book), make a maypole around the tree, and create a dragon for a parade. A rich musical repertoire of band instruments, phonograph re- cords, tapes, and voices can stimulate children to pretend to be elephants, tigers, and dinosaurs, as well as circus performers and ballet artists. Even a simple project such as water painting becomes an avenue for self-expression as children use paint brushes and buckets of water on trees, cement, and buildings, giving them all a fresh coat of “paint.”

Routines, Transitions, and Groups. Routines, transi- tions, and group times have one thing in common: change. Because they all involve shifts from one kind of activity to another, there is a sense of uncertainty and they are emotionally charged. Children’s behavior in these times is most likely to be unfocused. Here, you will fi nd the wandering and chasing, even oppositional or withdrawn behavior.

Teachers help children best by creating an atmo- sphere of trust and clarity. Giving children ideas of what to do (“Each of you can sponge a table now,” or “You can sit on my lap while your dad leaves today”) helps each child feel a sense of confi dence in managing through a routine or transition. Specifi c suggestions for group be- havior, including those generated by the class itself, in- spire success.

Finally, changes require teachers to be alert and fl exi- ble. As family caregiver McCormick (1993) affi rms:

Flexibility is the cornerstone of successful home child care, and an essential building block in pro- vider/child relationships. Flexibility allows me to adapt to parents’ changing schedules, children’s changing sleep patterns, and even to alter the day’s activities with the changing weather. By remaining fl exible, especially to the children’s needs, I have built a deep, personal relationship with each of the children I care for. I fi nd ways to adapt to their schedules as much as possible instead of [always] forcing them into a [rigid] routine of the center.

Acknowledging a child’s right to strong emotions and understanding a child’s reactions to changes in these daily activities help children become comfortable and competent. Figure 14-7 outlines how specifi c materials and activities can be developed for emotional growth.

473CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

Curriculum for Emotional Skill Development

Indoor Activities

Art: Refl ect children’s expressions and see how they are feeling.

• “You look as if you are enjoying yourself.”

• “Your face tells me that was funny (disappointing, etc.) to you.”

Blocks: Be there/be aware/ask them how it feels when:

• You make a structure by yourself.

• It falls down.

• Someone knocks it over (accidentally or on purpose).

• Someone laughs.

Discovery/Science:

• Use the words “curious” and “proud” to describe what children do as they experiment with materials.

• Use computer program “Choices, Choices.”

Dramatic Play: Give children freedom, variety, and refl ection.

• Have books that refl ect a variety of feelings and ways to deal with them, such as: Anger: When Sophie Gets Angry—Really, Really Angry (Bang); The Grouchy Ladybug (Carle); My Name Is

Not Dummy (Crary) Fear: There’s a Nightmare in My Closet (Mayer); Storm in the Night (Stolz) Self-Esteem: The Growing Story (Krauss); Ruby (Glen); Things I Like (Browne); Amazing Grace (Hoffman) Loss: The Maggie B (Keats); Amos and Boris (Steig) Change: Changes, Changes (Hutchins); Sam Is My Half-Brother (Boyd) Friendship: Two Is a Team (Bemelman); That’s What Friends Are For (Kidd); Big Al (Clements) Security: One Step, Two (Zolotow); The Bundle Book (Zolotow); Rise and Shine, Mariko-chan (Tomioka) Choice: Best Enemies (Leverich); Did You Carry the Flag Today, Charly? (Claudill)

• Include books on themes, particularly when a child or group is dealing with an emotional issue: Death: Death and Dying (Stein); The Dead Bird (Brown); Nana Upstairs, Nana Downstairs (dePaoli) Divorce: Two Places to Sleep (Schuchman) Doctor/Dentist: Curious George Goes to the Hospital (Rey); Your Turn, Doctor (Robinson & Perez); My

Doctor (Harlow) Moving: Mitchell Is Moving (Sharmat); Jamie (Zolotow); The Leaving Morning (Johnson) New Baby/Adoption: Baby Sister for Frances (Hoban); I Want to Tell You about My Baby (Banish); Peter’s

Chair (Keats); The Chosen Baby (Wasson) Nightmares: Where the Wild Things Are (Sendak); In the Night Kitchen (Sendak); There’s a Nightmare in My

Closet (Mayer) Spending the night: Ira Sleeps Over (Waber)

• When reading stories, stop and ask how a particular character is feeling.

• Tie in children’s lives to books. For example, have children bring a special object or toy to share. A warm cuddly can be tied into the stories of Goodnight Moon (Brown) or Teddy Bear’s Picnic (Kennedy).

Outdoor Activities

Movement:

• “How would you walk if you were glad?” (sad, mad, worried, giggly?)

• “A Tiger Hunt” (this game is known by many names). Go on a “hunt” with children, using their bodies to describe such movements as opening/shutting a gate, swishing through tall grass, climbing a tree, swimming in water, going through mud, looking in a cave, running home so that the “tiger” doesn’t catch us.

FIGURE 14-7 Whether 2 years old or in grade two, children learn about their feelings when teachers plan programs that encourage self-expression.

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474 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Music:

• Choose music that differs in tone and type. Ask children how each makes them feel, then have them show you with their bodies.

• Write songs or chants about feelings.

Routines, Transitions, Groups

Routines:

Respect children’s feelings of anticipation.

• Have a chart of daily activities.

• Discuss upcoming fi eld trips or visitors ahead of time when possible.

When possible, let the children take responsibility for known sequences.

• Set their own snack table.

• Get fl owers for the table.

• Help clean a place for the next children.

Transitions:

When unexpected changes occur, discuss them with individuals and the group.

• “Andy isn’t here today. He has a sore throat, so he is staying home. Esther will be the teacher in his group today.”

Provide time for self-help without unnecessary hurry.

• Put on their own name tag.

• Wash and dry their own hands.

• Dress themselves—jacket for outdoors, shoes after nap, and so on.

• Take care of their rest items—blanket and stuffed toy in a labeled pillowcase, books back in a basket or bookshelf, and soon.

Group Times:

Use children’s faces as a focus.

• Practice facial expressions with mirrors.

• Call out feelings, having them show you on their faces.

• Sing “If You’re Happy and You Know It,...” with a variety of feelings. Ask children what situations have them feel each.

• Show photographs of children’s faces; ask the group to tell you how that person is feeling, why, and so on.

Try idea completions.

• “I feel glad when...” (also mad, bad, sad, safe, excited, scared, silly) • “I like school when...” (also don’t like, also my friend, mom, it) • “I wish...”, • “The best thing I can do...”

Use situations to elicit feelings.

• “Here’s a picture of a family. What are they doing? How does each person feel?”

• “I’m going to cover part of the picture of the face to see if you can guess what expression it’s going to be.”

• “These cards show situations the teachers have seen happen. As I read them think: ‘How do I feel? What can I say? What can I do?’”

FIGURE 14-7 (continued)

475CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

Focus on Skills. Emotional development is a lifelong process that requires experience with one’s own feelings. To help children learn to express and control their emo- tions, teachers consider each child’s emotional skills. Th e goals teachers set for children will determine which emo- tional skills will be the focus: Maggie has diffi culty with changes in the routine; Caroline never cries, no matter how she hurts; and Clyde screams when he is frus- trated.

Making choices is a skill with an emotional focus. To help children make choices and decisions, focus on a step-by-step process:

1. Help children defi ne the situation by turning it into a question. (“What can we do to fi x up our play- ground? ”)

2. Make a list of options or alternatives. (“Plant fl ow- ers, get more bikes, add more sand toys.”)

3. Ask the children to think of what might happen for each option. (“Flowers would look pretty, but we would have to water them.”)

4. Make a choice. (“Th is is the key point!”) 5. Check later to see how the choice turned out.

(“Look how nice the yard is!” or “Darn, when we forgot to water, they died.”)

Storytelling can be therapeutic and help children with issues of compliance, anger management, and fears. Caregivers can give children the opportunity to identify their fears and problems and come to resolution in satis- fying ways (Cook, 2001). Be sure to elaborate and even let children add details along the way:

1. Introduce the main character. “Once upon a time there was a girl named Ning …”

2. Tell about the problem. “One day Ning ran away from school because …”

3. Talk to a wise person. “Ning’s auntie knew just about everything, so …”

4. Try out a new approach. “So Ning decided she would try …”

5. Summarize the lesson. “Now Ning felt better. She told her friend …”

“Persona dolls” (Derman-Sparks, et al., 1989) encourage language involvement. Each doll has his/her story that can refl ect the composition of the class and can off er ex- periences that extend the children’s learning. All dolls are introduced with their own lives, and a teacher introduces each one and tells its story. Children ask questions, which expands the story. Th e teacher can tell a story that

arises from the everyday interactions in class, “hot topics” that parents are talking about or occur in the news, things the teacher decides are important to think and talk about, or stories based on history.

Themes. Th emes can be useful when developing cur- riculum for emotional growth. One school-age program developed the theme of “Hurt and Healing” (Bowling & Rogers, 2001). Th e group brainstormed and came up with throwing water baggies at targets, kicking stacks of boxes, stomping on egg cartons, pounding anger out into clay, and throwing colored water at a painting. Dramatic play included acting out scared reactions; stories were dictated, pictures drawn, games made up. Figure 14-8 uses the theme “Who Am I?” to help with self-concept and self-expression.

Social Growth Social development is the process through which chil- dren learn what behavior is acceptable and expected. A set of standards is imposed on the child at birth that re- fl ects the values of the family and the society in which the child lives. Social growth refers to what happens with the child and others. Th eorists from Freud and Piaget to Bandura and Gardner (see Chapters 4 and 12) acknowledge the relationship between social competence and learning. Indeed, enhancing social intelligence builds a set of skills that may be among the most essential for life success of many kinds.

The Development of Social Competence Social development begins at birth. Within the fi rst few months of life, the infant smiles, coos, and plays in re- sponse to a human voice, face, or physical contact (see “Attachment,” Chapter 4). Young children are infl uenced from birth by a deliberate attempt on the part of adults to guide them in ways that society expects. Parents at- tempt to transmit behavior patterns that are characteris- tic of their culture, religion, gender, educational, and ethnic backgrounds. Teachers assist by incorporating some family rituals and traditions into the program.

Children imitate what they see; they adapt social ex- pectations to their own personality. “Cooperation, gener- osity, loyalty, and honesty are not inborn. Th ey must be

476 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Theme: Who Am I?

1. Art: Body outlines Facial expressions pictures—variations (a) provide handheld mirrors, (b) give a blank face and let them

draw in the features, (c) self-portraits: make them throughout the year, using “people colors,” (d) cut out faces in magazine for collage

Face painting Fingerprinting (hand and foot)

2. Blocks: People, furniture, structures people live in Pictures of same

3. Cooking: Share ethnic dishes (tortillas, pasta, things you like to cook at home)

4. Discovery/Science: Height/weight charts Drawing around hands and feet and comparing sizes Doing body outlines of a large group of children, each with a different color, and

comparing sizes Mapping—charting where people live, charts of phone numbers, put out a globe Weather—make connections to types of homes

5. Dramatic Play: Lots of mirrors A variety of dress-up play for taking on a variety of roles and seeing how they feel

6. Language/Library: Have children write books about themselves—variations: (a) use Is This You? (Krauss) as model (b) loose-leaf binder of their own books they can add to themselves, (c) “Where I Live” as title, (d) families

Books on children and families with diverse backgrounds (Corduroy [Freedman] lives in an apt.) Where animals live Feelings about where children live

7. Manipulatives: Puzzles with body parts, with people and clothing Self-help skills with dressing frames Encourage children to build a structure that things could live in (e.g., using Lincoln Logs).

8. Sand and Water Play: Bubble-blowing Using your bodies to build—digging with hands and feet, encouraging sensory exploration Use body parts to help you (e.g., using your foot on the shovel).

9. Swinging/Climbing: Both of these activities use body parts; teachers help the children become aware of how they do physical activity.

10. Games: Rolling the barrel, rolling yourself Hide and Seek, Tag Mother May I? Dramatic play games with family members Guessing games: Make “Who am I?” snapshots of the backs of children’s heads or their hands. Use a shoe

from each child, having them all tuck their feet under them.

11. Large Block-Building: Making house-like structures Using vehicles that need your body’s force to move

12. Woodworking: Using body parts Make a map board of school, neighborhood, a city

13. Routines: Self-help: Awareness of what you can do by yourself by defi nition of “Who Am I?” tasks; teachers use verbal and musical reinforcement

14. Transitions: Use physical characteristics of children for transitions—“Everyone who has brown eyes/freckles/ blue jeans can go outside.”

15. Group times: “Head and shoulders” Description games—describe someone and guess who it is as a game “I’m thinking of

someone” or with song “Mary Has a Red Dress” “Little Tommy (Tina) Tiddlemouse,” voice recognition “Good morning little Teddy Bear,” with bear going around circle and saying names 16. Snack time/bedtime: Mark places with names and pictures, such as beds or placemats Try to coordinate the name tag, bed, or placemat with symbol on cubby

FIGURE 14-8 A child’s school experience is strongly related to how emotional events are handled.

477CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

passed on to the child by older people, [whether] they are parents, other adults, or older youngsters” (Kostel- nik, 2005). Th ere are many cultural variations in how people relate to each other, what and when to eat, how to dress, what feelings are to be expressed, how to think about time and personal space, how and who to touch, and how to respond to personal events.

Th is process—called socialization—includes learn- ing appropriate behavior in a number of diff erent set- tings. Children learn very early to discriminate between the expectations in diff erent environments. At school, free exploration of play materials is encouraged, but in a church pew it is not. Grocery stores, circuses, libraries, and Grandma’s home call for a repertoire of fi tting behav- iors. Children’s understanding of others is critical for their social growth. Very young children show awareness of what other people feel, as infants pay special attention to emotional expressions of adults. Toddlers can ascertain if someone is happy, sad, or angry, and can try to comfort someone in distress. Th ree-year-olds know that if some- one gets what he wants, he will be happy, and if not, he will be sad. Older preschoolers begin to understand that what they (or others) believe may turn out to be false. By kindergarten, one can see that children understand that others may think and feel diff erently than they do.

Research suggests that children who understand others’ minds at an early age may be more able to get along well with others and that parents and teachers can support the development of this under- standing by encouraging pretend play and discuss- ing mental states with them from storybooks or real-life encounters. (Lillard & Curenton, 1999)

In general, the socialization process in a school set- ting revolves around a child’s relationships with the other people in it. During this time of their lives, children work out a separate set of relationships with their teachers, those adults other than their parents. Th ey establish dif- ferent relationships with adults than they do with other children, and, most important, they learn to interact with other children.

Th rough socialization, the customary roles that boys and girls play are also transmitted. Children come to un- derstand how teachers, mommies, daddies, grandpar- ents, males, and females are expected to act. Early child- hood professionals need to be aware of the diff erence

DAPDAP

between a child’s gender identity development and a child’s sex role development. One needs to be able to communicate the diff erence to parents and to be aware of how diff erent cultures may have diff ering notions about sex role development.

Children also learn social attitudes at an early age. Th ey learn to enjoy being with people and participating in social activities. At the same time, young children can also develop attitudes of bias, and it is in these early years that prejudicial behavior often begins. How the teachers respond to negative comments, unfair acts, exclusivity based on race, gender, or ability is crucial in combating these negative attitudes. Favorable attitudes toward peo- ple and a strong desire to be part of the social world in- teracting with others are established in the early years.

Another important facet of socialization involves the development of a sense of community. A program’s emo- tional climate and teacher’s behavior contribute not only to children’s sense of personal safety and belonging but also to the value of relationships that are sustained by communication. Teachers who strive for community awareness and bonding are adhering to an anti-bias phi- losophy (see Chapter 9) that promotes empathic interac- tion with people from diverse backgrounds and standing up for self and others in the face of bias.

Social Competence Social competence involves the skills and personal knowl- edge children develop to deal with the challenges and op- portunities they face in life with others. Katz and McClennan (1997) add, “Th ey generally focus on an indi- vidual’s ability to initiate and maintain satisfying, recipro- cal relationships with peers.” Our defi nition includes rela- tionships with all other people, including family, teachers, caregivers, peers, and the community at large. Th rough their social interactions, children learn a sense of personal identity, adopt family and cultural values, acquire interper- sonal skills, and learn how to “live in the world.”

Th ere are several components to social competence. Th ese are: ■ Emotional regulation. Th e ability to regulate emo-

tions (see earlier in this chapter). ■ Social knowledge and understanding. Knowledge of

enough language and norms to interact successfully; understanding the reactions of others and their feel- ings (empathy).

DAP Caregivers recognize that toddlers constantly test limits and express opposition (“No!”) as part of developing a health sense of self as an autonomous individual. In the preschool years, teachers model and encourage calm, patient behavior and facilitate children’s development of self-regulation by supporting them in thinking ahead, planning their activities, and thinking about and using strategies to solve social problems.

478 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

■ Social skills. Social approach patterns, attention to others, exchange of information, handling aggression.

■ Social dispositions. Habits or characteristic ways of responding to experiences.

Th e elements of social competence are illustrated in Fig- ure 14-9.

Why is social competence important? Such children are happier than their less competent peers. Children’s social relations have been linked to academic achieve- ment. Lack of social competence has been linked to re- jection by peers, poor self-esteem, and poor academic performance (Kostelnik, et al, 2005). It is now widely accepted that young children who do not frequently in- teract with peers are at risk for a host of later socio-

emotional diffi culties (Coplan & Armer, 2007; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006).

Social Development All areas of children’s development play a part in learn- ing social skills:

■ Having the confi dence to try joining a group calls upon emotional skills.

■ Remembering children’s names or how a game works is a cognitive task.

■ “Using your words” to express an idea or feeling re- quires language.

■ Having the ability to play, chase, or walk in high heels for a dress-up game requires certain physical dexterity.

FIGURE 14-9 The elements of social competence demonstrate how complex the task of developing socially is for young children. (Adapted from Kostelnik et al, 2005.)

P LA

N N

IN G

& DECISION-MAKING SKILLS

S O

CI A

L VA

LU ES

POSITIVE SELF ID EN

T

IT Y

C U

L T

U R

A L C

O M

P E

T E

N C

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IN T

E R

P E

R S

O N

A L S

K IL

L S

SE LF

–R EG

U LA

TI O

N

Caring Equity

Social justice Honesty

Responsibility Healthy lifestyles and

sexual attitudes Flexibility

Makes choices Solves problems Develops plans Plans ahead Carries out positive actions to achieve social goals

Reflects on feelings Controls impulses Delays gratification Resists temptations Resists peer pressure Monitors self

Maintains friendly relationships Communicates ideas, needs, and feelings Expresses affection, cooperates, helps make friendly contacts with others,

Expresses emotions Understands the emotions of others "Reads" social situations accurately

Adjusts behavior to meet demands on varying social situations

Resolves conflicts peacefully Handles frustrations constructively

Gives and receives emotional support Compromises

Asserts own ideas, accepts other's ideas Acknowledges other peoples's rights

Knowledge, comfort, and respect for people of varying ethnic or racial backgrounds Ability to interact effectively with people of varying cultural ethnic or racial backgrounds Recognizes unfair treatment Questions unfair treatment Acts to obtain social justice

Sense of competence Personal power Sense of worth Sense of purpose Positive view of personal future

479CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

Th ere are many variations that arise in social situa- tions. For instance, children can sustain complex play without much language, and games can be adapted to include children with a variety of physical skills. Under- standing the principle of interrelated development, how- ever, helps teachers appreciate the process of social learn- ing and recognize opportunities to guide their social development.

In the early years, children mature socially in discern- ible developmental stages. From birth to age 3, children’s interest in others begins with a mutual gazing and social smile in the early months (birth through 8 months), continues with an exploration of others as well as some anxious behavior around strangers in the crawler and walker stages (8 to 18 months), and develops into an en- joyment of peers and adults along with an awareness of others’ rights and feelings as a toddler and 2-year-old (18 months to 3 years).

In the preschool years, children learn to control their aggressive impulses, think about others besides them- selves, and resist doing what they should not. Th is learn- ing translates into four basic expectations. Th ey will:

1. Show interest in others. 2. Learn right from wrong. 3. Learn to get along with others. 4. Learn a role for themselves that takes into consider-

ation their own unique self-gender, race, ethnicity, and abilities.

Children of the primary years (5 to 8 years) show an increased interest in peers and social competence, and group rules become important. Th e development of a social conscience and of fairness rounds out the primary grade developmental milestones.

Children learn social skills in several predictable ways. First, the brain is wired to look for patterns. When an infant smiles and is met with a reciprocal smile, a pat- tern of responsiveness and attachment begins. Th e pre- schooler who grabs for toys and usually gets to keep them at home will be surprised (and unhappy) when the pattern is broken at the center and the toy is returned to the one who was using it. As a result of their experiences, children form ideas about how the social world works. Th ey are active learners who will observe and experi- ment, learning fi rsthand what happens when they try something. In-the-moment, on-the-spot lessons will greatly help children learn socially.

Sarda wants to play in the block corner, but stands hes- itantly as four boys shout and vroom the cars around. “Do you want to play here?” inquires the observant

teacher. When she nods, the teacher helps her move in and the two begin building. Soon, the boys notice and come to see a garage being built, so they drive their cars over. Th e teacher slowly steps aside. Sarda has experi- enced one way to get started.

Next, children have multiple ways of learning. Since teachers often do not know each child’s ways of learning, it is best to try a variety of approaches when teaching so- cial skills. Talking helps some (linguistic), others learn better by seeing patterns (logical mathematical), and many learn by modeling (see example just given). Re- hearsing how to do or say the words helps the kinesthetic learner.

Finally, it is through play (Chapters 4 and 10) that children learn much of their social repertoires. Dramati- zations, role playing, and dramatic play provide opportu- nities to act out many roles and help children deal with some of the demands placed on them. In play, the child experiments with options: fi nding out what it feels like to be the boss, to be the baby, to behave in ways that might otherwise be unacceptable. Carla was the oldest of three children and had many “big girl” expectations placed on her within the family setting. At school, Carla enjoyed being the baby, acting out a helpless infant role whenever she could. Under the guise of play, children, like Carla, rehearse for life without suff ering the real life consequences. Figure 14-10 traces the route of social de- velopment from infancy through the primary years.

Common Social Challenges Children of each age in early childhood experience a range of social diffi culties (see Chapters 3, 4, and 7). For instance, toddlers develop many forms of testing behav- ior, including saying “No” to adult rules and other re- straints. Grabbing, biting, and hitting are common forms of aggression and self-expression. Some of this occurs in preschoolers, as well as other forms of self- determination. Th ere are problems children encounter when responding to emotions, both theirs and those of others. Peer status and friendship loom large in primary school, when lone- liness and exclusion, teasing and bullying all occur (Gor- don & Browne, 1996).

Teasing and bullying can become disruptive in groups and programs. Teachers need to be clear about what bul- lying is, and how to respond to it early. “Bullying is re- peated, systematic eff orts to infl ict harm on someone who is unable or unlikely to defend himself or herself ” (Berger, 2007). Children who are exposed repeatedly and over time to negative actions (words, physical con- tact, making faces, gesturing, or intentional exclusions

480 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

from a group) on the part of one or more others can de- velop low self-esteem and may become withdrawn or be rejected by their peers. Not every rejected child becomes a bully victim, and not every child who excludes or teases another becomes a bully. But the antisocial behavior re- sults in diffi culties for both sides: “Over time, the social costs to both bullies and victims include impaired social understanding and problems with human relationships in adulthood” (Berger, 2007).

Although bullying is more serious and noticeable late in childhood and adolescence, its roots are in early child- hood. Teachers must take notice and do a better job of dealing with the behaviors. Preschool and school-age programs can also implement confl ict resolution pro- grams that teach children how to express themselves and listen to others in socially intense situations (Gordon & Browne, 1997; Porro, 1996). Systematic work with chil- dren to teach them these social competence skills helps them deal with what might be called the “garden variety”

confl icts—issues of property, territory, and power such as teasing, put-downs, hitting, not sharing, and who is the boss. Figure 14-11 is a sample chart used in such programs, preschool through elementary school.

Peer Relationships. For the young child, social devel- opment means the steady movement away from the ego- centric position of self (and parents) as central points toward a more sociocentric viewpoint that involves oth- ers—both adults and, especially, children. During the early years, the child learns to socialize outside the fam- ily; social contacts outside the home reinforce the enjoy- ment of social activities and prepare the child for future group activity.

Peer interactions, that is, associations with friends of the same age group, become important to the child once infancy and early toddlerhood are past. Th rough peer interactions, children can identify with models who are like themselves and can learn from each other’s

Social Development Timeline

Primary Child

Takes other’s personality into account and shows concern for other’s general condition.

• Friend as someone who will do what you want

• Beginning of friend as one who embodies admirable, constant characteristics

• (6 years) Integrates one role with two complementary roles: doctor, nurse, and sick person

• (8 years) Growing understanding that roles can infl uence behavior (doctor whose daughter is a patient)

Infant–Toddler Response to Other’s Distress

Reacts emotionally by experiencing what the other seems to feel.

Peer Interaction

• First encounters mutual inspection

• First social contacts • (18 months) Growth in sensitivity

to peer play • (2 years) Able to direct social

acts to two children at once (beginning of social interaction)

Social Roles • (10–20 days) Imitation of adults • (3 months) Gurgles in response

to others • (6 months) Social games based

on imitation • (18 months) Differentiation

between reality and pretend play • (2 years) Makes doll do

something as if it were alive

FIGURE 14-10 A timetable of social development for the ages of infancy through the primary years. (Special thanks to Gay Spitz. Reprinted by permission.)

Preschooler

Begins to make adjustments that refl ect the realization that the other person is different and separate from self.

• Adjustment in behavior to fi t age and behavior of other

• (More than 3 years) Friendship as momentary

• (3–5 years) Beginning of friendship as constant

• (3 years) Makes a doll carry out several roles or activities

• (4–5 years) Acts out a social role in dramatic play and integrates that role with others (mom and baby)

481CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

behavior. Friends provide models for imitation, for com- parison, and for confi rmation of themselves, and they are a source of support.

Playing with other children begins with solitary and parallel play at around age 2, in which two or more chil- dren are in the same area with each other but do not ini- tiate social interaction. By the ages of 3 and 4, more in- teraction takes place. Th ere are conversations and confl icts as well as cooperation in playing together (see Chapters 4 and 10).

Th ere are stages in children’s friendships. In the early years, friendship starts at an undiff erentiated level, in which children are egocentric and a friend is more of the moment. Th is gives way to a unilateral level; a good friend does what the child wants the friend to do. To- ward the end of early childhood, friendship becomes more reciprocal, involving some give-and-take in a kind of two-way cooperation. Listen to these children trying out their friendship:

Chris: I’ll be the teacher, you be the kid. Suzanne: NO! I want to be the teacher, too.

Chris: No! No! You can’t be the teacher, too, ‘cause then there’d be no kids.

Suzanne: OK. Next time, I get to be the teacher. Chris: Maybe! OK, everybody go wash your hands

for snack time. Suzanne, you can pass out your very nutritious snack to everybody.

Suzanne: Superfasmic, I’m the boss of snack.

A peer group is important for a number of reasons. Social development is enhanced because a child learns to conform to established social standards outside of his home setting. Th e expectations of the larger society are reinforced. To become autonomous, the child must also learn to achieve independence from the family, especially parents. Young children must also come to understand themselves as part of society. Self-concept is enlarged by a group of peers as they see how others respond to them and treat them.

Making and keeping friends are essential to children’s positive social development, so important that children without friends by the primary years are considered at

Rejection is a common form of social behavior in young children. In the early years, children need to deal with the feelings that arise when they are told, “You can’t play with us.”

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Talk It Out: Confl ict Resolution

FIGURE 14-11 A “Talk It Out” poster helps teachers mediate confl icts and teach children resolution skills. (From Talk It Out: Confl ict Resolution in the Elemen- tary Classroom, Copyright © 1996 by Barbara Porro. Reprinted with permission from ASCD. The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development is a worldwide community of educators advocating sound policies and sharing best practices to achieve the suc- cess of each learner. To learn more, visit ASCD at www. ascd.org.)

Choose the idea you both like.

Talk and listen.

Think of ways to solve the problem.

Stop. Cool off.1.

2.

3.

4.

482 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

risk for overall school success. Developing friendships is more than teaching general interpersonal skills and is es- pecially important for children with special needs. Facili- tating friendship development in inclusive classrooms requires teacher awareness and interaction as well as careful environmental and schedule planning.

Social Skills in Early Childhood Social skills are strategies children learn that enable them to behave appropriately in many environments. Th ey help children learn to initiate or manage social in- teraction in a variety of settings and with a number of people. Social cognition is the application of thinking to personal and social behavior; it is giving meaning to so- cial experience. For example, Nadia wants to play with Paul, a very popular 4-year-old. She remembers Paul’s interest in the rope swing and challenges him to swing higher than she did. He responds enthusiastically and the friendship begins.

Social cognition requires children to interpret events and make decisions, to consider the impact of their be- havior on others, and to consider the cause as well as the consequence of an action. Cognitive skills are necessary when we ask children to seek alternative solutions to so- cial problems: “How else could you ask him for a turn, Pete?” Th ese are all social cognition skills, and they serve as the basis for the acquisition of other skills.

Social Intelligence Building on Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory (see Chapters 4 and 12), Daniel Goleman outlined fi ve di- mensions of emotional intelligence (see previous sec- tion). Th e fi fth element of emotional intelligence is social skills. Teachers who can help children handle their emo- tions (self-regulation) and learn to “read” other people’s feelings by their body language or tone of voice (empa- thy) can then lead children to gain social skills. As men- tioned earlier in this chapter, children who bully can be taught better social skills, and the early childhood setting is just the place to do so. Paley (1992) has written exten- sively about the social climate of classrooms:

“Are you my friend?” the little ones ask in nursery school, not knowing. Th e responses are also ques- tions. If yes, then what? And if I push you away, how does that feel? By kindergarten, however, a structure begins to be revealed … certain children will have the right to limit the social experiences of their classmates… Long after hitting and name-calling have been out- lawed by the teachers, a more damaging phenome- non is allowed to take root, spreading like a weed from grade to grade.

With more social intelligence than most, Paley as kin- dergarten teacher decided to post a sign outside her door one year. “You can’t say you can’t play” turns the class up- side down and requires both adults and children to learn new ways to interact.

Social skills can be viewed in diff erent ways. Th e Four Hows is one set of categories for such a complex ar- ray of skills:

1. How to approach. Getting and being included. 2. How to interact. Sharing, cooperating. 3. How to deal with diff erence. Including others, help-

ing, bullying, and teasing. 4. How to manage confl ict. Handling aggression, prob-

lem solving.

Another is to realize that there is a skill set learned in every kind of interaction.

Peer relationships are a source of pleasure and support. As social understanding develops, children shift from a preoccupation with themselves to an awareness of the thoughts and feelings of their friends.

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483CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

Skills Learned with Adults In their relationship with adults, children learn:

■ Th ey can stay at school without parents. ■ Th ey can enjoy adults other than parents and re-

spond to new adults. ■ Adults will help in times of trouble or need. ■ Adults will help them learn social protocol. ■ Adults will keep children from being hurt and from

hurting others. ■ Adults will help children learn about ethnic diff er-

ences and similarities, disabilities, gender identity, and language diversity.

■ Adults will resist bias and stereotyping and teach children to actively do the same.

■ Adults will not always take a side or solve the problem.

■ Adults will work with them to solve problems. ■ Adults believe that every child has a right to a satis-

fying social experience at school.

Skills Learned with Peers In their relationship with other children, children learn:

■ Th ere are diff erent approaches to others; some work, some do not.

■ Interactive skills and how to sustain the relationship. ■ How to solve confl icts in ways other than retreat or

force. ■ How to share materials, equipment, other children,

friends, teachers, and ideas. ■ How to achieve mutually satisfying play. ■ Self-defense and how to assert their rights in so-

cially acceptable ways. ■ How to take turns and how to communicate desires. ■ How to negotiate. ■ How to be helpful to peers with tasks, information,

and by modeling behavior. ■ How to anticipate and avoid problems. ■ Realistic expectations of how other children behave

and respond toward them. ■ Ways to deal with socially awkward situations and

with socially diffi cult situations and children. ■ How to make, be, share, and lose a friend.

Skills Learned in a Group In groups, children learn:

■ How to take part as a member and not as an individual.

■ Th at there are activities that promote group associa- tion (stories, music).

■ A group identity (center room class, Mrs. T’s group, 4-year-old group).

■ To follow a daily schedule and pattern. ■ To adapt to school routines. ■ School rules and expectations. ■ Interaction and participatory skills: how to enter

and exit from play. ■ To respect the rights, feelings, and property of others. ■ To become socially active, especially in the face of

unfair or biased behavior and situations. ■ How to work together as a group, during clean-up

time, in preparation for an event, etc. ■ How to deal with delay of gratifi cation: how to wait.

Skills Learned as an Individual As individuals, children learn:

■ To take responsibility for self-help, self-care. ■ To initiate their own activities and to make choices. ■ To work alone, close to other children. ■ To notice unfairness and injustice and learn how to

handle them. ■ To negotiate. ■ To cope with rejection, hurt feelings, disappointment.

Friendship: “The more we get together, the happier we’ll be!”

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484 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

■ To communicate in verbal and nonverbal ways, and when to use communication skills.

■ To test limits other people set. ■ Th eir own personal style of peer interaction: degree,

intensity, frequency, quality. ■ To express strong feelings in socially acceptable ways. ■ To manage social freedom.

Specifi c skills within these four areas include the social and moral aspects of nurturance, kindness, and sharing. As children get older, these skills become more specifi c: telling the truth, taking turns, keeping promises, respect- ing others’ rights, having tolerance, and following rules.

Another social skill that has taken hold is that of so- cial action. In an anti-bias curriculum (see Chapter 9), children can learn how to take social action to make un- fair things fair. For instance, preschoolers discover that their adhesive strips are labeled “fl esh-colored” but match the skin of only a few children; they take photos and send them to the company (Derman-Sparks & Olsen Edwards, 2010). Promoting activism may not always bring successful results, but the activity and the model are powerful learning experiences.

Role of the Teacher A major role for the early childhood teacher is to see that children have enjoyable social contacts and to help moti- vate children toward a desire to be with others. Th e early childhood setting aff ords children numerous learning opportunities for social development.

Th e teacher has an important role to play as children learn the give-and-take of social interaction. In the role of social organizer, the teacher creates a physical and in- terpersonal environment that promotes the development of children’s social skills.

Considerations Plan and Arrange a Social Environment. Child- initiated activities, self-care, and group responsibilities are stimulated by the use of low, open shelves and furniture scaled to size. Group activities, toys, materials, and place- ment of furniture should be structured in ways that allow children to play alone or with someone. Establishing a coacting environment helps children in their “interacting with others, more often one-on-one than in larger groups, with an emphasis on process rather than product” (Bos, 1990). Th e placement of two telephones, three wagons, and eight fi refi ghter hats fosters child–child interactions. Cooperation, which implies a mutually recognized goal, is an outgrowth of coacting (see Figure 14-15). Children will often act together in a spontaneous way; then get

organized toward a planned end when they decide to build a single tower together. Th e teacher must also allow enough time in the daily schedule for children to get thor- oughly involved in playing with one another.

Help Children Develop Trust. Trusting in them- selves, their peers, and their teachers, is a part of learning about social relationships. Teachers enhance children’s social knowledge as they gradually improve their sense of trust. General recommendations are:

1. Help children recognize their own needs. Notice chil- dren who need to clarify their wishes; ask unin- volved children with whom they would like to play; help arguing children say how they feel and what they want.

2. Increase children’s awareness of their social goals and the goals of others. Teachers can aid children by help- ing them recognize their choices; they can also me- diate so that others can express themselves.

3. Help children develop eff ective social skills. Provide a model for listening, for choosing another place to play, or for going along with another’s ideas; help children fi nd ways to stand their ground and also accommodate and learn to use confl ict resolution,

Cooperation: “I’ll help you, then you’ll help me.”

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485CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

cooperation, coping, and helping skills (see Chapter 7 and this chapter’s Insights).

4. Teach children to recognize others’ emotions and inten- tions. Children become fl ooded with their own strong feelings and are not likely to notice someone else’s emotions in the heat of the moment; teachers can help children see another’s face or hear a tone of voice, thus beginning to “read” another person.

5. Refl ect with children on how their behavior aff ects oth- ers by pointing out what is predictable in their interac- tions. Young children do not always “connect the dots” between their behavior and others’ reactions. When a teacher makes a statement without disap- proval, the child can then understand the eff ects of her or his behavior on others: “Wow! When you use that loud voice, I see the kids looking scared, and then they tell you not to play here.”

6. Highlight children’s success by helping them learn to monitor their own behavior. It can help children to see their successful social encounters as well as the strategies that did not work. “When you asked them if you could play, they said, ‘No!’ But then you went and got shovels for everyone and that worked!”

7. Avoid telling children who their “friends” are. Early childhood teachers encourage children to learn about friendship; however, “legislating friendship” often backfi res. Telling children “We’re all friends here” or “Friends share their things with everyone” denies the distinction between positive, friendly ex- periences and friendship. “Classmate” and “friend” are not the same word.

8. Develop a set of strategies to help the socially awkward and troubled in your class. Although each child is unique, there are certain situations that arise time and again in an early childhood classroom. Children who are socially inept often do not use nonverbal language eff ectively and are “out-of-sync” because they miss the signs.

9. Do not stay uninvolved or ignore teasing and bullying. A lack of response can signal all children that it is okay to engage in these behaviors and acceptable to fall victim to it. Talk about it; read books such as Rosie’s Story (Gogoll) or Oliver Button Is a Sissy (de Paola); make an experience chart (“I Feel (Un)Welcome When …”); and help the class with fair rules. In noncompetitive games, children learn to help each other rather than trying to win or gain power over others. Finally, foster friendships between girls and boys and actively counter gender bias.

10. Work to provide a caring community in your class. “In order for children to have the confi dence to take the

risks inherent in learning…they must experience a consistently accepting, inclusive and predictable atmo- sphere in the classroom” (Maniates & Heath, 1998). Brain research (see Chapter 4) confi rms this point, and an anti-bias approach (see Chapters 3 and 9) sup- ports the development of social action as an extension of “making right” the classroom and beyond.

11. Invite parents and families into the process of children’s socialization. Both teachers and families share in the responsibility of helping children develop social skills; neither one can do it alone. Th ere are many ways to make your program family friendly; see Chapter 8 for suggestions.

Facilitate Children’s Interactions and Interpret Their Behavior. To help young children understand each other and to pave the way for continued coopera- tion, the teacher reports and refl ects on what is happen- ing. In the classroom setting, during an active, free play period, the teacher might:

Refl ect the Action: Say: Call attention to the ef- fect one child’s behavior is having on another.

“Randy, when you scream like that, other children be- come frightened and are afraid to play with you.”

Show approval and rein- force positive social behavior.

“I like the way you carefully stepped over their block building, Dannetta.”

Support a child in as- serting her rights.

“Chrystal is hanging on to the doll because she isn’t fi nished playing yet, Wilbur.”

Support a child’s desire to be independent.

“I know you want to help, Keyetta, but Sammy is try- ing to put his coat on by himself.”

Acknowledge and help children establish con- tact with others.

“Omar would like to play, too. Th at’s why he brought you another bucket of wa- ter. Is there a place where he can help?”

Refl ect back to a child the depth of his feelings and what form those feelings might take.

“I know George made you very angry when he took your sponge, but I can’t let you throw water at him. What can you tell him? What words can you use to say you didn’t like what he did?”

486 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Adult responses to children’s play are particularly critical in supporting positive social development. Th e teacher has a powerful, emotional role in children’s lives at school. When children make judgments in error, coming to false conclusions about children on the basis of race, gender, native language, or ability, the teacher must inter- vene, for silence signals tacit approval. Th is is perhaps the most dynamic and challenging part of teachers’ jobs, the heart of the profession. “Facilitation is fundamental to helping children achieve greater social competence. You engage in facilitation when you demonstrate empa- thy, warmth, respect, and authenticity in your interper- sonal relations with children” (Kostelnik, et al., 2005).

As illustrated in Chapter 7, the social problems in early childhood range from possession of toys, to hitting others, to keeping promises. How a teacher helps chil- dren identify and resolve their own confl icts is often more important than the specifi c problem or solution. Teaching strategies that facilitate social competence are listed in Figure 14-12.

Curriculum Planning for Social Growth Social curriculum happens everywhere in an early child- hood program. One of the goals of a psychosocial cur- riculum is:

…to help the young child move from her or his sheltered family unit into a much more complex en- vironment. …Th e curriculum should develop the

knowledge and perspective which is commensurate with the kind of world in which we live, a world that … is composed of an unlimited variety of out- looks, backgrounds, and standard of living. [Early education programs] can be a step in socializing the child, in helping the child change from an egocen- tric, ethnocentric person to one who understands and is sympathetic to people of considerable diver- sity. (Kendall, 1996)

In the Early Childhood Setting. Teaching social be- havior in most classrooms usually occurs in response to spontaneous situations. Th e teacher’s direct involvement in children’s social interactions is the most frequent method used. Occasionally, teachers will approach the acquisition of social skills in a more formalized way through planned curriculum activities. Th e way the envi- ronment is arranged has a profound eff ect on social in- teraction among children.

Most indoor activities are planned and set up to en- courage participation by more than one child at a time. Arrange the space into learning centers that provide for coactivity, with clear physical boundaries and ways to get around (see Chapter 9). Remember, the environment is one of the teachers.

■ Th e Arts. At the art table, children will share collage materials and paste that have been placed in the center of the table. When easels are placed side by

Social Competence: The Teacher’s Role

Don’t • Make implied comparisons

• Issue empty threats.

• Hover.

• Make teacher–child interaction be all about misbehavior.

• Motivate children by indirect disapproval.

• Lose your sense of humor.

• Allow a rigid curriculum to narrow possibilities for social interaction.

Do • Respect individual timetables and feelings.

• Establish authority and credibility.

• Express expectations simply and directly.

• Redefi ne children’s characters in positive terms.

• Encourage impulsive control.

• Appeal to children’s good sense.

• Invoke ground rules.

• Mix it up: Arrange things to get one child next to another.

• Move it: people, toys, you.

FIGURE 14-12 The Dos and Don’ts of facilitating social competence (adapted from Bos [1990] and Katz & McClelland [1997]).

Question everything you do: Could I open this up for more than one child?

487CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

side, conversation occurs spontaneously among chil- dren. A small table, placed between the easels, on which a tray of paint cups is placed, also encourages children’s interactions. If there is only one of each color, the children will have to negotiate with one another for the color they want to use.

■ Blocks/Manipulatives. A large space for block cabi- nets gives children a visual cue that there is plenty of room for more than one child. Puzzle tables set with three or four puzzles also tell children that so- cial interaction is expected. Many times, children will talk, play, and plan with one another as they share a large bin full of Legos® or plastic building towers. A fl oor puzzle always requires a group: some to put the picture together, others to watch and make suggestions. As children build with blocks next to one another, they soon share comments about their work; many times this sharing leads to a mutual eff ort on a single building.

■ Discovery/Science. Many science projects can be ar- ranged to involve more than one child. A display of magnets with a tray of assorted objects can become the focus of several children as they decide which objects will be attracted to the magnets. Cooking together, weighing and measuring one another, and caring for classroom pets can be times when teach- ers reinforce social skills.

■ Dramatic Play. Th is area more than any other seems to draw children into contact with one another. Pro- vide an assortment of family life accessories—dress- up clothes, kitchen equipment and utensils—and children have little trouble getting involved. A shoe needs to be tied or a dress zipped. Someone must come eat the delicious meal just cooked or put the baby to bed. A medical theme in this classroom area also enhances children’s social skills. Th ey learn to take each other’s temperature, listen to heartbeats, and plan operations, all of which require more than one person. Sociodramatic play can provide curricu- lum integration in the primary grades as well.

■ Language/Library. Children enjoy reading books and stories to one another, whether or not they know the words. Favorite books are often shared by two children who enjoy turning the pages and talk- ing over the story together. Lotto games encourage children to become aware of one another, to look at each person’s card in order to identify who has the picture to match. Name songs and games, especially early in the year, help children learn to call each other by name.

■ Music Movement. Build in regular times for music and movement activities. Th e entire group can par- ticipate in familiar songs; a sense of community is built by everyone’s participation. Activities during the free choice times usually involve smaller num- bers, in which group members can challenge one an- other to new ways to dance with scarves or use the tumbling mat. Finally, one-to-one experiences en- courage new friendships as the intimacy of a shared musical experience brings two children or a teacher and child together. Preschoolers can dance their way to social competence and success (Colker, 2007). Sharing music and dance from home is an ideal way to incorporate children’s individual cultures into the classroom. Translate a simple song into another lan- guage; teach the children the song, working in the language that is “home base” for most of the children, then reteach it. Words and phrases made familiar by melody are remembered and made valuable.

Outdoors, children need a space to run, a place to yell, a place where adults are not hovering and directing each activity. Th e pretend play of boys, in particular, is usually richer than inside, and many of the rough-and- tumble activities prohibited indoors are safe here. It may be more diffi cult to observe children, and directions are often harder to give with distance. Th e outdoor environ- ment can be structured in ways to support group play:

■ Painting or Drawing. Painting on murals or drawing chalk designs on the cement are art activities that promote social interaction.

■ Planning and Planting a Garden. Planning and planting a garden is a long-range project that in- volves many children. Decisions must be made by the group about what to plant, where to locate the garden, how to prepare the soil, and what the shared responsibilities of caring for the garden will be.

■ Gross Motor Activities. Most gross motor activities stimulate group interactions. Seesaws, jump ropes, and hide-and-seek require at least two people to participate. A-frames, boards, and boxes, as well as other movable equipment, need the cooperative ef- fort of several children in order to be rearranged. Sand play, when accompanied by water, shovels, and other accessories, draws a number of children to- gether to create rivers, dams, and fl oods. Ball games and relay races also encourage social relationships.

Routines, Transitions, and Groups. Routines and transitions are often social experiences, as they provide

488 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

children with an opportunity for support and peer in- teraction. For instance, the routine of nap preparation can be structured with a “buddy” system so that older children are paired with the younger ones to set up the cots, choose a cuddly or books, and get tucked in. A clean-up time transition can be made fun and successful if children can wear a necklace to depict the job or area. Children with similar clean-up cards get a sense of teamwork when putting an activity area back in order (see Figure 14-13).

As a directed learning experience, small group times aff ord an opportunity to focus on social skills in a more structured way. Small groups provide a setting for chil- dren and teachers to participate in more relaxed, unin- terrupted dialogue. Th e intimacy of the small group sets the stage for many social interactions.

Group time discussions, such as circle time in pre- school and class meetings for school-age children, can focus on problems that children can solve. Too many children crowding the water table, a child’s fear of fi re drills, or the noise level on a rainy day are subjects chil- dren will talk about in small groups. Th e most relevant situations are ones that occur naturally in the course of a program. Another curriculum idea is to make “Situation Cards” of these and other common incidents. For in- stance, teachers can create illustrated cards that pose sit- uations such as:

■ You tell your friends to “stop it” when they take part of the toy you are using, but they do it again.

■ You open your lunch and your mom or dad has packed your favorite foods.

■ You come down the slide and your teacher calls “Hooray for you!”

■ You promise your friend you will play with him at recess, but then someone else you like asks you to play with her.

Th e teacher then guides a discussion around the ques- tions “How do you feel? What can you say? What can you do?” Th is activity can be simplifi ed or elaborated de- pending on the individuals and group involved.

Figure 14-14 shows a sequentially planned curricu- lum that fosters the development of social skills in small group settings.

Focus on Skills. Social development for the preschool child includes gaining an awareness of the larger com- munity in which the child lives. Th e early childhood curriculum contains elements of what is often in the later grades called social studies. Visits from police offi -

cers, mail carriers, fi refi ghters, and other community helpers are common in many programs. Try to invite men and women in nontraditional jobs to visit and talk about or demonstrate their work. Be sure to include skills that are important to each child’s culture and fam- ily. Introducing children to a diverse range of creative adults—men and women from a variety of cultural back- grounds—helps children explore the world outside of their own experience.

Sharing. Learning to share involves using or enjoying something in common with others. Although sharing may seem simple to adults, it is not a skill that is learned overnight, nor is it easy to orchestrate in young children. When the dominant culture is one of individual compe- tition, acquisition, and ownership, children get particular messages that can make teaching “sharing” diffi cult.

What does sharing mean to you? To a young child:

■ giving up one’s OR taking turns? possessions

■ holding onto a OR bringing in power position more power?

■ losing what you have OR dividing everything equally?

■ defi ning who I am OR being the me who can give?

■ losing the thread of OR adding to the play? the play

Thus, sharing makes more sense over time. In the classroom, teachers can help by:

■ Understanding that it is normal not to want to share and to have trouble doing so.

■ Explaining in simple terms what they want the child to do.

■ Making sure that children “get back” what they have shared so that taking turns really works.

■ Being an example of sharing because “Do as I do” is more powerful than “Do it because I told you to.”

■ Giving children experience of there being enough. ■ Letting the children experience ownership, too, and

the good feeling that an act of generosity brings.

What Do

YOU Think?

489CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

The Kindness Jar

FIGURE 14-13 Kindness in a jar. (Adapted, by permission, from P. Whitin, 2001.)

Transition: The first day of kindergarten

Routine: The teacher makes notes of kind acts, talking aloud as she writes, and puts them in the jar.

Group: At circle time, the teacher reads them aloud before lunch and at the end of the day.

Curriculum Variations: • Children become “kindness reporters.” • They begin to make notes for the jar. • Then they make their own kindness jars. • Children elaborate on conflict resolution as it happens. • They create their own routine called “team kindnesses.”

490 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Curriculum for Social Skill Development

Time Week 1

Week 2

Week 3

Week 4

Week 5

FIGURE 14-14 Building social skills through small-group experiences, beginning with an understanding of self and moving toward an appreciation of group membership. (See Chapter 10 for specifi c guidelines to curriculum planning.)

Skill Developing a positive self-image

Becoming a member of a group

Forming a friendship within the group

Working together as a group

Learning a group identity

Activities Do thumbprint art. Make foot and handprints. Compare children’s baby pictures with current photos. Play with mirrors: Make faces, emotional expressions. Dress felt dolls in clothing. Sing name songs: “Mary Wore Her Red Dress.” Make a list: “What I like to do best is . . . ” Post in classroom. Do a self-portrait in any art medium. Make a silhouette picture of each child.

Take attendance together: Who is missing? Play picture lotto with photographs of children. Play “Farmer in the Dell.” Share a favorite toy from home with older children. Tape record children’s voices, guess who they are. Have a “friendly feast”: Each child brings a favorite food from home to share.

Provide one puzzle (toy, game, book) for every two children. Take a “buddy walk”: Return and tell a story together of what you saw. Play “telephone talk”: Pretend to invite your friend over to play. Play “copy cat”: imitate your friend’s laugh, walk, cry, words. Practice throwing and catching balls with one another. Form letter together with two children’s bodies: A, T, C, K, etc. Play tug-of-war with your friend. Build a house out of blocks together. Make “mirror images” movements with your friend.

Play with a parachute; keep the ball bouncing. Make snacks for the rest of the class. Plan and plant a garden. Make a mural together to decorate the hallways. Play “Follow the Leader.” Sing a round: “Row, Row, Row Your Boat.”

Make a map of the town and have children place their house on it. Take a fi eld trip together. Print a newspaper with articles by and about each child. Select and perform a favorite story for the rest of the class. Take a group snapshot. Make a “family tree” of photos of children in group. Learn a group folk dance. Make a mural of handprints joined in a circle.

back,” and because of the fuss they have seen occur when they do not share. School-age children become aware that some children feel the same as they do and that others may have needs and wishes diff erent from their own.

Toddlers and the 2-year-olds are rarely ready to share on their own. Grabbing what they want makes sense to them, and sharing a toy or space may feel like giving it up forever. Preschoolers share more readily because of the experiences they have had in “getting it

491CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

Cooperating. Learning how to cooperate with others is one primary social skill in which young children need plenty of practice. Toddlers and 2-year-olds can begin to see the benefi ts of cooperation as they become more aware of others’ feelings and wishes, and as teachers help all children get what they want through taking turns, dividing materials, looking for another item when it is in demand. Th ree- to 5-year-olds become more cooperative

as they learn more self-help skills (motor development) and can express themselves (language development) as well as remember guidelines and understand reasons for prosocial behavior (cognitive development). School-age children develop an emotional sense of psychosocial competence (see Erikson, Chapter 4).

Structured activities that promote cooperation (see Figure 14-15) help children become aware of and learn

A Curriculum of Cooperation

FIGURE 14-15 The social skill of cooperation can be fostered throughout the curricu- lum. (How to plan a lesson and build a unit are discussed in Chapter 11.)

Language Plan and perform a favorite story. Choose a story at the listening post together. Learn “I love you” in sign language. Copy someone’s motions, dance, block patterns. Put on a puppet show. Develop a “What Can I Share?” chart. Discuss how new toys, equipment will be shared so everyone gets a turn.

Science Care for classroom pets. Have group cooking projects. Plan and plant a garden.

Music Sing together each day. Have a rhythm band. Dance in groups of two or three. Dance with a parachute.

Social Studies Make a group gift for a hospital, rest home. Create an art display for the local library. Make cookies to sell at the school fair. Run errands for teachers, each other. Develop dramatic play themes of: shoe stores, hospital, doctors, ecology. Collect and sort recycling materials. Take a field trip to the town dump for recycling. Write a “protest letter” about an inferior product.

Environment Schedule cleanup daily. Have two children share cubbies. Bring snacks from home to share. Set tables for two or more children. Use large bins to store some materials; children will need to share contents.

Art Trace each other’s bodies on paper. Share paste and collage materials. Share paints. Make a mural. Make litter bags. Create a wall hanging: fabric, crayons and sheets; each child draws part. Create a class quilt: each child sews a square; teacher puts it together.

Games Play Simon Says. Play board games: Winnie-The-Pooh and Candy Land. Play Lotto. Play Bingo.

Outdoors Push someone on a swing. Pull a friend in a wagon. Make bird feeders. Set up a bowling alley with bowler and pin setters. Make an obstacle course. Use seesaws. Play group jump rope. Play “Follow the Leader.”

COOPERATION

492 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

to work with others and to see viewpoints other than their own. Although most children spontaneously inter- act in free play periods (thus learning social skills in the process), some children need the structure of a more teacher-directed group activity to promote social devel- opment. Moreover, children’s friendships can be ex- panded by the guided affi liation determined by a teacher and a project.

Successful implementation of cooperative learning activities in both older preschoolers and early elementary children usually needs a clear focus of project or activity (such as eating a snack, writing a newsletter, building a model, or catching a hamster on the loose). Th e group size and, often, members are determined by the teacher, who also needs to make the expectations for group be- havior known. Th e teacher then monitors the interac- tion, providing assistance, clarifi cation, or problem solv- ing as needed. Evaluation is based on observation, and the group is rewarded for its success.

Being Included. Young children get involved in a vari- ety of interpersonal situations that are beyond their ca- pacities to handle with grace. An overly aggressive child, one who withdraws or stays apart from social opportuni- ties, someone who chronically interrupts or disrupts the play, and children who deliberately leave another out all may end up becoming rejected by their peers. Th ese so- cially awkward or troubled children need special help to learn the strategies for being included that all children have to learn.

Developing a confl ict resolution curriculum will help all children learn the communication and coping skills necessary for being included. Children who learn good observation and body language skills can then be helped to participate successfully in situations that require pro- social behaviors. In addition, children will need guidance and practice in deciding how to include others whose appearance, interests, age, or behavior diff ers from their own (Paley, 1992). Research has shown long-term posi- tive eff ects of such confl ict resolution training. When el- ementary children were taught impulse control, how to get what they wanted without aggression, and how to recognize others’ feelings, along with teacher training and family management skills, the children were in bet- ter mental health and higher educational and economic achievement than a control group 15 years later (Hawkins, et al, 2008). Chapter 7 has additional suggestions.

DAPDAP

Research fi ndings on guided reading indicate that books and reading can change attitudes as well as shape as child’s character (Sawyer & Comer, 1996). For in- stance, use books that help inform children about dis- abilities; I’m the Big Sister Now (Emmert) helps school- aged children learn about multiple handicaps. At the same time, there is a body of books known as “inclusion- ary literature, where the intent is not to inform, [but rather] a person with a disability is included in story much like a person might be a neighbor, a classmate, or a friend” (Blaska & Lynch, 1998). Examples include Les- ter’s Dog (Hesse) and Mama Zoom (Cowen-Fletcher).

DAP Teachers model positive interaction with others and encourage prosocial behavior. All children in the class are provided op- portunities to get to know and work with each other, and friendships are encouraged. Teachers actively involve children in confl ict resolution.

“Nobody likes to think about it, even though we know it is not okay to hurt a person with words, or things, or with the way we

behave. So when some kids in my class started picking on Ray when the teachers were busy and just couldn’t see, nobody knew what to do.” Thus begins Becky R. McCain’s picture book entitled Nobody Knew What To Do. What do you think? Do you advise children to “fi ght back?” Do you shrug off “tattling” about these incidents? How do you think bullying can be prevented? Dealt with when it happens?

What Do

YOU Think?

Helping. One area of social development that is some- times not emphasized in an individualistic society or classroom is that of helping others. Developmentally ap- propriate programs emphasize cooperation and fi nd that children spontaneously off er help and sympathy to those in need. Snack time is a natural setting for practicing helping others in both words (“Please pass the fruit”; “No, gracias”) and deeds (handing someone the pitcher or a sponge). Remember to sit face-to-face, rather than hover behind. Teachers who stand behind often fall into the trap of withholding food while eliciting rote words, rather than genuine or spontaneous positive social inter-

493CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

action. Full-day programs can encourage children to help each other prepare and put away nap items. Curriculum can be developed from the classroom (“What can we do when someone’s sad to say good-bye to Mom?”) and the larger world (“Some children have noticed a lot of trash in the park next door”) to enhance children’s helping skills.

Themes. A popular theme that lends itself to social growth is that of friendship. One second grade teacher started an intergenerational program she calls “Forever Friends.” Early in the year, Ms. Power introduces her class to a group of residents of a retirement center.

Th e elders visit the school throughout the year, par- ticipating fi rst-hand in the students’ studies and ac- tivities. Th ey share oral histories, favorite memories and stories, and introduce the children to their tal- ents and hobbies, such as photography, playing mu- sical instruments, and collecting coins and model trains. Th ere are discussions about what each group thinks about age issues (“What is old?”) and take an attitude survey. Th ey visit museums together, the children invite the elders to an art show of their paintings, and there is a musical review at the end of the year, including a song “Forever Friends,” which the teacher wrote (Holland, 2000).

Figure 14-16 illustrates how a unit on friendship can be developed for a setting with children as young as 3 and as old as third grade. Other themes can be generated from the children:

“Make It Fair” Not enough raisins in the cereal, complained a kindergartner, sparking a class letter-writing campaign.

“Th e Girl No Preschoolers rejecting another, One Wanted so they wrote, made costumes, to Play With” and performed a play. “Saving the Th ird-graders put on a sale to World” buy rainforest acreage.

Creative Growth It’s OK to try something you don’t know. It’s OK to make mistakes. It’s OK to take your time. It’s OK to fi nd your own pace. It’s OK to bungle—so next time you are free to succeed. It’s OK to risk looking foolish. It’s OK to be original and diff erent. It’s OK to wait until you are ready. It’s OK to experiment (safely). It’s OK to question “shoulds.” It is special to be you. You are unique. It is necessary to make a mess (which you need to be willing to clean up!).

Permissions by Christina Lopez-Morgan (2002) opens our discussion of creativity, to give the tone for what cre- ativity is and how it develops.

In this section, we will discuss the development of creativity and creative skills, then look at the role of the teacher and creative curriculum.

The Development of Creativity Creativity is the ability to have new ideas, to be original and imaginative, and to make new adaptations on old ideas. Inventors, composers, and designers are creative people, as are those who paint and dance, write speeches, or create curriculum for children. Th inking in a diff erent way and changing a way of learning or seeing something are all creative acts.

Creative thinking is a cognitive process, expressed by children in all developmental areas. Picture the two

Helping: “I’ll help clean up.”

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Theme: Friendship

Everyone has a name and likes to have it used.

Friendship songs, using children’s names.

Having friends is fun.

Make a friendship ring: Each child traces own hands on mural making a circle.

Friends will help you.

Form a relay team and have a race.

You can show someone you want to be friends.

Write a letter to a friend; invite a friend over to play.

To have a friend is to be a friend.

Children respond to: “A friend is someone who ...” (They describe their impressions while teacher writes down their words.)

Friends enjoy doing things together.

Go on a scavenger hunt with a friend.

Adults can be your friends.

Teacher helps child solve conflict or gives comfort when child is hurt.

Friends enjoy doing things for one another.

Children respond to “Being a friend with someone means ...” (Teacher writes down children’s dictation.)

Friends are different; they do not all look the same.

Children respond to “Tell me about your friend Alice. She . . . ” (Child describes a friend as teacher writes the words.)

Each person is something special and unique.

Make a “friend puppet” with paper plates and tongue depressor handles. Child decorates it with felt pieces and yarn to look like a friend.

Animals and pets can be your friends.

Children have an opportunity to bring small house pets to school to share with rest of class.

Everyone can have a friend.

Teacher reads stories about friendships: Will I Have a Friend? (Cohen), Corduroy (Freeman), Play with Me (Ets), Little Bear’s Friend (Minarik), A Letter to Amy (Keats), Hold My Hand (Zolotow), Jessica (Henkes), Harry & Willie & Carrothead (Caseley).

FIGURE 14-16 A friendship unit can encourage children to express positive emotions while they use their cognitive, language, and motor skills to enhance their social development. (Photo © Cengage Learning)

trols such operations as concrete thinking, systematic planning, language, and mathematical skills, what we might call the more rational and cognitive parts of think- ing. It is the right brain that engages in more spontaneous ideas and thinks in nonverbal, intuitive ways. Of course, we need both sides to engage to develop, but clearly, the right side is the creative information processor.

Th e roots of creativity reach into infancy, for it is ev- ery individual’s unique and creative process to explore and understand the world. Infants’ creativity is seen in their eff orts to touch and move. Toddlers begin to scrib-

major ways of thinking as vertical and lateral. Vertical thinking involves learning more about something and tends to lead toward an answer. It is also known as con- vergent thinking, used when asked, “What shape is this block?” Lateral thinking is a process used to fi nd the cre- ative solution or unusual idea. Such divergent thinking tends to broaden the fi eld of answers, as when respond- ing to “how many diff erent ways can you surprise your mother?”

Creativity engages certain parts of the brain. Th e left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and con-

495CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

ble, build, and move for the pure physical sensation of movement. Young preschoolers create as they try for more control, such as scribbling with purpose or bobbing and jumping to music. Older preschoolers enjoy their budding mastery. Th eir drawings take on some basic forms, and they repeat movements deliberately while making a dance. As they grow, 5- to 8-year-olds commu- nicate to the world through artistic and expressive cre- ation. With advanced motor control and hand–eye coor- dination, their drawings are representational and pictorial, their dramatic play more cohesive.

Creativity is a process; as such, it is hard to defi ne. As one becomes involved in creative activity, the process and the product merge.

It is probably best to think of creativity as a contin- ual process for which the best preparation is creativ- ity itself… [T]here is real joy in discovery—which not only is its own reward, but provides the urge for continuing exploration and discovery. (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1975)

Th e young child is open to experience, exploring ma- terials with curiosity and eagerness. For young children, developing the senses is part of acquiring creative skills. Children are also quick to question, wonder, and see things that do not quite match. In the early years, it is delightful to watch confi dent children elaborate in their creative expression with increasing detail and using more complex forms.

Creative Skills Th ere are characteristics common to creative people. For the teacher interested in fostering creative growth in children, these are the skills they should help children learn.

Flexibility and Fluency Flexibility and fl uency are dual skills that allow for cre- ative responses. Flexibility is the capacity to shift from one idea to another; fl uency is the ability to produce many ideas. “How many ways can you move from one side of the room to another?” is a question likely to pro- duce many diff erent ideas, one example of fl uency. Chil- dren who must think of another way to share the wagons when taking turns does not work learn fl exibility.

Sensitivity Creativity involves a high degree of sensitivity to one’s self and one’s mental images. Creative people, from an early age, seem to be aware of the world around them:

how things smell, feel, and taste. Th ey are sensitive to mood, texture, and how they feel about someone or something. Creative people notice details; how a pine cone is attached to the branch is a detail the creative per- son does not overlook.

A special aspect of this skill is sensitivity to beauty. Also known as aesthetics, this sensitivity to what is beautiful is emphasized in some programs (such as Reggio Emilia) and some cultures (such as tokonoma, an alcove dedicated to display, in Japanese homes). Teachers can ask the families of children in their care about special places, objects, and rituals that celebrate beauty and help children acquire an aesthetic interest in their environment.

Children have an awareness of and a value for their natural environment and what is aesthetically pleasing. Creative children take delight and satisfaction in making images come to life. Th eir creative response is in the way they paint a picture, dance with streamers, or fi nd a solu- tion to a problem. Figure 14-17 shows how a 5½ -year- old’s sensitivity to perspective and detail comes out through a drawing.

Creativity is the ability to be original and imaginative, to soar above the commonplace.

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Use of Imagination/Originality Imagination is a natural part of the creative process. Children use their imagination to develop their creativ- ity in several ways:

■ Role Playing. In taking on another role, children combine their knowledge of the real world with their internal images. Th e child becomes a new character and that role comes to life.

■ Image Making. When children create a rainbow with a hose or with paints, they are adding some- thing of their own to their understanding of that vi- sual image. In dance, children use their imagination as they pretend to be objects or feelings, images brought to life.

■ Constructing. In building and constructing activities, children seem to be re-creating an image they have about tall buildings, garages, or farms. In the pro- cess of construction, however, children do not in- tend that the end product resemble the building it- self. Th eir imagination allows them to experiment with size, shape, and relationships.

A Willingness to Take Risks/Elaboration People who are willing to break the ordinary mental set and push the boundaries in defi ning and using ordinary objects, materials, and ideas are creative people. Th ey take risks. Openness to thinking diff erently or seeing things diff erently is essential to creativity.

When children create, they are revealing themselves. Art, for instance, is a form of cultural communication, one of the basic language skills children need to partici- pate in a multicultural democracy (Schirrmacher & Fox, 2009). Increasing opportunities for creative expression allows for nonverbal response and success without direc- tions. It encourages children (and families) to share themselves in enjoyable ways. It is, therefore, a good way to teach about cultures and learn about each other in a relaxed, accepting atmosphere.

Self-esteem is a factor in risk-taking because people who are tied to what others think of them are more likely to conform rather than follow their own intuitive and creative impulses. People usually do not like to make mistakes or be ridiculed; therefore, they avoid taking risks.

A teacher concerned about creative growth in chil- dren realizes that it will surface if allowed and encour- aged. When a child is relaxed and not anxious about be- ing judged by others, creativity will more likely be expressed. With support, children can be encouraged to risk themselves.

Using Self as a Resource Creative people who are aware of themselves and confi - dent in their abilities draw on their own perceptions, questions, and feelings. Th ey know they are their own richest source of inspiration. Th ose who excel in creative productivity have a great deal of respect for themselves, and they use the self as a resource.

Experience Children need experience to gain skills in using materials creatively. Th ey must learn how to hold a paint brush before they can paint a picture; once they know how to paint, they can be creative in what they paint. Teachers of young children sometimes overlook the fact that chil-

Seeing in New Ways: Creativity in Action

FIGURE 14-17 Sensitivity to one’s own mental images, such as perceiving direction and movement, are part of creativity in the young child. A 51/2-year-old sketched how a pet rat looked from below after picking it up often and watching it run on its exercise wheel.

497CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

dren need competence with the tools to be creative with them. A little sensitive, individual demonstration on proper use of a watercolor brush, sandpaper, or ink roller can expand a child’s ability to create and eliminate need- less frustration and disappointment. Th e teachers of Reggio Emilia, for instance, demonstrate how to use the tools so that the children can then make outstanding creations. Anecdotes from highly accomplished people in creative endeavors (pianists, mathematicians, Olympic swimmers) highlight the value of long-term systematic instruction in a sort of apprenticeship with inspiring teachers as well as parents who are committed to assist. As teachers we can see how Vygotsky’s theory applies in the arts and can provide the initial palette of creative ac- tivities so that children can dabble and become experi- enced. When the skill of the medium is mastered, the child is ready to create.

Role of the Teacher Teachers aff ect the creative process for children in several distinct ways. How they set up the environment, the choices and kinds of activities they provide, and the types of interactions they have with the children during

creative activities all stimulate or discourage the creative process (Lopez-Morgan, 2002).

Considerations To encourage creative development, follow these eight tips:

1. Provide continuous availability, abundance, and vari- ety of materials, as is done in Reggio Emilia (see Chapter 2).

2. Give children regular creative opportunities to experi- ence and the skill necessary to be creative. Children need frequent occasions to be creative to function in a highly creative manner. When children have a chance to create, their skills in perceiving the world are enhanced.

3. Encourage divergent thinking. Do not interfere. Once you have presented the materials, try to forget how you intended them to be used. When there are no “right” or “wrong” answers, children are free to create. Avoid models, making things for children to copy. It insults children and can make them feel inadequate in the face of something you can do so much better.

4. Help foster conversation on issues and seeking solutions to problems:

Teacher: How do you think we could share the swings?

David: Th e kids who give me a turn can come to my birthday party.

Sabrina: No. We will have to make a waiting list. Xenia: Only girls can use the swings. Th e boys

can have all the cars. Frederico: Buy a new swing set. 5. Talk with young children about what they create.

Whether it is their artwork, table toy creations, or dramatic play sequences, talk helps creativity con- siderably. Rather than approach children’s work with compliments, judgments, or even questions, Schirrmacher and Fox (2009) recommend that you:

■ Allow children to go about their artistic discover- ies without your comparing, correcting, or pro- jecting yourself into their art.

■ Shift from searching for representation in children’s art to a focus on the abstract, design qualities.

■ Use refl ective dialogue. ■ Smile, pause, and say nothing at fi rst.

DAPDAP

When children have a chance to create, with permission to use an abundance of materials, the results are cre- ative.

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DAP Teachers do not provide a model that they expect children to copy. However, they demonstrate new techniques or uses of the materials to expand children’s options. Teachers display children’s art, as well as the work of artists, in the classroom and else- where in the program setting. Children have opportunities to experience music, art, and dance in the community.

498 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

6. Allow children to take the lead in their own creative works from start to fi nish. Adults do not need to take over at any point, particularly at the end with ques- tions (“What is it?”) or praise (“I like it!”). If a child seems to want more response, comment on the color (“What a lot of blue you used”), texture (“I see wiggly lines all down one side”), or the child’s ef- forts (“You really worked on this painting, huh? ”).

7. Integrate creativity and learning in the classroom. Early childhood theorists from Dewey and Piaget to Montessori and Malaguzzi (see Chapter 1) have ad- vocated multisensory learning through experimenta- tion and discovery. (See “Art” later in this chapter.)

8. Teacher timing and attitudes stimulate creativity. Do not delay; children want to see immediate results and act on their ideas now. Teacher timing and atti- tudes are important in stimulating creative develop- ment. Give plenty of time for a dramatic theme to develop, to pursue the props needed, or to fi nd the players and audience. “It is here that initial attitudes are established … and school can be a fun place where the individual’s contribution is welcome and where changes can be sought and made” (Lowenfeld & Brittain, 1975).

Children need plenty of time and a relaxed atmosphere to be creative. Th ey need encouragement and respect for the process and products of their creative nature. Th e teach- er’s attitude tells the children that what they do is impor- tant and that how they do it makes a diff erence. Rather than expecting a predetermined right answer, the teacher encourages creativity by valuing the answers the children give even when they appear unusual or illogical.

Note: Th e Reggio Emilia approach to curriculum (see Chapters 2 and 10) emphasizes children’s creative and cognitive expressions. Th ey have a special art teacher (atelierista) who operates an art studio within the school. Th e studio is stocked with art materials, and children work alongside this teacher. While most groups will not have this arrangement, the idea of children talking and learning with a more experienced adult can help them excel in creating.

Curriculum Planning for Creative Growth Th e early childhood curriculum off ers many rich avenues for self-expression and creativity. Beyond art and music, there is the ability to think and question, to fi nd more than one answer to a problem. Blocks, climbing equip- ment, and social relationships off er risk-taking opportu- nities. Children use themselves as resources as they play outdoor games, experiment with science projects, and

participate in dramatic play. Taruna exhibits many cre- ative traits as she attempts to enter into play with two other children. She fi rst asks if she can play, and when met with rejection, she demands to be one of the mom- mies. Taruna fi nally off ers her doll as a prop and is ac- cepted into the group. Her persistence is exceeded only by her creative problem solving.

In the Early Childhood Setting. Teachers create the atmosphere and the environment for creative endeavors. “Studies show that teachers plan areas for discussions, walls for displays, centers for activities, and areas for sup- plies. In the organization of these classroom areas by teachers and their use by children, the spaces and arti- facts take on meaning and infl uence learning” (Taunton & Colbert, 2000).

Open-ended materials provide a continuing chal- lenge as children use them repeatedly in new and diff er- ent ways. Clay, play dough, paints, crayons and pens, blocks, water, sand and other sensory materials, and movable outdoor equipment are good examples of open- ended materials that stimulate creativity. Particularly in the area of creative art, it is important to avoid projects that masquerade as creative activities, such as duplicated, photocopied, or mimeographed sheets, cut-and-paste activities, tracing patterns, coloring book pages, dot-to- dot books, and any art “project” that is based on a model for children to copy or imitate. Children are motivated to try new ways to use materials when a project is fl exible and challenging.

Indoors, every classroom has a potential for creative activity.

■ Th e Arts. A wide variety of materials and opportu- nities to choose how they will be used is the basis of the creative process. An open table with a shelf of

Offer many materials to create an open-ended art center.

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499CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

simple, familiar materials that can be combined in many ways will lead to inventiveness. Two-year-olds like crayons, paste, and colored paper pieces; 3- to 5-year-olds will enjoy the addition of markers, string, hole punches and scissors, and tape. Older children can manage staplers, rulers, and protrac- tors. Plenty of paper, such as recycled computer pa- per and cardboard, rounds out an open-ended, self- help art shelf. More organized art activities can also be off ered, particularly for the preschool child, as long as the focus is on the child’s process, rather than an end product or model. As they approach the primary years, children become interested in what their creations look like and then are ready for practical help and advice on getting started.

■ Blocks/Manipulatives. Children use their imagina- tion when blocks become castles, tunnels, corrals, and swamps. Th ese areas encourage creativity when children have enough materials of one kind to “re- ally” make something; one long block is just not enough for a road. Also, creations have a sense of permanence when they are noted and kept. Sketch- ing or photographing a block structure, attaching signs (including taking dictation) for the day, even rethinking clean up periodically shows how valu- able these creations are.

■ Discovery/Science. Building geoboards or making tangrams and cube art all blend math and art. Art activities can lead children to discover scientifi c principles, such as color mixing, dissolving powder paint in water, and having water available with clay. Natural materials can be used for rubbings, mobiles, and prints. Collecting materials during a “litter walk” makes interesting and informative collages.

■ Dramatic Play. Th e dramatic arts off er opportuni- ties for children to express themselves. Every “unit” in the dramatic play corner brings out children’s own interpretations of their world, whether it is a house, shoe store, market, or a camp out, dinosaur cave, or space shuttle. Favorite books and stories can be acted out in the dramatic play area. Start with a simple nursery rhyme, and move to short stories with a few characters, simple plots, and manageable speaking lines (Schirrmacher & Fox, 2009).

■ Language/Library. Besides a variety of books and children’s literary experiences (see Chapter 13), the book nook can be a place for teachers to ask open- ended questions for fun and pondering. “What if you were a twin? What would you wear or eat? Where would you live?” is a social creation; “If I were a hat, I would …” is a physical one.

Outdoors, creativity happens. Large, hollow blocks can become a stairway, and wagons and carts become fi re en- gines, buses, doll carriages, moving vans, or trucks. Dancing with ribbons, making a banner for a parade, and rearranging equipment to make a tumbling or obstacle course all com- bine children’s motor skills with music for creative growth. Sand, water, and mud provide a place for children to dig, haul, manipulate, and control in any number of ways.

Routines, Transitions, and Groups. Teachers can apply their own creativity to many routine situations. Children looking for a lost mitten organize a “hunt.” Pretending to be vacuum cleaners, dump trucks, or robots gets the blocks picked up faster. Saying good-bye can be an exercise in creativity; the child can say, “See you later, alligator,” and the adults (parents and teacher) can make up a silly response. Another day, the child and parent can reverse roles.

Creative “thinking games” can be part of any transition time. Since teachers are looking for unusual responses, chil- dren will stay engaged and the game stays fresh over time:

■ “What would happen if…” is the prompt; provide endings such as “refrigerators ate food? bath tubs could talk? you could be invisible?”

■ “Just Suppose” asks children to come up with end- ings to such short stories as “You found a magic fl y- ing carpet. Where would you go? What would hap- pen?” or “You could be any animal.”

■ “Make It Better” uses a prop. Th e teacher brings a stuff ed animal, race car, or other familiar toy. Pass it around carefully, and then ask, “How could we make it a better toy? What could we do to make it more fun to play with?”

Creativity does not respond well to the clock. Th ese three issues—routines, transitions, and groups—must be handled so as not to interrupt children too often. “Children’s own sense of time and their personal rhythms are considered in planning and carrying out activities and projects” (Gandini in Gillespie, 2000).

Children’s creative expression in groups is enhanced through music. Music is a universal language that devel- ops every aspect of psychosocial development. It allows the expression of emotions and provides the opportunity to take roles as well as a delightful time to create with movement.

Th ere is a kind of developmental sequence in the creative expression of music:

■ Th e very young child is receptive to music, respond- ing by listening, singing, and making noise with instruments.

500 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

■ Preschoolers move to rhythmic music, often singing spontaneously in play and responding to repeated songs or repetitious phrasing. Th eir interest in mu- sical instruments precedes their skill, and they often need instruments to be introduced and their proper use demonstrated.

■ Older preschoolers and school-age children are more accurate in matching their pitch and tempo to the group or played music.

Music can set the tone at nap time, signal that a clean-up task is at hand, summon children to a group, and off er cultural experiences that are meaningful and enjoyable. For instance, New Year is often a noisy time; it can be celebrated by making ankle bells and doing a Sri

Lankan dance or making a West Indian Conga line. In Waldorf schools, music is quite important. Children are engaged daily in eurhythmic exercises (developed by Steiner, see Chapter 1). Taught by a specialist, it is a kind of creative form that translates music and speech into movement. (See Figure 14-18.)

Focus on Skills. Th e wide range of skills necessary for creative development can be supported throughout the early childhood program. Th e creative thinker is one who fi nds many ways to solve a problem, approach a situation, use materials, and interact with others. Th e teacher’s role is one of supporting imaginative use of equipment and using a multisensory approach to deepen learning.

Music and Movement: Stages and Activities

Appropriate Music/Movement Activity

Bounce to music with different tempos Repetitive songs like “Itsy-Bitsy Spider” or “If You’re Happy and You Know It” Pound on milk cartons, oatmeal boxes Make shakers with gravel in shampoo bottles

Select songs that include their names, such as “Do You Know the Muffi n Man?” Use Ella Jenkin’s recordings or try “Going on a Bear Hunt” Start “Old MacDonald” and let them make their own additions; dance with scarves or use shakers to sing along with a child

Be a fl ying car, trees swaying in the wind, sing “Big, Bigger, Biggest” with variations Change “Where Is Thumbkin” to “Where Is Fi-fo” and improvise with their ideas Accompany music with instruments, “Green Grass Grew All Around” with action

Use a parachute to music Try “Did You Feed My Cow?” Be sure to ask the group and use them in selecting music activities

Use large word charts Do partner games Children pick instruments in pairs

Stage of Musical Development 2-year-olds Use their bodies in response to music Can learn short, simple songs

Enjoy experimenting with sounds

3-year-olds Can recognize and sing parts of tunes

Walk, run, jump to music Make up their own songs

4-year-olds Can grasp basic musical concepts like tempo, volume, pitch Love silly songs

Prefer “active” listening

5- to 6-year olds Enjoy singing and moving with a group Enjoy call-and-response songs Have fairly established musical preferences

7- and 8-year olds Are learning to read lyrics Enjoy musical duets with friends

FIGURE 14-18 Creative experiences in music and movement engage the whole child and offer children integrated experiences throughout the curriculum (adapted from Schirrmacher & Fox, 2009).

501CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

Themes. As teachers plan curriculum around a theme, they keep in mind what creative skills can be developed. Figure 14-19 charts the theme of “Green and Growing Th ings” and can bring out the child’s creative nature as well as social responsibility by promoting ecological re- sponsibility through the arts and nurturing an environ- mental and social ethic.

Creative themes can also revolve around other psy- chosocial issues.

One teacher brought to her second grade class an activity from an acting workshop known as the “Emo-

tion Map.” After leading a discussion about imagina- tive maps (Th e Hobbit, Harry Potter), she listed their suggestions (“Slump Swamp,” “Guilt Garage,” “Boring Boulevard,” “Bridge of Joy”). Rolling out a piece of pa- per on the fl oor, they began to sketch and talk. Once the map was made and elaborately decorated, the stu- dents used it to plot how they felt daily using a Post-it® they had drawn of themselves. New ideas cropped up: Children wanted “emotion maps” made into books for journaling and to plan for performances about diff er- ent emotions.

Theme: Green and Growing Things

Outdoor Activities 1. Plant a garden in a corner of the yard, in an old barrel, or in a box fl at on a table. Children learn through

experimentation why some things grow and others don’t. Make space for a compost heap. 2. Add wheelbarrows to the transportation toys. 3. Take a fi eld trip to a farm, at planting time if possible, or a garden center. 4. Add gardening tools to the sand area. With proper supervision, children can see how trowels, hand claws,

rakes, and shovels can be used to create new patterns in the sand and mud. 5. Plan group games that emphasize green and growing things. Older children could run wheelbarrow races,

using one child as the wheelbarrow and another as a driver. 6. Play “musical vegetables” with large cards or chalk drawings. Dance with gourds, coconut instruments, sugar

cane rhythm sticks. 7. Have children select a potted plant (have older children pick a partner), then have them draw, paint, or collage

what they see. Let children look, talk and compare, then make another creation.

Indoor Activities 1. Leaf rubbings, printing with surplus apples, onions, carrots, potatoes, lemons, oranges, and celery, and

painting with pine boughs are ways children can create art with green and growing things; make cornhusk dolls, avocado seed porcupines.

2. Book accessories might include blue felt forms for lakes, hay for corrals and barns. 3. In the manipulative area, match a photo of familiar plants with a sample of the plant. Add sorting trays with

various kinds of seeds to count, feel, mix, and match. Match pictures of eggs, bacon, milk, and cheese with other animals from which they come.

4. In the science area, grow alfalfa sprouts and mung beans. Let children mix them in salads and feed to classroom pets. As the sprouts grow, children can chart the growth. This activity can lead to charting their own development, comparing it with when they were infants.

5. The dramatic play center can be transformed into a grocery store to emphasize the food we buy to eat, how it helps us, and why good nutrition is important. Other dramatic play units are a fl orist shop or nursery, stocked with garden gloves, seed packets, peat pots, and sun hats.

6. The language area can be stocked with books about how plants, baby animals, and children grow. In small groups, children can respond to “When I plant a seed . . . ” or “When I was a baby I . . . Now I . . . ” to stimulate creative expression.

7. Songs and fi ngerplays help focus on green and growing things, children’s growth, and animals. “The Green Grass Grows All Around” can be sketched by a teacher so that children will have visual cues to each successive verse. A favorite fi ngerplay, “Way Up in the Apple Tree,” can be adapted to a number of fruits and vegetables.

FIGURE 14-19 Creativity around the classroom. Creativity and problem solving may stem from the same source. Real-life experiences, such as planning and building a gar- den, expand to provide creative thinking and logic in the classroom.

502 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

A preschool teaching team noticed the children’s in- terest in shoes. Th ey helped the children brainstorm what they knew about shoes and what they wanted to learn and do about them. Th e group built a shoe store, created a song and game called “Whose shoe are you?” and made elaborate “houses” out of old, donated adult shoes modeled after “I Know an Old Woman Who Lived in a Shoe.” Th e project lasted nearly a month!

Spiritual Development Spiritual development is rarely discussed in early child- hood or developmental texts. In the United States, where the separation of church and state is mandated, the public classroom has avoided involvement in things spiritual or religious. Private schools are not under such legal restraints, and many (see Chapter 2) actively sup- port or are sponsored by religious organizations. Still, the spiritual side of formal schooling is usually left to re- ligious institutions and families.

Issues to Consider Often adults tend to see children as not particularly spiritual. Without higher reasoning and abstract think- ing skills, young children are seen as not able to have a spiritual life. Moreover, many think of spirituality solely in terms of religion, and “this focus on the ‘religious’ end of spirituality may be developmentally ‘off target’” (Dillon, 2000). By seeing children as faulty thinkers (since they cannot articulate or conceptualize like adults) or by fo- cusing only on organized religion and its ways of expla- nation, we may overwhelm or overlook children’s spiri- tual experiences.

Some of the earliest contributors to the fi eld have mentioned spiritual development. Froebel saw the child as having an innate spiritual capacity. Education was meant to build on the living core of the child’s intrinsic spiritual capacity. Steiner developed the three spiritual dimensions of selfhood and felt that children of all levels of development were capable of spiritual experience. Montessori (Wolf, 2000) wrote:

If education recognizes the intrinsic value of the child’s personality and provides an environment suited to spiritual growth, we have the revelation of an entirely new child whose astonishing characteris- tics can eventually contribute to the betterment of the world.

It would appear that “profound levels of spiritual reality are accessible even to the youngest human being. … Th ese experiences typically involve unity, joy, mystery” (Dillon, 2000). Take, for instance, the children’s awe as they see a banana slug inching its way up a redwood tree; or the wonder in their eyes at the many colors of autumn maple leaves; their gasp when they fi nd a dead bird, or the sheer joy and outstretched arms (and tongues!) to catch snowfl akes.

Saxton (2004) reminds us of the religious or spiritual infl uence on a child’s cultural identity. Robert Coles (1990) conducted an inquiry of the spiritual life of children in the United States, Central and South America, Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. He concluded that children are “seekers, as young pilgrims well aware that life is a fi nite journey and as anxious to make sense of it as those of us who are farther along in the time allotted us.”

Spiritual development in an early childhood program includes the child’s deep experience with self and the world, with the mysterious and invisible, and with the joy and pain that real life off ers. It can also be expressed through the emotional and social curriculum. Early childhood programs address general spiritual develop- ment in these four ways:

1. Teaching about right and wrong. Caring adults con- tribute to children’s moral education by encouraging integrity. In their book Moral Classrooms, Moral Children (1994), DeVries and Zan assert:

Interpersonal confl ict can provide the context in which children become conscious of others as having feelings, ideas, and desires… Piaget stated that confl ict is the most infl uential factor in the acquisition of new knowledge structures. Confl ict may thus be viewed as a source of prog- ress in development.

Children then learn issues of “right and wrong” in a caring setting, balancing their own wishes with those of others. “It is possible to train and habituate the young with respect, generosity of spirit, and intellec- tual curiosity. … When the habit of justice becomes second nature, it inspires the habit of compassion— the habit of real sensitivity to the pain or suff ering of others” (Delattre, 1990).

2. Matters of death. “For children … death has a pow- erful and continuing meaning” (Coles, 1990). Whether it be a class pet, an accident or injury to a classmate or family member, even a teacher’s ab- sence due to illness, children’s curiosity about death

503CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

is inevitable. For instance, a kindergarten pet rabbit died; the janitor had found it dead the night before. Th e group talked, asked questions, drew and painted pictures, made books and signs, and asked for stories and reassurance. “Had the teachers taken over, much of this rich experience would have been lost. … Th e children had diff erent needs and diff er- ent ways of expressing and processing those needs” (Sandstrom, 1999).

3. Peace education. “Peace education curricula generally include instruction in confl ict resolution; global awareness; and social and ecological responsibility” ( Johnson, 1998). Teaching respect and tolerance has become an educational focus of the peace movement and is certainly appropriate for the early childhood classroom. See “Insights from the Field” at the end of the chapter about the Peace Table in action writ- ten by Sue Worford.

4. Love of nature. One way to connect with children spir- itually is through a love of nature and appreciation of the environment. Give children the fi rsthand experi- ences of a seed sprouting a plant, a live animal to care for, a running stream to play in, and a sunset to watch, and they will get closer to their spiritual side.

The Teacher’s Role Teachers are often unsure of their role in spiritual devel- opment. Juggling what is appropriate and lawful with what is respectful of diverse family values and affi liations is diffi cult. A teacher’s own identity and beliefs must be considered (Saxton, 2004). “One of the most helpful things we can do for ourselves and our children is to keep in mind the diff erence between nurturing spiritual growth and passing on a religion” (Fitzpatrick, 1991). As Elkind (1992) explains:

Spirituality can be used in either a narrow sense or a broad one. In the narrow sense, spirituality is of- ten used to indicate a particular set of religious be- liefs… Spirituality, however, can also be used in a much broader sense. Individuals who, in their every- day lives, exemplify the highest of human qualities such as love, forgiveness, and generosity might also be said to be spiritual. It is spirituality in the broad, nondenominational sense that I believe can be fos- tered by educational practice.

Families provide a vital ingredient in the development of children’s spirituality. Working with families around

spiritual issues is a delicate matter. Making clear your distinction between religion and spirituality helps par- ents see your priorities. Emphasize that you are thinking about the adults they may become and that you are try- ing to give them a kind of framework to face the state of the world as it is becoming.

A child’s spiritual growth can be measured in terms of his/her ability to trust, to give love willingly, and ac- cept self and others. Families may disagree with the teaching of some of those concepts, but the dialogue will be useful. In the end, teachers usually fi nd that there is more agreement about these kinds of ideas than they ex- pected. Once made clear, parents often have questions themselves about how to promote family spirituality.

Whether at home or in the classroom, spiritual nur- turing does not happen according to schedule and does not entail a sense of teaching in the formal sense. “Spiri- tual nurturing can never be reduced to a set of tech- niques or a routine curriculum. It can only fl ow freely from the teacher’s own inner essence and from his or her belief that each child is truly a spiritual being” (Wolf, 2000). Teachers and families have something to share— a way of setting the environment and the tone that opens up the process of self-knowledge, morality and relationship with others, and a reverence for life and spiritual experience.

Children as a Spiritual Resource Children as a spiritual resource are active participants in their own experience and learning. As the teacher plans, he or she must also be prepared to listen and sit back. “Interactions with children present us adults with the opportunity to regain a sense of connectedness, sponta- neity, emotional sensitivity, philosophical wonder and mystery, and attentiveness to value that we have long since left behind” (Dillon, 2000). Time to wonder, to be in awe, and to refl ect need to happen and be in place in a program. A hurried or overscheduled program is un- likely to provide such times.

Th e basic curriculum of the early childhood program is to provide every child with repeated experiences of be- ing loved, accepted, and understood, of fi nding people trustworthy and dependable, and of discovering the world to be a place that loves him/her and cares for him/her deeply. Spirituality is concerned with directly experienc- ing life via intuition and feeling. Early childhood educa- tors can set the stage for these experiences in many ways. Figure 14-20 provides several suggestions.

504 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Spiritual expression in educational programs is new for many educators. Saxton and McMurrian (2002) sug- gest teachers ask themselves:

1. To what extent are you aware of the religious/spiri- tual diversity of students in your classroom?

2. Have students asked questions or made comments about religious or spiritual topics?

3. What is the source(s) of your information and sup- port concerning the handling of religious/spiritual expression in the classroom?

4. Have you observed instances of religious bias in the classroom? Religious tolerance?

Questions such as these help teachers probe their feel- ings and attitudes about spiritual development and its expression in a classroom.

Art “Just as the spirit of the artist is in the things the artist makes, the spirit of the child is in the things the child makes. True education helps children discover and revel in that spirit” (Feinberg, 2003). Art touches the whole child.

Whether the sweeping motion of a brush onto an easel, pounding the fi st into clay, or rhythmic scissoring, art is a physical activity. Art may be an individual experi- ence, but in the early childhood classroom, it is a social one as well. Children learn how to interact with others when sharing materials, taking turns, and exchanging ideas with others. Emotionally, children express their in- ner selves and work through feelings, both positive and negative, in their artwork. Indeed, art therapy has a long

Nurturing Spiritual Growth

The Garden Plant seeds together, ask how things grow and how could a seed do that. Check as they sprout. Plant a button, a seed, and a penny—and see the power of the seed.

I Spy Play the game of “I Spy” with the children you have observed helping others. “I spy someone who helped Danny clean up the paint he spilled.”

The Universe Star Make a star in your classroom. Taking turns, each child carries the star home, waits for a clear night, and goes outside at dark with a parent to look at the night sky. When the child brings back the star, take time as a class to talk about the wonder and size of the universe.

A Silence Game At a time when the children are engaged and behaving well, give them a new challenge. Ask them to stop all talking and sit perfectly still for several minutes. Each time you initiate this activity, lengthen the time. When the time is up, children will report what they heard.

Quiet Corner Set aside a corner space or alcove, perhaps behind a shelf that holds the fi sh tank. Place a small table and chair where a child can sit alone, gaze at the water or out the window.

A Kindness Plant Put a live plant next to a basket of artifi cial fl owers. Each time a child receives a kindness, they put a fl ower in the plant.

The Peace Rose Keep a lively silk rose in a vase within children’s reach. Whenever two children have a quarrel, one of them, or a third child, collects the peace rose. Each child holds the rose while talking: Once they reach solution or simply get over it, together they put their hands on the stem of the rose and say, “We declare peace.”

Guided Meditation Have the children sit or lie down quietly and close their eyes. Lead them through a refl ection, asking each child to think about his or her heart—the place where love lives.

FIGURE 14-20 Aline Wolf (2000) offers several curriculum ideas for nurturing the spirit.

Can teachers remain spiritually neutral? Are there topics that are best left unmentioned or undeveloped in an early

childhood program? How will you help children develop their spiritual sense? How do you involve families?

What Do

YOU Think?

505CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

tic capacity. Project Zero is a program that has studied intelligence, the arts, and education for the last 30 years (Gardner, 1993) and has identifi ed four key ideas about art education:

1. In the early childhood years, production of art ought to be central. Children need to work directly with the materials.

2. Th e visual arts ought to be introduced by someone who can think visually or spatially. An ECE team ought to be diverse enough to have someone with this intelligence on board.

3. Whenever possible, artistic learning should be orga- nized around meaningful projects. Both the project approach and emergent curriculum address this (Chapter 10).

4. Artistic learning must entail emotional refl ection and personal discovery along with a set of skills. In- tegration of development is encouraged.

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled “Cur- riculum Planning: Implementing Developmentally Appropriate Practice in an Early Childhood Set- ting.” After you study the video clip, view the arti- facts, and read the teacher interviews and text, re- fl ect upon the following questions:

1. How does the teaching team in this video case plan curriculum for social and emotional skills?

2. Why is it so challenging to plan curriculum for each of the four areas of psychosocial develop- ment as well as developing the whole child?

TeachSource Video

❙ ❙

history in helping therapists understand children. Art refl ects what the child knows; planning and organizing, revising and fi nishing are all cognitive tasks. Moreover, early childhood professionals can encourage children to talk about their processes and making art a language ac- tivity as well. Finally, children’s artistic creations may be similar in their development (see next section), but are unique expressions of each child’s creativity.

Rhoda Kellogg (1969) described the developmental stages of art after having analyzed literally millions of piece of children’s art from around the world over a 20-year period. Briefl y, they are:

■ Placement stage: Scribble, ages 2–3 ■ Shape stage: Vague shapes, ages 2–4; actual shapes,

ages 3–5 ■ Design stage: Combined shapes, ages 3–5; mandalas

and suns, ages 3–5 ■ Pictorial stage: People, ages 4–5; beginning recogniz-

able art, ages 4–6; later recognizable art, ages 5–7

Figure 14-21 illustrates these stages. Th e process of creating art follows a predictable four-

step pattern, although there are as many variations on the theme as there are children and art experiences.

1. Preparation. Gathering materials and ideas to begin. 2. Incubation. Letting ideas “cook” and develop. 3. Illumination. Th e “a-ha” moment when everything

gels; the “light bulb.” 4. Verifi cation. When exhilaration has passed and only

time will confi rm the eff ort.

When Howard Gardner began his studies of intelligence (see Chapters 4 and 12), he became intrigued with artis-

The spirit of the children is in the things they make.

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506 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Taken together, these observations help teachers create developmentally appropriate art activities. If you work with infants or toddlers, be sure to help children explore materials and places with all their senses, and expect scribbling by 15 to 20 months. Young preschoolers will work in manipulating tools and materials, discovering what can be done and needing lots of repetition. Do not expect much concern about the fi nal product. By 4 to 6 years of age, children’s art becomes more symbolic and

planned; more detailed work with forms and shapes may be seen. Children become interested in what they are doing and how it turns out.

Giving art its place in early childhood curriculum will require space, time, and attention. An art center (Schirrmacher & Fox, 2009) is:

1. An artist’s studio. 2. Conveniently located and easily accessible.

Stages of Children’s Art

FIGURE 14-21 Children’s art follows a sequence of stages (From Art and Creative De- velopment for Young Children (4th Ed.) by Schirrmacher. © 2002. Reprinted with per- mission of Delmar Learning, a division of Thomson Learning: www.thomsonrights.com.)

1. Scribbling:

2. Drawing a single shape:

3. Combining single shapes into designs:

4. Drawing mandalas, mandaloids, and sun figures:

5. Drawing a human figure with limbs and torso:

507CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

3. Well-stocked with developmentally appropriate materials.

4. Orderly and organized. 5. A place with rules and limits.

See Chapter 9 for more details on space. Basic categories of art materials should include tools for mark making; papers in a variety of shapes/sizes/textures; modeling and molding materials, such as play dough/clay; items for cutting fastening and attaching, such as scissors and string; items for painting; and collage items. Figure 14- 22 gives some suggestions for adapting art for children with special needs.

Merely labeling an activity art is no guarantee that the activity will have artistic merit. Some activities

Adapting Art for Children with Special Needs

___ Visual:

Verbally describe materials and how they might be used.

Provide a tray that outlines the visual boundaries.

Offer bright paint to contrast with paper.

Go slowly and encourage children to manipulate the items as you talk.

___ Auditory:

Model the process, facing the child and using gestures for emphasis.

Use sign language as needed.

___ Physical:

Make sure there is a clear path to the art center.

Provide adaptive art tools such as chunky crayons or large markers.

Provide double ambidextrous scissors so you can help, or a cutting wheel.

Velcro can be attached to marking instruments or paintbrushes.

Use contact paper for collage or glue sticks instead of bottles.

___ Attention-defi cit and/or behavioral:

Provide children with their own materials and workspace, minimizing waiting and crowding.

Offer materials like play dough to express feelings and energy.

Limit children to few choices rather than overwhelming them with everything in the art center.

FIGURE 14-22 The value of art activities for children with special needs cannot be overemphasized.

masquerade as creative and should be avoided. As Schirrmacher (2009) states:

Crafts are often given as holiday gifts. Most parents would be delighted to receive a paperweight or pen- cil holder constructed by their child. Although it is important to please parents, it is equally important to meet the creative needs of children. Providing for child input, planning, decision making, and creative processing guarantees that each fi nished product will be as unique and individual as the child who produced it.

Taking the time to talk with families about children’s art and creativity will help them appreciate the unique na- ture of children’s creations.

How can early childhood educators support children’s de-velopment of a peaceful approach to confl ict resolution? How can we help children in choosing peaceful solutions to in- terpersonal problems? How can the social emotional environ- ment be structured in such a way that children’s fi rst impulse is to reconcile their diff erences and generate a solution to problems where everyone is satisfi ed? How can we support children’s de- velopment of nurturing, tolerant, accepting, mutually empower- ing approaches to confl ict? Do we expect to eradicate confl ict from children’s lives? No, that would be completely unrealistic and would eliminate many wonderful opportunities for chil- dren’s growth in their ability to be peacemakers. Watch what happens with 4-year-olds Rose and Lydia …

Rose: Lydia, I was using that doll. Lydia: But Rose, you weren’t holding it. It was in the crib. Teacher: It sounds like there is a problem here. Let’s take this

doll over to the Peace Table, and you two can try to work out this problem.

Lydia: Rose, you weren’t holding that doll or near that doll, so I thought you weren’t using it.

Rose: Lydia, my baby was taking a nap, and I was doing some cooking while she slept. You can’t take my baby.

Teacher: We have some new information. Rose was still us- ing that doll, but Lydia thought she was done be- cause Rose wasn’t near the doll. What are we going to do about this problem?

Rose: I know. Lydia can have a turn when I’m done. Teacher: What do you think about that, Lydia? Lydia: No… I want a turn now. I know, Rose, you can be

the mom and I can be the babysitter. Rose: OK, and you can have a turn when I’m done. Teacher: So Rose is going to be the mom and Lydia is going

to be the babysitter, and Lydia will have the baby when Rose is done.

Lydia: We solved the problem! Rose: Yeah.

Why did this episode end so peacefully? Does simply add- ing a Peace Table to a classroom insure there will be peaceful solutions to every problem? Actually, these two children have had two years of experience using the Peace Table at the University of Rhode Island Child Development Center as a safe and peaceful place to go to solve problems nonviolently with their peers. At fi rst, children require a great deal of adult support and input in negotiating their problems, and often, it is the adult who guides the discussion. Th e steps which can be followed to guide these confl ict resolution discussions are:

■ Initiate the mediation. It looks like there is a problem here. Or, what’s happening here?

■ Clarify each child’s perspective. In this step each child is given the opportunity to explain his/her perspective on the situation.

■ Summarize. In this step, the teacher clearly articulates a summary of each child’s perspective.

■ Generate alternative solutions. What can we do about this problem? In this step, the teacher supports children’s gener- ation of alternative solutions.

■ Agree on a solution. Here, both children agree on a solu- tion to the problem. It is critical to allow suffi cient time for children to arrive at a mutually satisfying solution.

■ Follow through. Th e teacher checks with the children later to be sure that the solution actually satisfi ed everyone. You had a problem with that doll before. You two solved that problem. Did your solution work?

Th ese discussions provide opportunities for everyone in- volved in a confl ict to feel empowered and to participate in generating solutions to the problem. Th is process is eff ective with many types of problems and confl icts that arise daily in an early childhood classroom. Some of these confl icts involve possessions (two children want the same truck at the same time), position (two children want to sit on the teacher’s left side at the same time), exclusion (you can’t play at the texture table with us), and misunderstandings or accidents (I didn’t mean to hurt you when I stepped on your fi nger). As time goes on and children gain more experiences with the problem- solving process, they are able to become more and more inde- pendent in clarifying misunderstandings and nonviolently solving their problems at the Peace Table.

Th e Peace Table is one tool used at the University of Rhode Island Child Development Center as part of the over- arching approach to social interactions that encourages chil- dren to peacefully interact with each other. Th is method en- courages children to accept diversity and to attempt to understand diff ering perspectives. Th is approach helps chil- dren to see all problems as solvable and scaff olds children in their attempts to “solve the problem.” Within an environment where adults assist children to feel empowered to actively solve interpersonal problems, children like Lydia and Rose quickly become peacemakers.

Sue Warford is the coordinator of the University of Rhode Island’s Child Development Center, a part of the Department of Human Development and Family Studies. She has worked at the CDC for 16 years, while also teaching courses in early childhood education. Sue has a Master’s Degree in Educa- tion from the University of Massachusetts, Amherst.

The Peace Table in Action by Sue Warford, M.Ed.

508 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

Insights from the fi eld

SUMMARY Psychosocial development is at the center of the early childhood curriculum. Planning for emotional, social, creative, and spiritual growth involves an understanding of how each develops in the young child and how they are interrelated. Children learn many skills in these areas as they interact with each other, with adults, and in the environment.

Planning curriculum for psychosocial growth calls upon teachers to play a supportive role, facilitating chil- dren’s involvement with the materials and each other. Only then can children discover themselves, explore their relationships, develop the ability to use their imagi- nation and resources, and explore deeper questions of self and spirit. Art is a special way to encourage psycho- social development in young children.

KEY TERMS psychosocial domain aff ective emotional intelligence basic emotions complex emotions social mores positive stress self-regulation superhero

imaginary companions social referencing socialization sociocentric peer interactions undiff erentiated unilateral reciprocal social skills

social cognition social action coacting convergent thinking divergent thinking fl exibility fl uency aesthetics

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Defi ne the psychosocial domain and name the areas within it.

2. How can teachers help children articulate their feelings?

3. List some of the social skills that are learned in the major areas of the early childhood setting.

4. Write three examples of a child’s divergent thinking and how teachers can encourage this type of creativity.

5. How can teachers nurture the spirit in nonsectarian environments?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. How does your center promote positive self-concept? What else could be done?

2. Make behavioral defi nitions of emotions you think you will see in the children you teach. Observe the children; then check the accuracy of your defi nitions.

3. Observe a group of 4-year-olds at play. How do they decide what roles each one takes? Are they clear in their ex- pectations of what sex roles are appropriate for boys and girls? Is there sex-role stereotyping?

4. Taking turns and sharing equipment and materials are diffi cult for young children. Cite three examples you have seen in which children used their social skills to negotiate a turn. Was teacher intervention necessary?

509CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

510 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

5. Name fi ve people you consider creative. Match their skills with those we have identifi ed in early childhood. How are they similar? Diff erent?

6. Give three examples of children in your center trying to “break mental set.” In what area of the classroom did it occur? What were the adults’ responses?

7. How do teachers in your setting plan for creativity? What place does such expression take in the priority of the school philosophy?

8. If spirituality includes the embodiment of the highest human qualities, name three and off er an idea of how to put this into the curriculum.

HELPFUL WEBSITES Collaborative to Advance Social and Emotional Learning http://www.casel.org Creative Curriculum http://www.teachingstrategies.com Cultural Survival http://www.cs.org Educators for Social Responsibility http://www.esrnational.org Institute of Noetic Sciences http://www.noetic.org M.U.S.I.C. http://learningfromlyrics.org Youth Peace Literacy/Atrium Society http://www.atriumsoc.org Society for Myth and Tradition http://www.parabola.org Southern Poverty Law Center http://www.teachingtolerance.org

REFERENCES General Berger, K. S. (2006). Th e developing person through

childhood and adolescence (7th Ed). New York:Worth Publishers.

Berk, L. E. (2007). Infants, children and adolescents (7th Ed). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

York, S. (2003). Roots and wings: Affi rming culture in early childhood programs (2nd Ed). St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Emotional Growth Bowling, J. H., & Rogers, S. (2001, March). Th e value

of healing in education. Young Children, 56(2). Bowman, B., & Moore, E. K. (Eds.). (2006). School

readiness and social-emotional development: Perspec- tives on cultural diversity. Washington, DC: National Black Child Development Institute.

Additional resources including the TeachSource Videos can be found on the premium website for this book. Go to http://www.cengage.com/login to register your access code.

Breslin, D. (2005, January). Children’s capacity to de- velop resiliency. Young Children, 60(1).

Bronson, M. R. (2000, March). Recognizing and sup- porting the development of self-regulation in young children. Young Children, 55(2).

Carlson, S. M., and Taylor, M. (2005). Imaginary com- panions and impersonated characters: Sex diff er- ences in children’s fantasy play. Merrill-Palmer Quar- terly, 51, 93-118.

Cook, J. W. (2001, January). Create and tell a story: Help young children who have psychological diffi cul- ties. Young Children, 56(1).

Cooper, R. M. (1992, November). Th e impact of child care on the socialization on African American chil- dren. Paper presented at the NAEYC Annual Con- ference, New Orleans, LA.

511CHAPTER 14 Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development

Curry, N. E., & Johnson, C. N. (1990). Beyond self- esteem: Developing a genuine sense of human value. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Ginsburg, K. R. (2006). Building resilience in children and teens: Giving your child roots and wings. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics.

Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books.

Hoff man, E. (2004). Magic capes, amazing powers: Transforming superhero play in the classroom. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Kostelnik, M., Whiren, A. P., & Stein, L. G. (1986, May). Living with He-Man: Managing superhero fantasy play. Young Children, 41(4).

Marion, M. (2006). Guidance of young children (7th Ed). Columbus, OH: Merrill Publishers.

Marshall, H. H. (1989, July). Research in review: Th e development of self-concept. Young Children, 44(5).

Matsumoto, D. (2004). Refl ections on culture and com- petence. In R. J. Sternberg & E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.), Culture and competence: Contexts of life success. Wash- ington, DC: American Psychological Association.

McCormick, J. (1993). Family child care. In A. Gordon and K. W. Browne (Eds.), Beginnings and beyond (3rd Ed).Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Nakahata, A. (2001, Fall). Identity is tied to culture. Interview by Marion Hironaka Cowee in Connec- tions: California AEYC Newsletter.

Pool, C. R. (1997, May). Up with emotional health. Ed- ucational Leadership, 54(8).

Rofrano, F. (2002, January). “I care for you”: A refl ec- tion on caring as infant curriculum. Young Children, 57(1).

Teaching Tolerance Project. (1997). Starting small: Teaching tolerance in preschool and the early grades. Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center.

York, S. (1998). Big as life: Th e everyday inclusive curric- ulum. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Social Growth Blaska, J. K., & Lynch, E. C. (1998, March). Is everyone

included? Using children’s literature to facilitate the understanding of disabilities. Young Children, 53(2).

Bos, B. (1990). Together we’re better: Establishing a co- active learning environment. Roseville, CA: Turn the Page Press.

Colker, L. (2007, November). News from the fi eld: Pre- schoolers dance their way to social competence and success. Teaching Young Children. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Coplan, R. J., & Armer, M. (2007 January). A “multi- tude” of solitude. Child Development Perspectives, 26-32.

Derman-Sparks, L., & Olsen Edwards, J. (2010). Anti- bias education for young children and ourselves. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Gordon, A. M., & Browne, K. W. (1996). Guiding young children in a diverse society. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Hawkins, J. D., Kosterman, R., Catalano, R. F., Hill, K.G., & Abbott, R.D. (2008). Eff ects of social development intervention in childhood 15 years later. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 162(12): 1133-1141.

Holland, H. (2000, Spring). Th ese guys are fun! Teach- ing Tolerance, 17.

Katz, L. G., & McClennan, D. E. (1997). Fostering chil- dren’s social competence. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Kendall, F. E. (1996). Diversity in the classroom: New approaches to the education of young children (2nd Ed). New York: Teachers College Press.

Kostelnik, M. J., Whiren, A. P., Soderman, A. K., Stein, L. C., & Gregory, K. (2005). Guiding children’s social development: Th eory to practice (5th Ed).Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage.

Lillard, A., & Curenton, S. (1999, September). Re- search in review: Do young children understand what others feel, want, and know? Young Children 54 (5).

Maniates, H., & Heath, M. (1998, Spring). Creating a climate for learning. Early Childhood Resources.

Paley, V. G. (1992). You can’t say you can’t play. Cam- bridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Porro, B. (1996). Talk it out: Confl ict resolution in the el- ementary classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Rubin, K. H., Bukowski, W., & Parker, J. G. (2006). Peer interactions, relationships and groups. In W. Damon and N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (Vol. 3): Social emotional and personality development, (5th Ed). New York: Wiley.

Sawyer, W. E., and Comer, D. E. (1996). Growing up with literature. Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Whitin, K. (2001, September). Kindness in a jar. Young Children. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Creative Growth Amabile, T. M. (1989). Growing up creative. New York:

Crown. Bos, B. (1978). Don’t move the muffi n tins. Roseville,

CA: Turn the Page Press.

Bovard, K. (2000, Spring). Th e emotion map. Teaching Tolerance, 17.

Feinberg, S. G. (2003, May). All about art inside and out! Scholastic: Early Childhood Today.

Gillespie, C. W. (2000, January). Six Head Start class- rooms begin to explore the Reggio Emilia approach. Young Children, 55(1).

Kellogg, R. (1969). Analyzing children’s art. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfi eld Publishing.

Lopez-Morgan, C. (2002). Creative arts for the young child. Cupertino, CA: De Anza College.

Lowenfeld, V., & Brittain, W. L. (1975). Creative and mental growth. New York: Macmillan.

Schirrmacher, R., & Fox, J. (2009). Art and creative de- velopment for young children (6th Ed). Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Taunton, M., & Colbert, C. (2000). Art in the early childhood classroom: Authentic experiences and ex- tended dialogues. In N. Yelland (Ed.), Promoting meaningful learning. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Spiritual Growth Coles, R. (1990). Th e spiritual life of children. Boston,

MA: Houghton-Miffl in. Delattre, E. J. (1990, September 5). Teaching integrity:

Th e boundaries of moral education. Education Week. DeVries, R., & Zan, B. S. (1994). Moral classrooms,

moral children. NY: Teachers College Press.

Dillon, J. J. (2000, Winter). Th e spiritual child: Appre- ciating children’s transformative eff ects on adults. En- counter: Education for Meaning and Social Justice, 13(4).

Elkind, D. (1992, Spring). Spirituality in Education. Holistic Education Review.

Fitzpatrick, J. G. (1991). Something more: Nurturing your child’s spiritual growth. New York: Viking Press.

Hart, T. (2000, Summer). Teaching for wisdom. En- counter: Education for meaning and social justice, 14(2).

Johnson, M. L. (1998). Trends in peace education. ERIC Digest. Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearing- house, ED417123.

Sandstrom, S. (1999, November). Dear Samba is dead forever. Young Children, 54(6), 14-16.

Saxton, R. R. (2004). A place for faith. In A. Gordon and K. W. Browne (Eds.), Beginnings and beyond (6th Ed). Clifton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Saxton, R. R., & McMurrain, M. K. (2002). Spiritual diversity in the classroom. Atlanta, GA: Georgia State University Research Project.

Wolf, A. D. (2000, January). How to nurture the spirit in nonsectarian environments. Young Children, 55(1).

512 SECTION 4 What Is Being Taught?

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Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education

PREVIEW QUESTIONS

■ What are the most pressing issues facing early child- hood educators today?

■ How are the major themes of early childhood education refl ected in the issues facing children, families, and teachers today?

■ What are the major factors that diminish the impor- tance of childhood in today’s society?

■ How do the values of family, culture, and school get transmitted in today’s world?

■ What standards and issues apply to professionalism of early childhood education?

NAEYC CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Th ese Core Values and sections from the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct are ad- dressed in this chapter. As you read, note how the Core Values, Ideals, or Principles listed here apply to the topics in this chapter. (Reprinted with permission from the National Association for the Education of Young Children.)

I-1.1 To be familiar with the knowledge base of early childhood care and education and to keep current through continuing education and in-service training.

P-1.5 We shall be familiar with the symptoms of child abuse, including sexual, physical, verbal and emotional abuse, and neglect. We shall know and follow state laws and community procedures that protect children against abuse and neglect.

P-1.6 When we have reasonable cause to suspect child abuse or neglect, we shall report it to the appropriate community agency and follow up to ensure that appropriate action has been taken.

515CHAPTER 15 Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education

I-2.2 To acknowledge and build upon strengths and com- petencies as we support families in their task of nurturing children.

I-2.3 To respect the dignity of each family and its culture, language, customs, and beliefs.

I-3C.2 To strive to secure equitable compensation (salary and benefi ts) for those who work with or on behalf of young children.

I-4.3 To work through education, research, and advocacy, toward an environmentally safe world in which all children receive adequate health care, food, and shel- ter, are nurtured, and live free from violence.

1-4.5 To work toward greater social acknowledgement of children’s rights and greater social acceptance of re- sponsibility for their well-being.

Changing Issues/ Changing Times Early childhood education has undergone remarkable changes in the past 50 years, evolving from being an op- tion for middle class preschool children to a necessity for millions of families with children from infancy through the primary years. Such a transformation is a refl ection of the economic, social, and political climate of the times, as well as research in child development and early educa- tion. Changes in education historically have been linked to societal reform and upheaval. Issues of today and trends for tomorrow grow out of the problems and solu- tions of the past.

In the 1960s, social action and the War on Poverty captured the American interest and spirit. Head Start programs opened around the country and were the sym- bols of social action of that era. Th ey also brought na- tional attention to early childhood education. Th e 1970s brought changes related to economic crisis. Th e family unit was aff ected by the job market, the end of the Vietnam War, an energy crisis, infl ation, rising divorce rates, and the feminist movement. All of these factors led more women into the workplace rather than remaining in the home. One of the expansions in public funding at this time was in the services to the handicapped and bi- lingual populations.

Th e 1980s meant further budget cuts and reduced services for children and families. Many children were now in group care for most of their waking hours. Th ey grew up with change, rather than stability, as a constant in their lives. Child abuse became a national cause for alarm. Th e need for early child care and educational ser- vices was well established. Th e education reforms that

began in the early 1980s brought about some rethinking in early childhood education. Interest in young children fl ourished along with reforms at other grade levels. As the 1990s ended, there was an expanded acceptance of child care for children under age 5 and an increasing awareness of the needs of the whole child in the early primary years. Th e quality and cost of programs for young children became an issue.

To date, many of these issues are unresolved. Due to lack of funding, Head Start and Early Start can enroll only a small percentage of the children who need the programs. Government-mandated standards and testing are pressuring programs to put more emphasis on aca- demics. Professionalism is making its way into early childhood certifi cation. All these issues are making in- roads into early childhood programs at every level.

It seems appropriate to discuss current issues in light of the history of the early childhood profession. Look back at Chapter 1. For all its diverse and varied past, early childhood education has had a consistent commit- ment to four major themes: the ethic of social reform, the importance of childhood, transmitting values, and

Who are the children of tomorrow, and how do we meet their needs?

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516 SECTION 5 How Do We Teach for Tomorrow?

professionalism. Th ese four themes are refl ected in Fig- ure 15-1 and are the same ones facing early childhood educators today:

■ Ethic of social reform: the quality of programs and services needed for children under age 8 and the ed- ucation reforms that provide it.

■ Importance of childhood: children’s health and wel- fare and the changes in family life.

■ Transmission of values: challenges presented by the media culture, violence, disaster, and diversity.

■ Professionalism: standards for children’s programs and teacher preparation.

Ethic of Social Reform Th e fi rst theme suggests that schooling for young chil- dren will lead to social change and improvement. Maria Montessori, the McMillan sisters, Patty Smith Hill, and Abigail Eliot were pioneers in improving children’s lives through a comprehensive approach to education. Today,

Marion Wright Edelman, by creating the Children’s De- fense Fund, is continuing the eff orts started nearly 100 years ago. Louise Derman-Sparks and colleagues en- larged the issue when they published the Anti-Bias Cur- riculum in 1989 and challenged our thinking about bias as a social issue for young children.

Child Care ■ Two out of three mothers with preschool and three

out of four mothers with school-age children were in the labor force in 2007 (Children’s Defense Fund, 2008).

■ Between 1964 and 1999, enrollment rate in nursery schools rose from about 5 percent of the preschool population to about 50 percent, refl ecting a signifi - cant societal shift (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008).

■ Only 3 percent of the infants eligible are enrolled in Early Head Start, and 50 to 67 percent of those eli- gible for Head Start are enrolled (Children’s De- fense Fund, 2008).

Family and Community

Endangered Childhood

Child Care Quality: Availability and Affordability

Child Care Quality: Availability

CHILDREN

Educational

Reform

Family Support

Abuse/Neglect

Diversity

Poverty

Media

AIDS

Violence

Early Childhood Educators

Family Issues

Abuse/ Neglect

Abuse/ Neglect

Ready to Learn

Other Issues

Child Care

Poverty

AIDS

Diversity

Advocacy

Qualifications

Violence

TV

Support

Family Issues

AIDS Poverty

TV

Violence

DAP

Professionalism

Training and Professionals

Child Care Quality:

Compensation

Recruitment and Retention

Worthy Wages

Social Values and Educational Systems

FIGURE 15-1 A web of infl uences and challenges for today’s children and their families.

517CHAPTER 15 Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education

■ In 1991, 52.8 percent of 3 to 5 year olds were en- rolled in a center-based, out-of-home child care pro- gram. In 2005, the number rose to 57.2 percent (Children’s Defense Fund, 2008).

Without question the need for child care has been fi rmly established. Th e signifi cant increase in enrollment in child care centers over the last 40 years, underscored by the demographic facts, has had a profound impact on this country. In 1990, Congress passed the fi rst compre- hensive child care legislation in nearly 20 years; a year later Head Start funding was increased signifi cantly (see Chapter 2 for more discussion on child care).

Quality and Cost Th e key word is quality—the terms good quality and high quality identify specifi c features in early childhood pro- grams as described in Chapter 2.

Two broad-based studies, one conducted in child care centers and the other in family day care settings, have examined the critical relationship between quality and cost and present a disturbing picture.

Inadequate child care was found to be rampant in the fi rst study, which was conducted in hundreds of cen- ters in California, Colorado, Connecticut, and North Carolina (Costs, Quality and Child Outcomes Study Team, 1995). In a dramatic conclusion, the study found that most child care centers provided mediocre services and that some were of such poor quality that they threatened children’s emotional and intellectual develop- ment. Infants and toddlers were most likely to be at risk for poor care in these centers; nearly half of their settings failed to meet basic health and safety needs. Yet 90 per- cent of the parents rated the care as “good.”

Th e report was the fi rst of its kind to examine the re- lationship between the costs of child care and the nature of children’s experiences in child care settings (quality). In centers in which researchers found high quality care, the center staff s were paid higher wages, there were more personnel, and more of them were trained in early child- hood education. Th ey were also programs that were sub- sidized in some way, by the government, a university, or employers of families using these services. Th e states that had more demanding licensing requirements had few poor quality programs. According to this report, these factors along with teachers’ salaries and administrators’ prior experience are strong determinants of quality.

A follow-up study, “Th e Children of the Cost, Qual- ity, and Outcomes Study Go to School” (Peisner- Feinberg, et al., 1999), followed the children in the origi- nal study through second grade. Th e fi ndings from this

study reinforced the notion that high quality child care enhances cognitive and social skills that, in turn, help children be more prepared and successful in school.

Th e results of a major study of family day care are similarly distressing, highlighting uneven and poorly regulated conditions. Conducted by Galinsky and co- workers (1994), the study concluded that only 9 percent of the homes they observed were of good quality and that over one-third of the providers were indiff erent to such an extent in their caregiving as to be harmful to children’s development. More than 40 percent of the providers planned no activities for children in their care, and only half of the children showed signs of trust or at- tachment to the caregiver.

Th e more a provider was paid, the better the care; the licensed or regulated providers were more likely to be warm and attentive to children, communicate with par- ents, and provide a safe home. Look at NAEYC’s criteria for high quality programs in Chapter 2 to see the rela- tionship with the fi ndings of these two studies. Th e good news is that between 1990 and 2002, licensing of family child care homes increased by 37 percent (Th e Children’s Foundation, 2001).

The quality of a child care program is directly related to the experience and training of the teachers.

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Th ese two forms of child care—child care centers and family day care—are equally popular; they are the programs of choice by America’s working families, who, according to this research, either do not recognize what makes a quality program or who think they cannot de- mand it. Th e NACCRRA study of parental concerns cited in Chapter 2 further found that parents assumed caregivers were trained to work with young children and that most child care programs were regularly inspected (National Association of Child Care Resources and Re- ferral Agencies, 2008). Quality is a function of group size, low teacher–child ratios, trained and experienced staff , adequate compensation, and safe and stimulating environments.

All of the studies share a common concern that par- ents must be able to distinguish good from poor quality centers and demand higher quality care before the cen- ters will increase their fees to cover the costs of providing better care.

A National Crisis Good, aff ordable, accessible child care that will meet the increasing needs of American families is one of today’s most crucial issues. Quality care and education of young children has a cost that must be addressed. Th e cost of quality is directly related to the needs of the families served by the specifi c program, the added costs of help- ing families connect with the right resources and provid- ing the necessary comprehensive services, and fee reduc- tions and fi nancial aid for low income families. Th e average cost of child care at a full time center for an in- fant is $4,542 to $14,591. Th e average cost for a 4-year- old in a family child care home is $3,380 to $9,164 and the average cost for a school-age child in a center is $2,500 to $8,600 (NACCRRA, 2008). Families who live at or near the poverty line and middle income fami- lies are hard-pressed to aff ord these fees.

Quality is signifi cantly related to staff : how many adults there are compared with the number of children in a class; whether the salaries and benefi ts provide in- centive for teachers to be retained for a number of years; and the level of staff education and training and their years of experience. Th ese factors have created a staffi ng crisis of major proportion in the country today. Refer to the section “A Trilemma” in Chapter 2 for more discussion on the quality, cost, and compensation factors.

DAPDAP

Th e diffi culties of recruiting and retaining qualifi ed staff for good early childhood programs profoundly af- fects program quality and is one of the most serious is- sues facing the early childhood fi eld today. “Parents can’t aff ord to pay; teachers can’t aff ord to stay” succinctly sums up the situation according to Herzenberg and oth- ers (2005). Th eir study brings to light some of the rea- sons for this dilemma. In 1983, 43 percent of the teach- ers and administrators in early childhood programs had 4 or more years of colleges. In 2004, this number dropped to 30 percent, and the levels are lower for those who participate in home-based care. Th e aging of the most qualifi ed teachers raises concerns about training and keeping the best qualifi ed staff .

It is no wonder that the Center for the Child Care Workforce found that the national employee turnover rate stays at about 30 percent and that less than one- third of child care employees have health benefi ts. As noted above, the Center also reports that child care pro- grams have diffi culty recruiting and hiring qualifi ed re- placement staff for those who leave. Th is is understand- able when the median wage for child care workers is between $13,970 and $21,000. Elementary school teach- ers, on the other hand, have starting salaries at $32,950 and can range up to over $66,000 (Children’s Defense Fund, 2008). At the same time this is happening, there is an unprecedented demand for child care services. For further discussion, see Chapter 2 and the report Th en and Now: Changes in Child Care Staffi ng, 1994-2000 (Whitebook, Sakai, Gerber, & Howes, 2001).

Quality 2000: Advancing Early Child Care and Edu- cation is an initiative with the goal to provide high qual- ity early care and education to all children from birth to age 5 by 2010 (Kagan & Neuman, 1997). Creating an early child care and education system requires a compre- hensive vision that includes factors such as:

■ Promoting cultural sensitivity and cultural pluralism ■ Increasing the number of accredited programs ■ Linking programs to support services and other

community resources ■ Creating three separate types of licenses for early

childhood care and education workers and develop- ing national licensing guidelines

■ Focusing staff training and preparation on children and families, with respect to cultural and linguistic diversity

DAP A caring community of learners cannot happen without public policies and funding that support high quality programs for all children.

519CHAPTER 15 Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education

Watch the TeachSource Video Case entitled, “Edu- cation Reform: Teachers Talk about No Child Left Behind.” After you study the video clip and the art- ifacts and read the teacher interviews and text, re- fl ect upon the following questions:

1. With which of the pros and cons of NCLB that are discussed in this case do you agree?

2. How are state standards used to individualize the program and the curriculum?

TeachSource Video

❙ ❙

■ Funding that is commensurate with per-child levels for elementary school children

■ Establishing governance and accountability struc- tures in every state and locality

Th ese factors will help ensure that families have equal access to good programs in which consistent stan- dards at a national and local level guarantee equality and excellence for all children. Th e most comprehensive de- scription of quality implementation is that of develop- mentally appropriate practices (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997, Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

Education Reform One of the primary functions of the public school sys- tem in the United States is to prepare students for pro- ductive roles in society—to produce skilled workers who will enter the job market and contribute to a healthy, competitive economy worldwide.

Th e trend since the 1990s has been toward a national agenda. In 1989, a national summit on the future of American education resulted in the creation of eight na- tional goals, the fi rst of which was that by 2000, every child will start school ready to learn. It was the fi rst time in history that we have had a national consensus on a vi- sion of public education.

Th e fi rst goal, Ready to Learn, included the provision that all children would have equal access to high quality and developmentally appropriate preschool programs that help prepare children for school. Strong parent in- volvement with training and support and comprehensive health care, primarily through enhanced prenatal health systems, were also a part of the agenda.

No Child Left Behind As the new century began, a new administration passed the reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 to close the achievement gap be- tween disadvantaged and minority students and their peers (U.S. Department of Education, 2001). Since then, a national education problem has been identifi ed and a sense of urgency instilled in the public mind. By 2005, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act became known as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB).

Th e major provisions of the act pertaining to early childhood are:

■ Adequate annual progress: Children will be assessed in reading and math (plus a third area by state choice) beginning in the third grade. As discussed in Chapters 6 and 10, the trickle down of inappropri-

ate testing or imbalanced curriculum for younger children is a valid concern of early educators.

■ Highly qualifi ed teachers: By the 2005-06 school year, all teachers in core academic subjects must have a B.A. degree and be fully certifi ed (by state defi nition) in their areas of teaching assignment. Th e early learning fi eld, plagued by high turnover and low pay, cannot meet these standards without signifi cantly more funding.

■ Reading/literacy: Th ere are signifi cantly increased funds aimed at having all children achieve reading profi ciency by grade three. An early childhood con- cern is that other critical domains of child develop- ment will be undervalued or overlooked altogether.

Critics of NCLB cite many reasons to be concerned about this plan. Th ey worry that the narrow focus on reading and literacy and math will create an imbalanced curriculum that loses focus on the whole child and that other critical domains of child development will be un- dervalued or overlooked altogether. Critics also question whether teachers will be forced to “teach to the test” in order for a school to avoid sanctions. Th e sanctions for not meeting the NCLB standards seem punitive to some and seem to impact the most seriously disadvantaged schools. Overall, there is the threat of facing sanctions without adequate resources or support to meet the re- quirements that are imposed by this plan.

Standards and high stakes testing are realities in the primary grades. Preschool educators are feeling these pressures as well. It remains to be seen how this compli- cated and ambitious plan will fare over the coming years and how it relates to early education from birth to age 5. Th e Obama administration seems sensitive to the issues facing the early childhood fi eld, in particular the Secre-

520 SECTION 5 How Do We Teach for Tomorrow?

tary of the Department of Education, Arne Duncan. Early childhood professionals and school reform advo- cates are hopeful that Duncan’s initial comments will be realized: “When you focus on basics like reading and math, when you embrace innovative new approaches to learning, and when you create a professional climate that attracts great teachers, you can make a diff erence for children” (Sorrentino, 2008).

Universal Preschool Early learning opportunities are unavailable to many children who could benefi t from a quality early child- hood program. Families throughout the country put to- gether a patchwork of child care situations. Programs are unequal in quality, and the low income working families who would benefi t the most from quality child care are unable to aff ord it. Th ere is a discrepancy between the need and demand for quality child care and the govern- ment’s willingness to fund it.

Universal Preschool, called Preschool for All in some areas, is an eff ort in many states to address this inequal- ity. If successful, it would mean that there would be universal access to publicly funded, high quality pre- school education for one or two years prior to kinder- garten. Th ree quarters of the states plus the District of Columbia currently have such initiatives; Georgia, Oklahoma, and Florida already provide voluntary pre- school for all 4-year-olds. It would appear that this ef- fort has every chance to succeed within the next few years as it is supported by the Secretary of Education, Duncan, who said:

We believe that it is time for the United States to acknowledge society’s stake in and responsibility for early education, as it long has for older children, by making publicly-funded prekindergarten, off ered by a variety of providers, available to all children age 3 and over whose parents want them to participate. (Committee for Economic Development, 2005)

Universal preschool is also discussed in Chapter 2.

Reform Strategies To meet the needs of working parents and ensure that children are ready to learn, reform strategies should be enlarged to include the following:

■ Link education and child care. Th e dichotomy be- tween care and education must be eliminated, as

learning in the early years includes both caregiving and educational aspects of teaching.

■ Establish continuity between early childhood programs and the early elementary years. Th e perception that preschools are “only about play” and that primary schools are “all about academics” negates the whole child philosophy of the early childhood years.

■ Address children’s nonacademic needs. Unless more is done to meet the early health and social needs of children, school reform is likely to fail.

■ Promote developmental learning. Get schools ready for young children as opposed to having children be pressured and pushed to get ready for school.

■ Initiate programs and policies that strengthen the fam- ily. Th e family support for learning should be ad- dressed by focusing on parental attitudes and in- volvement at home as well as at school and on the parents’ responsibility for meeting the basic care and needs of their children.

■ Develop partnerships with the community and with business. Coordinating with providers of child care services and collaborating with other community agencies that service young children and their fami- lies make better use of public funds and improve the quality of all programs (National Association of State Boards of Education, 1988).

The Importance of Childhood Th e second theme of early childhood is the importance and uniqueness of childhood. In fact, the entire notion rests on the concept of the child as a special part of hu- man existence and, therefore, a valuable part of the hu- man life cycle. When a society values its children, it takes the responsibility for providing a quality of life for them.

Th e impact of social changes in the last 40 years has been hardest felt by the children. Th e increase in the di- vorce rate, poverty and homelessness, and the dangerous eff ects of the media culture, drugs, and worldwide vio- lence have thrust children into adult situations with adult troubles. Dual-parent careers and single working parents, together with the lack of extended families, have meant that children’s behavior is not as closely moni- tored as it once was.

DAPDAP

DAP Closer relationships would support greater alignment so that curriculum, standards, and tests compliment and balance one a nother.

521CHAPTER 15 Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education

Children and childhood have changed. Gone are the days when the majority of children arrived home from school to be greeted by Mom in the kitchen, serving milk and homemade cookies. Today’s child spends the bulk of time in child care centers or elsewhere while the parent is at work. Too many children arrive at empty homes and spend the next few hours alone or caring for younger siblings. As often as not, the child of today lives with just one parent.

Childhood Stress Common experiences that produce stress in young children are family related. Divorce, remarriage, a move to a new home, prolonged visits from a relative, and a new sibling are classic stress situations for children. Yet, there are less dramatic sources of stress—the sim- ple everyday occurrences that children face: being told not to do something, not having a friend, being ig- nored by a parent, experiencing changes in the routine, not being able to read or zip a zipper or put a puzzle together.

Stress may also occur in families in which both par- ents pursue high-powered careers and children feel the need to live up to exceptional standards in academic achievement or sports profi ciency. Apathetic parents, parents who ignore their children or have no time for them, and parents who push children into frantic sched- ules of activity also cause stress in their children. Stress can result from happy occasions as well—holidays, vaca- tion, or a new puppy may be overanticipated, overstruc- tured, and overstimulating to a child.

Children respond to stress in many ways. Signs of stress include sleeping problems (such as nightmares or sleepwalking), depression, regression to the behavior of an earlier stage, aches and pains, acting out, eating prob- lems, and overreactions, as well as medical problems (such as headaches, upset stomach, and bleeding ulcers).

Brazelton and Greenspan (2000), in response to the overwhelmed, stressed-out life of children and parents today, defi ned seven irreducible needs of children:

1. Th e need for ongoing nurturing relationships 2. Th e need for physical protection, safety, and

regulation 3. Th e need for experiences tailored to individual

diff erences 4. Th e need for developmentally appropriate

experiences 5. Th e need for limit setting, structure, and

expectations

Every child has the right to a full and wondrous childhood.

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6. Th e need for stable, supportive communities and cultural continuity

7. Protecting the future (on behalf of the world’s children)

Stress is a natural part of life and is a factor in every child’s development. It needs to be identifi ed and ad- dressed by the families, teachers, and other adults who care for them. Chapter 14 discusses stress in detail.

Child Abuse and Neglect More than 3 million children were reported as victims of child abuse and neglect in 2007, at the rate of one child every 35 seconds (Children’s Defense Fund, 2008), and children ages birth to 3 are the most likely to experience abuse (Childhelp, 2009). Four children die every day as a result of child abuse and three out of four of those children are under the age of 4. One third of abused and neglected children will eventually victimize their own children, perpetuating the cycle (Childhelp, 2009). Th ese horrendous statistics tell us that child abuse and neglect are signifi cant problems in this country.

A neglected child may be one whose waking hours are mostly unsupervised by adults, in front of the tele- vision or simply unconnected with—and unnoticed by—parents or an important caregiver. Child neglect takes other, more hazardous, forms, however. When the basic needs of adequate food, clothing, shelter, and health are unmet, parents are being neglectful. Failure to exercise the care that children need shows an inat- tention to and lack of concern for children. Sixty-four percent of the reported child abuse in the United States is for neglect, 16 percent is physical abuse, and nearly 9 percent is sexual abuse (Children’s Defense Fund, 2008).

Signs of various forms of child abuse often indicate one or more types of abuse. According to Childhelp (2009), the most obvious signs are:

■ Signs of neglect: unsuitable clothing for weather, dirty or unbathed, extreme hunger, and an apparent lack of supervision

■ Signs of physical abuse: unexplained burns, cuts, bruises, or welts in the shape of an object; bite marks, anti-social behavior, problems in school, fear of adults

■ Signs of emotional abuse: apathy, depression, hostility or stress, lack of concentration, eating disorders

DAPDAP

■ Signs of sexual abuse: inappropriate interest or knowledge of sexual acts, nightmares and bed- wetting, drastic changes in appetite, overcompliance or excessive aggression, fear of a particular person or family member

Th e residual eff ects of child abuse, which occurs at every socioeconomic, ethnic, cultural, religious, and edu- cational level, are equally dramatic. Children who have been sexually abused are two-and-one-half times more likely to abuse alcohol and nearly four times more likely to become addicted to drugs than nonvictims. Children who experience abuse and neglect have a 59 percent chance of being arrested as a juvenile and are 25 percent more likely to become pregnant as a teenager (Childhelp, 2009).

Potential Solutions A national call to action to increase public awareness and understanding of child abuse is under way. Standardized licensing procedures, upgrading of the certifi cation of child care workers, and national accreditation of all pre- schools are some of the most frequently mentioned solu- tions to the problem. Helping parents identify what qualities to look for when placing their children in some- one else’s care is another way to prevent child abuse in centers.

In 1996, NAEYC adopted a Position Statement on the Prevention of Child Abuse in Early Childhood Programs and the Responsibilities of Early Childhood Professionals to Prevent Child Abuse. Th e statement urges that early childhood programs in homes, centers, and schools adopt a set of policies based on guidelines such as:

■ employing adequate staff and adequate supervision of staff

■ environments that reduce the possibility of hidden places

■ orientation and training on child abuse detection, prevention, and reporting

■ defi ned and articulated policies for a safe environment

■ avoidance of creating “no-touch” policies by the care- givers and staff

In regard to staff recruitment, NAEYC recommends that early childhood programs in the home, center, or school initiate policies that require personal interviews, verifi cation of references and education background and

DAP Abuse and neglect must be viewed in the context of the culture, family life, and economic situation and needs.

523CHAPTER 15 Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education

qualifi cations, criminal record checks, and disclosure of previous convictions. New employees should serve a probationary period, and programs should have policies that provide for the removal of anyone whose perfor- mance is unacceptable. Procedures must also be in place for responding to an accusation of child abuse and pro- vide due process for the accused (NAEYC, 1997).

All those involved in early childhood care and educa- tion would be well advised to secure a copy of the state- ment and use it to refl ect on the eff ectiveness of their own program’s policies and procedures.

Role of the Teacher Reporting suspected child abuse is mandated by law in all states. Educators must assume the responsibility to inform the proper authorities if they suspect that a child in their care is being abused by anyone.

Th e mandate to report suspected child abuse applies to teachers, principals, counselors, school nurses, and staff members of child care centers and summer camps. Certain knowledge that abuse took place is not required; reports are legally required if there is reasonable cause to suspect a child has been mistreated. For the protection

of anyone reporting abuse or neglect, the person fi ling the report is held immune from civil or criminal liability if the report was made in good faith. Figure 15-2 dis- cusses the steps to take if child abuse is suspected.

Poverty Th ere is a group of Americans who are destined for lim- ited participation in the social, political, and economic mainstream of national life. Th e children who are at risk for academic failure are likely to be: those who live in poverty, members of minority groups in racial isolation, children with various physical and mental disabilities, children with limited English profi ciency, children from single-parent families, or children attending schools with a high concentration of students who live in poverty (Casey Foundation, 2006).

One out of fi ve children is poor in the United States (see Figure 15-3).

■ An American child is born into poverty every 43 seconds and one out of fi ve children is poor during the fi rst 3 years of life—the time of greatest brain development.

Reporting Child Abuse

What to Do If You Suspect Child Abuse • Make notes of child’s appearance—any bruises, marks, or behaviors that cause you concern. • Inform the director of the program and/or your immediate supervisor; plan together who will inform the proper

authorities and how to contact the parent(s). • Discuss ways to support the staff members who make the report, the parent(s), and the child. • Call the locally designated agency for child abuse. A written report may be required within 24 to 48 hours. • Support the parent(s) throughout the investigation. Be available to the parent(s) and the child as they deal with

the other agencies that are trained and equipped to handle this problem. • Follow through with assistance or support if requested to do so by the child protective services agency. Help

the family by working with others who are counseling them and performing parent support services.

What to Do If a Child Tells You He or She Has Been Abused • Believe the child; children rarely lie about sexual abuse. • Commend the child for telling you what happened. • Convey your support for the child. Children’s greatest fear is that they are at fault and responsible for the

incident. It is important to help children avoid blaming themselves. • Temper your own reactions, recognizing that your perspective and acceptance are critical signals to the child.

Do not convey your own feelings about the abuse. • Report the suspected abuse to the child’s parent(s), the designated social service agency, and/or the police. • Find specialized agencies that evaluate sexual abuse victims and a physician with the experience and training

to detect and recognize sexual abuse.

FIGURE 15-2 Recommendations for teachers about child abuse. (Source: Child Sexual Abuse Prevention. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1998.)

524 SECTION 5 How Do We Teach for Tomorrow?

■ Nearly 12 million children are poor and millions are hungry, at risk of hunger, living in worst case hous- ing, or homeless.

■ Almost 80 percent of poor children live in working households. (Children’s Defense Fund, 2008)

Th ere is a striking correlation between poverty and school failure. Children who start out at a disadvantage fall farther behind in academic achievement throughout their school years.

Th e changing school population suggests that these problems will only increase as the proportion of minor- ity groups expands (because they are overrepresented among the poor), as a larger and larger percentage of children fall below the poverty line, and as traditional patterns of child rearing and marriage change so that fewer children will have the emotional and educational advantages of a two-parent family.

Th e National Institute of Child Health and Hu- man Development Study of Early Child Care con- ducted a 3-year study of 1,000 children in 10 cities, ex- amining maternal sensitivity, home environment, hours in child care and quality of child care. Children were

then given a school readiness test, and the data were compared with children in similar settings. In a report entitled Growing Up in Poverty (Center for Children and Families, 2000), researchers from Berkeley, Colum- bia, Stanford, and Yale Universities found that early maternal employment had negative eff ects on children’s intellectual development. Children whose mothers worked by the time the babies were 9 months old, had insensitive mothers, and had poor quality child care had scores signifi cantly lower than those with sensitive mothers who were not employed by the ninth month and had good quality child care. While the study did not take into consideration such factors as father in- volvement or how much the mother wants to be em- ployed, it certainly has serious implications for families at risk.

A dramatic and intensive reform eff ort is needed for these children, and a number of solutions are being con- sidered. Too many of today’s children will reach adult- hood unhealthy, illiterate, and unemployable. Th is is a personal tragedy for everyone involved—the young peo- ple, their communities, and the nation.

Family Support The family of today has many shapes, sizes, and styles. Chapter 8 elaborates on the many kinds of families in which children live and grow. In fact, the American family has evolved so extensively over the last few decades that the Children’s Defense Fund (2008) reports:

■ Two out of three preschoolers have a mother in the labor force.

■ Th ree-quarters of mothers of school-age children are in the labor force; 6 out of 10 preschool-age children and 7 out of 10 school-age children have parents in the work force; 55 percent of working women provide half or more of the family’s income.

■ One out of two children will live in a single-parent family at some point in childhood.

■ Families with children accounted for more than a third of the homeless Americans in urban areas who seek shelter.

■ More than one out of six—13.3 million—children in the United States are poor. Th e federal poverty line for a family of four in 2008 is $21,200.

■ Th e United States ranks fi rst among industrialized countries in gross domestic product, but 18th in the income gap between rich and poor children.

Child Poverty in the United States

A child is born into poverty every 33 seconds.

A child is abused or neglected every 35 seconds.

A child is born uninsured every 39 seconds.

A child dies before his/her fi rst birthday every 18 minutes.

A child or teen is killed by gunfi re every 3 hours.

13,324,00 children are poor (18%).

5,768,000 children are living in extreme poverty (7.8%).

3,741,535 adults and children receive cash assistance from Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF).

8,067,728 women and children receive Supplemental Nutrition Assistance (WIC).

30,129,883 children are in the School Lunch Program.

12,559,379 children receive food stamps.

65% percentage of eligible persons receive food stamps.

FIGURE 15-3 Poverty affects all children in America (Children’s Defense Fund, “Children in the United States” Web version, www.cdf.org, November, 2008).

525CHAPTER 15 Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education

Th e changing family structure and circumstances af- fect early childhood professionals in several ways. Chap- ter 8 discusses issues around the changing family and makes recommendations for the role of the teacher.

Divorce and Family Structures Perhaps no one single change has aff ected children as much as the divorce rate. DelCampo and DelCampo (2006) note that, in some studies, “children rate divorce second only to the death of a parent as the most stressful event in their lives, and most of them end up not having a close relationship with one of their parents.” Th e trend toward more divorce is signifi cant. Nearly 50 percent of marriages end in divorce, and the American national av- erage is at 31 percent overall, with the range within eth- nic groups of 15 to 64 percent (Casey, 2006). One school child in three has parents who are divorced; 30 percent of these are children in stepfamilies and the other 70 percent live with their mothers or fathers alone. Th e ef- fects of divorce are felt for years. Getting over divorce and on with a productive life is critical for both child and parent; teachers can help.

Th e eff ects of divorce are felt by children well before the event itself. Children exhibit “pre-divorce family stress” by increased impulsive or aggressive behavior, and parents show the stress with headaches, fatigue, mood swings, or depression. Children’s initial reaction to their parents’ sep- aration is traumatic—shock and distress (the Stage 1 re- sponses to stress as described in Chapter 14). Even if par- ents are not in violent confl ict with each other, no child is happy about divorce. After divorce, many parents become overworked and overwhelmed. Children are often ne- glected or left with less than what both parents could pro- vide, including emotional and fi nancial support.

Among employed adults, unmarried women who support families have the greatest risk of living in poverty. … Moreover, unmarried mothers often have time constraints that can aff ect their ability to su- pervise their children, off er emotional support, take an active part in their education, and arrange other activities for them. When children live with one parent, it is still most often the mother. (Casey Foundation, 2006)

Adjustment to divorce is diffi cult, and the psycho- logical eff ects of divorce on children are often felt well into adulthood. “Divorce is a cumulative experience for the child. Its impact increases over time,” writes Wallerstein (2002), reporting on a 25-year research proj- ect. For instance, of the people who were 21/2 to 6 years old when their parents divorced one-third did not pur-

sue any education beyond high school, although 40 per- cent of those who attended college did graduate.

Growing up in a divorced home does not mean chil- dren cannot live happy lives. Fortunately, children are amazingly resilient. Th e age and gender of the children involved seem to have some bearing on their adjustment. Very young children recover more easily than older ones, and boys react more intensely than girls to the loss of their fathers from the home. Th e parents’ ability to be caring and available makes a diff erence, as does the par- ents’ relationship with each other and the quality of the children’s relationship with both parents.

What can teachers do?

1. Read and understand the eff ects of divorce (DelCampo & DelCampo [2006] have an extensive suggested reading list).

2. Be informed about what to expect from children in a divorce cycle (see Chapter 14 about stress).

3. Help parents get access to outside help (parent sup- port groups, community welfare services, or a pa- rental stress hotline).

4. Plan strategies for family involvement that take into account the work demands, resources, and expertise of parents.

5. Provide a place and time to heal:

■ Know your children. Confer with families as often as possible and be aware of family stresses and crises.

■ Talk about feelings. Anger and sadness are pre- dominant, along with guilt, loss, helplessness, and loneliness; an understanding teacher can go a long way to help a child feel less alone and can off er appropriate opportunities—through intimate moments, puppets and dolls, unstructured draw- ings, role playing, and creative drawing—for expression.

■ Use bibliotherapy. Books are powerful tools to connect with children with understanding and kindness. Th ey are also wonderful resources for families.

■ Keep aware of family diversity. Be sure to include many family structures in the curriculum, during informal discussions, with any correspondence to home.

■ Include open communication with parents and family members. Divorce tends to complicate communica- tion between teachers and parents. Make adjust- ments in conferences, newsletters, and notes about the child so both the primary and non-custodial parents are included as much as possible.

526 SECTION 5 How Do We Teach for Tomorrow?

The Working Parent More than two thirds of all preschool children under age 6 have mothers in the work force (Children’s Defense Fund, 2008), and the percentage rises when considering school-aged children as well. Mothers at work aff ect the family and the teacher.

Th e implications for families are considerable. For women, the double roles of job or career and family nur- turer can be overwhelming, creating great confl ict and the stress of chronic fatigue. Men are looking at their role in a diff erent light; many are learning about greater in- volvement in child rearing and how to adjust to a new fi - nancial provider role. For both parents, three issues loom large: the concern for good child care; the struggle to provide quality time with children and as a family unit; and the fi nancial burden. Without parental leave, parents are forced to return to work during the critical early months of infancy or lose income and even their job. Further, while many mothers go to work from welfare, there are still few gains in the family’s broader economic well-being. Women report still needing to use local food banks and taking second and third jobs. Self-suffi ciency without income supports is rarely achieved.

For educators, working families have special new is- sues. As more parents are fully occupied with work dur- ing the school day, they are less available for direct par- ticipation in a classroom or on a constant basis. Teachers plan fl exible opportunities for them to become involved in their children’s education.

In the public sector, several proposals gained mo- mentum in the 1990s. Th e most successful so far, the ABC Bill of 1990, allotted federal dollars to the states to provide support for centers, improving the quality of children’s services available. Child tax credits and pretax dependent care credits are government and employer supports. Leading pediatrician T. Berry Brazelton’s Washington-based lobby group, Parent Action, is gar- nering support for family medical leave that would en- able parents of newborns to take several months of un- paid leave from their jobs to be at home and establish an attachment bond and family setting so critical to infants’ well-being and survival.

Public policy is a refl ection of the attitude and values a nation holds toward children and families, and the in- equities are glaring. Most European countries fund pub- lic programs for children and support services for par- ents at a much higher rate than that in the United States. We look toward a future trend of clearer and more sup- portive public policies.

Community and School Support Th e relationship between schools and the community at large and the families they serve dictates the role schools play in the lives of families. Th e history of education in the United States is the story of the “progressive assumption” (Elkind, 1991). Th is means that the trend over time is for educational institutions to assume functions once per- formed by the family. Th ere are diffi culties in this progres- sion, however, as schools are reluctant—perhaps unable— to assume some of these responsibilities, and parents are wary of giving them up. In addition, it is unclear if chil- dren gain from such a “handoff ” of responsibility.

In colonial times, schools were primarily private, church-based programs for boys. After the American Revolution the government began forming a national pub- lic school system, based on the belief that a democracy de- mands literate participants. Th is trend continued as the “public” came to include women and people of color. Th e 21st century has seen governments provide subsidies to schools to provide free or low cost meals, medical and dental services, and physical education programs.

In the last 30 years, schools have continued to take on more child-rearing functions. Schools have a key role to play in nurturing parental involvement in education and family life, rebuilding the “social capital” (Coleman, 1991) both within the family and in the community. Drawing on an economic model, social capital refers to the richness and resources that social relationships provide for a child. Th e strength of these social relations helps shape a child’s

When both parents work outside the home, new roles for fathers emerge.

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habits, establish norms of acceptable behavior, and en- courage the development of children’s character, long range goals, and even educational attainment.

One example of the school as a refl ection of commu- nity life is the Reggio Emilia system (see Chapter 2). Founder Malaguzzi understood that the child cannot be thought of in the abstract, but as tightly connected to the world of relationships and experiences. Both Vygotsky (see Chapters 4 and 12) and Bronfenbrenner (see Chapter 2) emphasize these ties.

Th e issue today in the United States is to defi ne a new role for schools. Some specifi c ways include taking a com- prehensive approach to families, so that the early child- hood program is fully integrated into the families it serves. School systems can help parents get needed medical, den- tal, mental, job-related, and social services by collaborating with other agencies and individuals. Head Start models this resource-rich type of program.

“It takes a village to raise a child.” Th is old adage has new signifi cance in today’s society. Th e factors of positive experiences, relationships, opportunities, and personal qualities help children grow up to be healthy, caring, and responsible. Th ese include both external assets (those posi- tive experiences that young children receive from the peo- ple and institutions in their lives) of support, empower- ment, boundaries and expectations, and constructive use of time and internal assets (the internal dispositions that guide children’s choices and create a sense of centeredness and purpose) of commitment to learning, positive values, social competencies, and a positive identity.

Children who have positive family communication, have supervised time at home, and have stimulating activi- ties outside of home in a community that is safe and that values children have experiences that enhance positive de- velopment. Th e roles that families, schools, congregations, neighborhoods, youth organizations, and others in com- munities play in shaping young people’s lives contribute to both external and internal supports.

Early childhood programs can help articulate the shared values of the community and the support for diversity of the whole community. Th e trend is for the role of the teacher to become greater with families. Teaching is a two-client job: a teacher of the child and a resource for the family.

Transmitting Values As with the other themes in early childhood education, the issue of transmitting values is not for the teacher or school alone. A deep and primary source of values is that

of the family and culture. Th e school must work with the family to provide a sense of shared values; nonetheless, both parents and teachers must acknowledge other sources that shape children’s values and behavior. Th ree other critical sources are the media culture, violence and disaster, and social diversity.

The Media Culture In many homes, the television set has replaced adult su- pervision. Ninety-nine percent of American households contain at least one television, with more than two thirds containing two or more sets. Nielsen Media Research (2008) now reports that 111.4 million households in the United States have televisions. “Children and adolescents comprise between 10 percent and 20 percent of the prime time viewing audience, and they spend more time watching television (15,000 hours) than they do in school (11,000 hours). During this time they witness 180,000 murders, rapes, armed robberies, and assaults” ( Johnson, 1996). Th e Nielsen Report on Television (1989) estimated that U.S. children age 2 to 5 viewed television approximately 27 hours per week, and chil- dren age 6 to 11 viewed more than 23 hours per week. Television and, for school-age children, the Internet and other media represent an infl uential force in the lives of children.

Th ere are four basic concerns that parents and teach- ers express about children’s viewing of media:

1. Media violence can lead to aggression and desensiti- zation to violence.

2. Media viewing promotes passivity, slowing intellec- tual development and stifl ing imagination.

3. Media promote racist and sexist attitudes. 4. Television promotes materialistic consumerism.

Common Sense Media and the National Institutes of Health analyzed 173 studies about the eff ect of media consumption on children, fi nding a strong correlation between greater exposure and adverse health outcomes. “Couch potato does, unfortunately, sum it up pretty well,” says Ezekiel J. Emanuel, chair of bioethics depart- ment at NIH. “Th e research is clear that exposure to media has a variety of negative health impacts on chil- dren and teens. …We found very few studies that had any positive association for children’s health” (Common Sense Media, 2008). Th is research highlights the power- ful eff ects on children of the models they see, whether they be of children, adults, or fantasy characters (see Bandura, Chapter 4). Th e Center for Media Literacy

528 SECTION 5 How Do We Teach for Tomorrow?

(1993) documented four eff ects of viewing media violence:

1. Increased aggressiveness and antisocial behavior. “Th ere is absolutely no doubt that higher levels of view- ing violence on television are correlated with increased acceptance of aggressive attitudes and increased aggres- sive behavior.”

2. Increased fear of becoming a victim. “Viewing vio- lence increases the fear of becoming a victim of violence, with a resultant increase in self-protective behaviors and increased mistrust of others.”

3. Desensitization to violence and victims of violence. “Viewing violence increases desensitization to violence, resulting in a calloused attitude toward violence di- rected at others and a decreased likelihood to take ac- tion on behalf of the victim when violence occurs.”

4. Interest in more violence in entertainment and real life. “Viewing violence increases viewers’ appetite for becoming involved with violence or exposing themselves to violence.”

In the area of bias and stereotyping, children’s televi- sion is an arena “where boys are king” (Carter, 1991). Networks generally assert that boys will not watch female-lead shows, but girls will watch shows with a male

lead. In children’s television shows, the Euro-American and male attitudes and behaviors are reinforced.

Television and the lessons it teaches are and will be a part of children’s lives. “Perhaps if parents [and teachers] could accept the inevitable, that television is not only here to stay but viewing choices are expanding almost daily, then society could move past this dichotomy of thinking of television as simply good or bad. Television viewing could be thought of as an active endeavor rather than a passive one” (DelCampo & DelCampo, 2006).

Families and teachers can use guidelines for televi- sion viewing and for dealing with the hazards of media culture (video games, computer games, assorted toys and games, etc.) (NAEYC, 1990).

1. Set limits. Know how many hours of television chil- dren watch and set limits. Th e American Academy of Pediatrics suggests a maximum of one to two hours daily. Keep the television turned off unless someone is actively viewing; television viewing can easily become more of a habit than a choice. Involve your children in discussions about video game sys- tems or computer games; consider establishing rules (for instance, “Game-playing counts as ‘screen time’” and “I can’t play when a friend comes over”).

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529CHAPTER 15 Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education

2. Plan and participate. Work together with children to decide what to watch. Help children choose shows with an age-appropriate viewing length, bias-free content, and peaceful action. Consider watching shows together, pointing out parts that are prosocial and asking about those parts you wonder about or disagree with. Use the “pause,” “rewind,” and “mute” buttons as part of the process. Watch carefully what children are doing with video and computer games.

3. Resist commercials. Children do not distinguish easily between the sales pitch commercial and the ordinary show. Help them become “critical consumers” by point- ing out the exaggerated claims. Even 3-year-olds can answer the question “What are they trying to sell us?”

4. Express your views. Call a station that airs a show or commercial you fi nd off ensive or write a letter to the Children’s Advertising Review unit of the Better Business Bureau. Action for Children’s Television in Cambridge, Massachusetts, has been a leading pub- lic interest group for more than 20 years and has valuable suggestions for how adults can infl uence children’s television programming.

Violence and Disaster Th e trend of children’s increasing exposure to violence is alarming. Families speak of what is shown in the media and the kinds and choices of toys that give them a sense of being out of control in limiting or infl uencing chil- dren’s behavior. Teachers notice changes in children’s play, commenting that the weapon and war play in class- rooms is so single purpose and intense that it is diffi cult to redirect; rule setting and controlling overzealous play take an inordinate amount of teachers’ energy.

When a catastrophe happens, whether personal or soci- etal, children need help making sense of the calamity and then support in recovery. Shock, confusion, fear, anxiety, grief, anger, guilt, and helplessness are all common emotional responses to trauma. Such reactions will generate changes in behavior, both in adults and in the children we care for.

How much children are traumatized varies; research has shown that fi ve factors seem to determine the amount of suff ering children experience during war. Th e child’s own biological and psychological makeup, the level of disruption of the family unit, the breakdown of the com- munity, cultural infl uences (especially positive), and the intensity, suddenness, and duration of the war aff ect how deep the scars will be on one’s childhood. How children see their parents and teachers react, a child’s age, and how much destruction and/or death is seen will also make an impact (AACAP, 1993). Chapter 14 discusses

children’s reactions to stress and the role of the teacher in helping children process and cope with child trauma. Figure 15-4 gives suggestions for how to help children in case of a disaster.

Th e increasing violence of American society has so alarmed educators and parents alike that programs are being developed for children and for teachers (Levin, 1998). Organizations such as Adults and Children To- gether (ACT) Against Violence, the Educators for Social Responsibility, and the National Association for Media- tion Educators serve as both clearinghouses for informa- tion and material and as training institutes for teachers.

Children act out what they see in their play. Should teachers allow aggressive pretend play unchecked or with limits and some kind of adult intervention? Or should this type of play be banned, contained, or otherwise re- directed and altered? Th is dilemma illustrates children’s play from two diff erent viewpoints, a developmental one and a sociopolitical one.

Th e developmental viewpoint states that play, includ- ing war play, is the primary vehicle through which chil- dren work on developmental issues. Because children need to develop a sense of how the world works, of fan- tasy and reality, of good and bad, war play is an extension of superhero play (see Chapter 14), and is, therefore, a necessary part of children’s play.

Th e sociopolitical view assumes that children learn basic social and political behavior at an early age and, therefore, will learn militaristic concepts and values through war play. Th is viewpoint contends that children learn about confl ict and resolution, the use of fi ghting, and the meaning of friends and enemies in their play, and that allowing war play endorses the use of force (Carlsson- Paige & Levin, 2005).

Th ese two ideas give teachers the basic building blocks for how to deal with the issue of developing shared values and for engaging in a dialogue with fellow teachers and parents. Whatever your viewpoint, remem- ber that early learning is powerful. Exposure to violence is harmful, particularly when children are victims.

Moreover, when disaster strikes, what children need most is reassurance, to know they will be safe and that caring adults will still take care of them. Constancy and predictability, in the form of consistent routines and con- tinued habits of behavior and tradition, will help children feel anchored in their lives. Listening carefully, answering children’s questions in simple ways, and asking questions to elicit their thoughts all encourage communication and a dialogue about their feelings. Most educators and coun- selors also remind adults to monitor children’s media ex- posure to war.

530 SECTION 5 How Do We Teach for Tomorrow?

Teachers help children fi nd peaceful resolutions to their everyday confl icts, ensuring that, in their daily school life, war will not break out and take over (see Chapters 7 and 14 for suggestions):

■ A family child care provider of infants and toddlers may spend extra time giving hugs and helping chil- dren share toys.

■ A class of preschoolers may choose a cross-town child care center to exchange drawings and visits with, to increase their knowledge of their city neighbor.

■ A fi rst grade class might write letters to the Presi- dent. (“I don’t like it when you make war. My big sister says to use words when I have a problem and you should too.”)

On an adult scale, teachers can: ■ Talk about and decide on your viewpoint and values

with parents and the school board. ■ Develop guidelines that address your values and the

needs of the children. ■ Talk with parents about toys and the role of the me-

dia in the development of children’s interests and the role of parents in helping children decide and choose what and how to play.

■ Investigate peace education and building peaceable classrooms that have confl ict resolution teaching as part of the curriculum (see Chapters 7 and 14).

Take care of yourselves as professionals; teachers need someone to talk to and may need to adjust the curricu- lum to give everyone more breathing room.

When a Child Experiences Disaster

With All Children

*Spend time with child, being observant of their behavior.

*Give reassurance and physical comfort.

*Provide consistent, predictable structure during the day.

*Adapt curriculum to include relaxing, therapeutic activities such as sand, water, clay, and play dough.

*Spend more time in physical activity for emotional release.

*Connect with families frequently; share observations and ideas.

School-Age Children

*Ask what is on their minds, and answer their questions honestly.

*Share emergency plans so children know safety measures for the future.

*Provide guided exposure to media; watch/listen with them.

*Offer ways to take action, such as helping them organize relief efforts.

Infants/Toddlers

*Resume normal routines & favorite rituals.

*Give limited exposure to media & adult conversations about crisis.

*Give special time at nap & bed time.

Preschoolers

*Reassure verbally that they will be OK.

*Make sure they know where you are at all times.

*Give opportunities to write/dictate stories and draw about their experiences.

FIGURE 15-4 A catastrophe such as an earthquake, hurricane, or fi re or a disaster such as war or an act of terrorism is frightening to both adults and children.

531CHAPTER 15 Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education

Social Diversity Facing Reality America as a “melting pot,” into which all racial and cul- tural diff erences are smoothly mixed into one single blend, is a myth, both an unrealistic and unnecessary goal. Moreover, much of America’s history can be charac- terized as racist, classist, sexist, and ethnocentric by one group or another. Th e discrepancy between our ide- als of equal opportunity and freedom and the daily real- ity can be altered only if we recognize the problems and then set specifi c goals for change.

Today’s demographics point to a trend of an increas- ingly diverse society (see Chapter 3). Th e issue is that attitudes do not yet parallel reality. Segregation of schools by color is still a reality by virtue of neighborhood con- fi gurations and of white families sending their children to private schools; indeed schools with high populations of African-American and/or Latino children almost without exception are also high poverty schools, which correlates with less qualifi ed teachers, fewer classroom resources, and higher absenteeism among teachers and students (Frankenberg, Lee, & Orfi eld in Book, 2004).

Moreover, school reform eff orts have done little to meet the educational needs of America’s demographic profi le.

Research shows a strong relationship between edu- cation attainment and economic well-being. Chil- dren who are provided a comprehensive, high qual- ity education are less likely to be poor and more likely to fi nd employment and receive higher wages than their less educated peers. In addition, we fi nd that children from low income families are con- stantly outperformed by their wealthier peers across a broad range of academic measures. Poor children, therefore, often fi nd themselves in a Catch-22 with their economic circumstances deny- ing them access to the escape valve out of a life of poverty—a quality education. (Children’s Defense Fund, 2008)

Figure 15-5 illustrates this point. We know that children exhibit an awareness of racial

and gender diff erences by age 3 (Derman-Sparks, et al., 1989) and are formulating rudimentary concepts about the meaning of those diff erences in the preschool years.

Reading and Math Achievement of Fourth graders

FIGURE 15-5 The disparate levels of education in America’s diverse cultures confi rm that school reforms have not yet met the needs of all children. (Reprinted with permis- sion from Children’s Defense Fund, 2009. Sources: US Department of Education, Na- tional Assessment of Education Progress, The Nation’s Report Card; calculations by Children’s Defense Fund).

About two-thirds of public school 4th graders cannot read at grade level; 6 out of 10 cannot do math at grade level. More than 80 percent of Black and Hispanic 4th graders in public school cannot read at grade level, compared with 58 percent of their White peers. Eighty-five percent of Black 4th graders in public school cannot do math at grade level, compared with 78 percent of Hispanic and about half of White children.

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532 SECTION 5 How Do We Teach for Tomorrow?

It is logical to conclude that, by the end of the early childhood years, children have consolidated their atti- tudes about race, ethnicity, gender, and (dis)ability, and are far along the path of attitude crystallization. Unless the social environment changes, children will re-create the prejudices of the current adult society. Teachers and families need to look with sensitivity to the meaning of diversity (see Figure 15-6).

Multicultural Education Multicultural education is the system of teaching and learning that includes the contributions of all ethnic and racial groups. In other words, it is a comprehensive educa- tional approach that refl ects more than just the dominant culture’s perspective, providing all children with a fuller, more balanced truth about themselves, their own history, and culture. Th is means responsiveness to the child’s ori- gins, habits at home, and ways of self-expression.

At high levels of education there are contrasting views about how to deal with diversity. One viewpoint is a separatist education in which education is taught from a particular viewpoint—European, Afro-centrist, or the like. Many assert that most public schooling is a European-dominant education. A second viewpoint is the more traditional pluralist approach in which educa- tion stresses the commonalities of varying peoples. Most early education programs follow the second approach.

Janice E. Hale (1993) off ers another idea, that “a more culturally appropriate pedagogy would expose African American children to [both] Anglo-centric and Afro-centric literature at each grade level … [T]o edu- cate African American children in a culturally appropri- ate manner, there is a kind of dual educational process that is required.” Hale sees the miseducation of black

children as a form of “educational malpractice.” In Learn- ing While Black (2001), Hale notes that “academic fail- ure, incarceration and unemployment are outcomes of the public schooling for African American boys.” Th e hidden racism that permeates both private and public schools in the United States must be addressed.

What underlies these issues is how we see ourselves as a common culture. When we change the metaphor of “melting pot” to one of “mosaic” or “mixed salad,” we en- courage a way of thinking that might be termed cultural pluralism—the idea that we are all one people, but we do not necessarily divest ourselves of our ethnic origins. Based on DAP and DCAP (see Chapter 2), good early childhood programs can represent the best of multicul- tural education.

Bilingual Education Th e goals and purposes of bilingual education remain controversial, for there are still disagreements over how to defi ne bilingualism, how to determine who needs it, and who is to provide the services. Chapter 13 discusses bilingual education in light of language learning and cur- riculum development. Th is section highlights the broader issues and implications.

Bilingual education has been part of the American experience since before the Revolutionary War, when school was taught in any one of the more than 18 lan- guages that were spoken by the colonists. Nonetheless, numerous cultures have been suppressed with regularity in the United States. Both Native American and immi- grant groups have categorically faced discrimination. Speaking English is only part of bilingual education: At issue are the civil and educational rights of people who speak limited English, the respect or assimilation of their culture, and their participation and acceptance in society.

Social Diversity and Teacher Attitudes

1. Recognize developmentally equivalent patterns. Before judging a child as diffi cult, assume s/he is normal and look again.

2. Do not value some ways of achieving developmental milestones more highly than others. Remember different is not defi cient.

3. Start teaching in ways that are familiar to children. You may not be fl uent in a child’s language, but you can learn key words and phrases.

4. School learning is most likely to occur when family values reinforce family expectations. Partner up with parents so that the child is the big winner.

5. Deal with discrepancies between home and school directly. Instead of ignoring the differences, ask about them.

FIGURE 15-6 There are several guidelines teachers can follow regarding diversity.

533CHAPTER 15 Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education

Changing populations and the infl ux of immigrants from Asia as well as from the Hispanic nations have brought with them new challenges to bilingual education. Bilingual programs serve primarily Spanish-speaking stu- dents. States that do not have bilingual programs still need to meet the needs of limited–English-profi cient (LEP) students in schools through other means. Th e number of school-age Spanish-speaking children in the United States increased by 50 percent between 1980 and 2000, so all levels of education have been aff ected.

The School-Age Child. Th e questions about bilingual- ism for the school-age child are diff erent from those for the young child. In elementary school, teachers and chil- dren are forced to deal with issues beyond those of recep- tive and expressive language. Learning graphic language (reading and writing), acquiring concepts in other subject areas through listening, and dealing with the more com- plex social patterns and interpersonal issues are just a few of these issues. Moreover, the age at which children should be taught a second language is highly controversial. Re- search shows that children can acquire native-like mastery of a second language if they learn to speak the language before age 5. At the same time, elementary school age ap- pears to be an ideal time to be taught a second language.

Much research is centered on how children achieve second language competence and performance. We do know that, by age 5, children know most of the sounds and grammatical structure of their native tongue and appear to learn a second language in a similar way. With a bilingual child, the level of competence in both languages may be low while gaining mastery in the second language.

Th e two government actions that have most infl u- enced the bilingual issue in our time are the passing of the 1968 Bilingual Education Act and the 1974 Lau v. Nichols Supreme Court decision. In that case, the Su- preme Court determined that a lack of instruction in one’s fi rst language is a violation of children’s civil rights.

Since 1968, Title VII programs (the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, also known as the Bilingual Education Act) addressed the needs of students with limited profi ciency in English. State bilingual education laws followed, requiring special instruction for children who lack competence in English.

Th e result is that children are taught in public kinder- garten and elementary schools by using both the primary language and English. For instance, children may be taught to read in their primary language fi rst; once they have learned the reading process in their own language, they are then taught to decode in English. Yet, bilingual programs are so varied that it is diffi cult to assess them. Some work

to mainstream children into regular classrooms as quickly as possible; others try to maintain the child’s native lan- guage. A more recent program, the dual or bilingual immer- sion method, attempts a blending of language instruction by putting both English speakers and those with limited English into class together and teaching two-way bilingual education. By bringing together both groups for language instruction, this method also indicates respect for both languages as assets. It shows promise as a truly multicul- tural tool for desegregation.

Still, the controversy continues. Another political backlash occurred in the late 1980s against non-English speakers. Th e U.S. Offi ce of Education claimed that bi- lingual education programs have not helped children learn English. In 1998, a California initiative eff ectively ended publicly funded bilingual programs, to be replaced by shorter term, intensive English immersion programs at the elementary and secondary levels. Without consensus on the eff ectiveness and goals of bilingual education, edu- cators must press for continuing research and clarity.

The Young Child. In preschools and child care centers, children are still taught in regular class settings, usually with little extra instruction. Th is type of instruction is known as an immersion system. Th e problem with this system lies in the risk that language-minority children in English-speaking schools will experience a substantial ero- sion of their native language ability and have diffi culty com- municating with their parents. Th us, parent–child relation- ships may be damaged and loss of culture may result.

The Plight of the Immigrant Another serious challenge for schools is posed by the educational and socioeconomic needs of immigrant chil- dren. Attempting to immerse new children into a na- tional way and to teach basic skills needed to succeed in the new country have been central functions of schools throughout history (see Chapter 1). In the United States, there are more than 2.5 million school-age immigrants and at least as many children under 5; one out of six children in the United States has a foreign-born mother (Children’s Defense Fund, 2008). Immigrant enrollment in schools varies among the states and can reach as high as 95 percent in some schools.

Financial and social supports for legal immigrant children are a critical problem. Estimates are that 70 to 75 percent of the legal immigrants in this country are unaided by food stamps (Children’s Defense Fund, 2008); the actual need is diffi cult to calculate.

Th e language barrier is the most immediate problem, followed by that of acceptance of the immigrants’ native

534 SECTION 5 How Do We Teach for Tomorrow?

cultures. Further, many newcomers arrive from countries wracked with war, violence, and poverty. Th ese children and families are under tremendous pressures and need help coping with the overwhelming stress and disloca- tion. Many young children in immigrant families do not have access to health and education services. Key issues are (Takanishi, 2006):

■ Children’s skills in kindergarten and their achieve- ment at the end of third grade are important predic- tors of their future life prospects.

■ Although well-designed early education and after- school programs hold promise to reduce ethnic group-related inequalities in children’s cognitive skills and social competence, children in immigrant families are less likely to participate in these pro- grams than are children in native-born families.

■ Availability and access are important factors: When pre-kindergarten programs are off ered in public schools, Hispanic and Asian-American children are more likely to participate.

■ Family literacy programs are a promising strategy for improving language skills of children in immi- grant families, as well as their parents. Th e way schools place and monitor immigrant children— both their educational progress and their general well-being—challenges educators and all American citizens to clarify the responsibilities our society has toward its newcomers. Chapter 8 describes the needs of immigrant families.

Inclusive Education Since the 1970s, recognition of people with disabilities has been paired with public funding for education. Th e Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and its legisla- tive authorization, the Individuals with Disabilities Edu- cation Act (IDEA), are designed “to reasonably accom- modate individuals with disabilities in order to integrate them into the program to the extent feasible, given each individual’s limitations” (Child Care Law Center, 1994). Key principles are:

■ Individuality (understanding the limitations and needs of each individual).

■ Reasonableness (of the accommodation to the pro- gram and the person).

■ Integration (of the individual with others).

Accommodating a child with special needs is unreason- able only if it puts an undue burden on a program, would fundamentally alter the nature of the program, or poses a threat to the health or safety of the other children and staff . With these guidelines in mind, children with special

needs will do best in the least restrictive environment, as fully included in a program as possible. Chapter 3 de- scribes in detail the implications of ADA and IDEA for early childhood professionals.

Many programs, including all Head Start at the early childhood level, have welcomed children with special needs. All children, regardless of their abilities or dis- abilities, are more alike than diff erent. Early intervention for children with special needs can minimize the eff ect of a condition or help such special needs from becoming more serious problems than need be.

Still, many children have special needs that remain undiagnosed. Many others have diffi culty fi nding appro- priate placement, particularly in programs for children under age 5. Early childhood special education is a rela- tively new area of our profession. Exemplary programs are those in which:

■ Intervention is focused on specifi c and measurable child goals.

■ Services are family-centered. ■ Regular monitoring and adjustments of the inter-

vention occur. ■ Planning for transitions and changes occurs. ■ Multidisciplinary services are provided.

Early childhood educators need support in learning about special needs and in understanding what it means to be inclusive of children with special needs without dimin- ishing program quality for all children or overwhelming and exhausting staff . Programs that are engaged in devel- opmentally appropriate practices already have activities and equipment that provide for a wide range of abilities, a schedule that emphasizes child-initiated play, and a cur- riculum that merges the children with the teachers’ plans. Th ose teachers who are committed to an anti-bias ap- proach will fi nd that inclusion of children with special needs is another way to honor diversity.

Class Differences In the 21st century, there are still great disparities in lev- els of poverty/affl uence and schooling/achievement:

In the United States, there are more poor White, non- Hispanic children than Black children. However, Hispanic and Black children are about three times as likely to live in poverty than White, non-Hispanic children. Children who live in inner cities, rural areas, in the South, or in female-headed families are more likely to be poor. (Children’s Defense Fund, 2008)

Schools with the highest proportion of poor children have markedly fewer resources than schools serving af- fl uent students, fewer books and supplies, and teachers

535CHAPTER 15 Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education

with less training. Eighty-fi ve percent of black fourth graders in public school cannot do math at grade level, compared to 78 percent of Hispanic children and about 50 percent of white children. Black and American-In- dian children are more likely to be enrolled in classes for students with mental retardation, emotional disturbance, and learning disabilities.

Although no one likes to talk about it, the class dif- ferences cause many children, particularly children of poor and minority families, to get:

■ Less in the way of experienced and well-trained teachers

■ Less in the way of a rich and well-balanced curriculum

■ Less actual instructional time ■ Less in the way of well-equipped and well-stocked

laboratories and libraries ■ Less of what undoubtedly is most important of all—

a belief that they can really learn (Haycock, 1991)

So what can teachers do? First, we will have to deal with the “lesses.” All of us know what makes good schools work, and our work on developmentally appropriate practices, though still needing continual refi nement, helps us articulate what makes good teaching and im- proved educational experiences for all children. Second, we must join with other community eff orts in building support systems so families can thrive and help their children succeed. Th ird, we will need to engage in advo- cacy eff orts (see “Professionalism”) in speaking out about children’s needs and pushing for adequate teaching conditions.

Equal Play and Gender Issues Th ere is ample research to confi rm the widespread oc- currence of gender segregation in childhood (American Association of University Women, 1992; Grossman & Grossman, 1994). Sex diff erences are less apparent in early childhood than is gender-based behavior (see Chapter 4). Although adults may not always directly contribute to biased development, teachers and parents are indirectly responsible for the inequity between the sexes in their children.

Look at unstructured play situations. Free play is the backbone of early education programs and most at-home play, in which children choose playmates and play situa- tions that are comfortable to them. Th ey will not, typically, choose those activities with which they have had little or no experience, nor will they ordinarily choose cross-sex play- mates (particularly as peer pressure increases with age). Further, boys still get more attention than girls do at most grade levels and in most subject areas (Sadker & Sadker,

1994). Th is is not always an advantage to boys, as there is increasing concern that early education programs are be- coming less compatible with active behavior or less devel- oped fi ne motor skills. Sexist treatment in the classroom encourages the formation of patterns of power and domi- nance that occurs very early (Maccoby & Jacklin, 1985).

Adults must take an assertive role in recognizing this sexist bias and replacing it with more equitable experi- ences for all children. Summaries of wide-ranging research indicate that both our homes and schools are “gendered environments” that spell diff erent expectations and con- duct for children on the basis of their gender (Grossman & Grossman, 1994). If we are committed to an anti-bias education and environment (see Chapters 9 to 14), we must attempt to reduce gender-stereotypical behavior.

What are teachers to do? Educators Schlank and Metzger (1997) suggest that these guidelines be fol- lowed when trying to teach for change:

■ Begin with yourself. Just as in other issues of diver- sity and anti-bias, it all begins with self-awareness and refl ection on one’s own behavior, responses, and attitudes.

■ What you say and do can make a diff erence. When- ever possible, be gender inclusive or neutral, ac- knowledging positive behaviors and milestones by describing what you see and avoiding using gender designations (such as “all boys get your jackets” or “all girls go to the snack tables”).

■ Watch your language. Avoid descriptions of children such as “pretty/handsome” and treat the class as a group (“friends” rather than “boys and girls”); be careful of word choices that refl ect gender bias (such as “He is confi dent/She is full of herself ”).

■ Establish rules and conduct for cooperation and gender equity. Everybody may play everywhere with any toy; blocks are not just for boys and the house cor- ner is not for girls only; no child may be kept from playing because of something she or he cannot change—skin color, disability, or gender.

■ Be ready to intervene and support. If you hear a “No boys allowed” or “Girls can’t do that,” be ready to intervene in a supportive way, fi nding out why chil- dren think that, and what you think or what the class rule is.

■ Th ink about how to cope with superheroes and Barbie dolls. Weapon and doll play can both be viewed in a “developmental versus sociocultural” way.

Expanding children’s learning styles is helpful. Girls need more experiences with spatial exploration and gross motor coordination as well as quality attention from— without dependence on—adults. Boys in particular need

536 SECTION 5 How Do We Teach for Tomorrow?

experiences in fl exibility, nurturance, and learning from modeling.

Eliminating stereotypical relationships is also impor- tant. Be sure that all members of a group have the op- portunity to participate equally. For instance, try to re- duce male dominance of females in mixed-gender situations. Keep a watchful eye in the environment to see that areas do not get labeled “off limits” by one gender, such as the blocks and tricycles that become “boy places” or the house corner and art “for girls only.”

Encourage cross-gender interaction, and use coop- erative learning activities. Whereas there is little re- search about the long term eff ects of these strategies, a combination of these techniques has been found eff ec- tive to increase mixed-gender interactions, helping be- havior and friendships. Help make and keep connec- tions among children, so they do not get locked into narrow constraints.

Sexuality One of the most complicated issues that touches the lives of early childhood educators is sexuality. Although hu- man sexuality is not likely to be among typical early childhood curriculum topics, teachers are increasingly more likely to encounter issues of homosexuality in the following ways: working with gay or lesbian families or co-workers, dealing with aspects of femininity and mas- culinity in children’s sex role identity, and having multi- cultural children’s books about gay families.

Some experts estimate that approximately 10 per- cent of the children in our classes will grow up to be gay or lesbian adults (Corbett, 1993). Whether or not the estimates are accurate, gay issues are controversial and produce anxiety for many; it is diffi cult and risky and of- ten seems easier to ignore the whole issue and conclude that it is an “adult problem.” A number of studies suggest a possible genetic basis for homosexual behavior. “It is diffi cult, however, to conclusively establish genetic ori- gins for any human behavior, and the study of homo- sexuality presents some unique problems” (Friemann, O’Hara, & Settel, 1996). Little direct research has been done with young children, and it is likely that, “while a handful may show early indications of seeming ‘diff erent’ in some way, the vast majority will off er no clue to even the most observant eye” (Corbett, 1993).

If teachers are relinquishing stereotypes about eth- nic, ability, and gender, they must also consider avoiding the rejection of a family for its choice of lifestyle or the criticism of a child on the basis of some notion of “femi- ninity” or “masculinity.” Researchers have failed to fi nd evidence that parental characteristics determine sexual

orientation (Berger, 2007). Th e homophobia at the root of such biased behavior, either subtle on the part of teachers or overt by other children, can be hurtful and harassing. Friemann and others (1996) off er steps for teachers to take that will sound familiar because they are similar to those dealing with other forms of bias:

Teachers should examine their own feelings about homosexuality. … [Th ey] must honestly recognize any biases that they may have about children who are stigmatized as sissies [or tomboys], and keep those biases out of the classroom. … Second, teach- ers should immediately handle any instances of students-to-student abuse and harassment, no mat- ter how slight. … [Th ird,] teachers should challenge negative remarks about gay people and other minor- ity groups. … Classroom meetings are a good tool to deal with harassment cases. Start with a “stem” phrase for the children to complete, such as “When I am teased it makes me feel …” and help children focus on how people feel when they are harassed.

Our attitude ought to be one that children should never be made to feel ashamed about their family, their teach- ers, or themselves.

Professionalism Every day, early childhood professionals open their doors to young children by the millions. As they do, they are infl uencing the course of our history in the 21st century. Consider this: A child born in 2010 will be a voting adult in 2028 and may live until the end of the century. We are teaching the children of the future!

If you are thinking about working with young children as a career, you may be wondering if early childhood edu- cation is a profession worthy of a lifetime commitment as a career. Can a person look forward to a challenging, intel- lectually stimulating, and rewarding future? To fi nd those answers in today’s world, we look at three issues: stan- dards (for children’s programs and teacher preparation), teaching for human values, and child advocacy.

Standards Children’s Programs In Chapter 2, you read about the rich array of programs off ered for children in group care from infancy through age 8. Because they are so diverse, it is often diffi cult to defi ne and assess the standard of care and education with one set of guidelines. Consider these statistics:

537CHAPTER 15 Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education

■ Th irty-two states do not require prior training to teach in child care centers, and 39 and the District of Columbia do not require training of family child care providers (Children’s Defense Fund, 2008).

■ A study of child–staff ratios found that fewer states met NAEYC recommended standards for 4-year- olds in 1995 than in 1981 (Snow, Teleki,& Reguero-de-Atiles, 1996).

■ Fifteen states allow child–caretaker ratios higher than the recommended maximum for infants; 31 states exceed the maximum for toddlers; and 35 states exceed the maximum for preschoolers. Seven- teen states have no maximum requirements for group size for at least one of the age groups. (Chil- dren’s Defense Fund, 2008)

Th e most comprehensive set of standards for quality ed- ucation and care in early childhood is known as Devel- opmentally Appropriate Practices (NAEYC, 2009). Th e National Academy of Early Childhood Programs (2009) reported that more than 10,000 programs are accredited, serving more than 1 million children.

We need a core set of standards and an assessment system to evaluate them. Early learning standards (Chap- ter 6) will connect teaching practice and curriculum to state and community guidelines. Th is will ensure that young children receive quality care and will help us to

achieve professional status. Chapter 2 also describes the criteria for evaluating programs on these standards.

Teacher Preparation In Chapter 5, you read about the multiple roles of teach- ers and the “trilemma” regarding the connections be- tween quality of program, availability for families, and compensation for professionals. Th e challenge is before all of us—the child care professionals, the parents, the leaders of business and industry, and the legislators on the local, state, and national scene. National eff orts called “Worthy Wage Campaign” and “Full Cost of Quality in Early Childhood Education Programs Campaign” are leading the early childhood fi eld in advocacy and in bringing the issues of the child care crisis to national at- tention (see “Education Reform” earlier in this chapter).

Th e quality of care in child development centers is linked to the training and education of the staff . Conse- quently, it is imperative that we attract and recruit to the fi eld of early childhood education individuals who not only are dedicated to working with young children but also are skilled and competent. Many states are working on developing a career lattice and professional development plan for early childhood staff . Consider- ation must be given to developing a coordinated system that (1) welcomes people into the fi eld from a variety of

A program that responds to diversity is one that invites acceptance and respect.

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538 SECTION 5 How Do We Teach for Tomorrow?

points; (2) off ers clear career pathways with articulated training and credentialing systems; and (3) provides a variety of incentives to stay in the fi eld.

Further, teacher preparation institutions are embark- ing on a cycle of self-study and articulation of course- work and experience that is off ered at both the commu- nity college and 4-year institutions in the United States. NAEYC’s Standards for Programs (Hyson, 2003) is leading the charge, as are incentive programs such as California’s Mentor Teacher Program. We look to con- tinued eff orts to articulate and upgrade the standards of care and education in early childhood programs. See Chapter 5 for a description of teacher preparation in the early childhood fi eld.

A Reason to Teach Teaching is a complex endeavor. Whenever something is taught, the choice of what and how to teach it implies the teacher’s values. When a teacher prevents a child from hitting another, she shows a priority for peaceful confl ict resolution. When a caregiver puts a crying child into his lap, he shows the value of responsive comforting.

When children are taught reading, given free play choices, or asked to sing, they are being given a sense of what is important.

Schools of the past could be concerned with simply academic and vocational learning, leaving the moral and personal responsibilities to the parents. Th e school of the present and future cannot aff ord that luxury. Look back at Chapter 4, and consider Brazelton and Greenspan’s list of the irreducible needs of children in this chapter; this work helps educators identify key values. Professionals talk about what is important to teach. Ask yourself:

■ Why am I teaching? Why young children? Why children at all?

■ What made me choose early childhood education as my career?

■ What do I stand for? Why? ■ How did I come to have my beliefs? ■ Do I allow others their beliefs? ■ How do I state my values to children? To parents? ■ How do I keep my values and integrity while allow-

ing myself to grow and change?

Create caring communities of learners

THE MARINER’S STAR

Teach to enhance development and learning

Assess children’s learning and development

Build reciprocal relationships with families

Construct appropriate curriculum

FIGURE 15-7 Five big ideas for effective practice; look up to the star and look within yourself (Hyson, 2000, and NAEYC, 1999).

539CHAPTER 15 Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education

Integrity, honesty, harmony, individuality, self-confi dence, and responsibility can all be taught in authentic ways to young children. We prepare children to live successfully by embracing the willingness to change while at the same time holding to our beliefs of personal choice, equality, and opportunity.

Early childhood professionals need some guidelines as they decide, each moment, every day, through a year, how to teach. Th e Code of Professional Ethics, the principles and ide- als of which open every chapter, is one guide. Th e second, built from in-depth study of Developmentally Appropriate Practices, is the Mariner’s Star (see Figure 15-7).

Advocacy Teachers are, by defi nition, advocates for children. Th ey dedicate themselves to providing a better future for America’s children. To be successful, early childhood teachers and caregivers need to learn how to advocate for families and schools and for themselves as a profession.

With the issues of diversity, distribution of resources, money, and educational reform of such immediate con- cern, teachers need to understand the forces that aff ect children. Teachers will have to educate themselves about the political process. Th ey will need to know the rules and regulations regarding public funding sources. It is impor- tant to know how monies are allocated and with whom to work to aff ect the decisions regarding education. By be- coming acquainted with legislation, teachers can rally sup- port for bills that will help children, families, and schools.

Teachers have long kept out of the political process. But they have not been immune from its eff ects. As teachers, we must become informed to increase our power in the political and fi nancial arenas of daily life. Just as we encourage children to help themselves, we must support each other in taking the initiative for our own profession’s well-being. It was just such a coalition and coordinated eff ort among many people in child ad- vocacy that secured the passage of the Child Care and Development Block Grants in 1990, the fi rst such legis- lation to pass Congress in 20 years. Large-scale coopera- tion increased signifi cantly the political success of that bill on behalf of all children.

Every teacher can become an advocate. By working for children and children’s services, teachers advocate for themselves as well. By fi nding your voice and keeping fo- cused, you express your commitment and make change for children more likely to be successful.

“You have chosen to enter the nation’s most powerful profession. You will be the caretakers, educators, and teachers of your nation’s future: our children” (Edelman, 2000). Jonah Edelman, executive director of Stand for Children, leads a grassroots membership that advocates for children to become a higher priority in our public agencies and our lives. Established in 1996 by the Chil- dren’s Defense Fund, it challenges us to become eff ective advocates. How can you take these steps?

1. Make a personal commitment. 2. Keep informed.

Different Kinds of Child Advocacy

Personal advocacy: Sharing personal views and philosophies with others. Example: “Maria was concerned about the safety of the neighborhood playground. While pushing her toddler on the swing, she mentioned to the mother next to her that she was frustrated by the litter in the park including broken glass in the sandbox. The two women agreed to ask other parents and neighbors to come back the next day with trash bags and gloves to pick up litter while taking turns playing with the children” (Robinson & Stark, 2002).

Public policy advocacy: Infl uencing public policies and practices so that they are more responsive to children. Example: Frustrated with changes the state legislature was considering, the local child care planning council sent a letter to state legislators and the chair of the funding committee. They also attended a hearing to offer testimony about how the allocation of preschool funds would affect everyone.

Private-sector advocacy: Changing private policies to better support children, families, and teachers. Example: A group of teachers approached its local school board about the lack of technology in the schools. They talked to local businesses and the parents of the community, identifi ed a collaborative committee of all three groups, and began volunteering their expertise about children and learning. Within 2 years, the school had a list of needs and priorities, has received donations of time and technical assistance from parents, and received a grant for computers in the classrooms.

FIGURE 15-8 Early childhood advocacy takes many forms.

540 SECTION 5 How Do We Teach for Tomorrow?

How do adults become advocates to ensure a fulfi lling life for children in the 21st century?

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whole child, taking into consideration the body, the mind, and the heart and soul (see Chapter 1).

■ Purpose to engage in developmentally appropriate practices (DAP). Quality care and education calls for blending child development and learning the strengths, interests, and needs of each child, and the social and cultural contexts in which children live (see Chapter 2).

■ Commitment to ethical teaching and to child advocacy. Being a professional means behaving with a child’s best interests in mind, keeping confi dentiality when discussing issues in the classroom and about fami- lies, upholding a code of ethics, and taking them- selves and their work seriously (see Chapter 5 and Appendix A).

■ Participation in the work as a legitimate livelihood. Th e people who provide care and education to young chil- dren deserve wages and working conditions that are worthy of their eff orts (Chapters 5 and 15).

Ours is a profession that is constantly growing, branching out in many directions and ready to meet emerging challenges in fl exible, innovative ways. We have professional organizations to guide us. Th e National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) is the largest professional organization. ACEI (Association for Childhood Education International) includes both preschool and elementary school. Chil- dren’s Defense Fund (CDF) is a lobbying organization founded in 1973 by Marian Wright Edelman to advo- cate for children, particularly addressing the needs of poor and minority children and those with disabilities. All these eff orts have resulted in important improve- ments in the status of children, and they have begun to outline standards and practices for the people who call themselves early childhood professionals.

3. Know the process. 4. Express your views. 5. Let others know. 6. Be visible. 7. Show appreciation. 8. Watch the implementation. 9. Build rapport and trust. 10. Educate your legislators.

It seems sometimes as if our society has arranged its pri- orities to put making a living fi rst, making more money second, and raising children a distant third place. By get- ting involved, early childhood educators could help our societies make child-friendly choices, which help today’s children who will be tomorrow’s parents. Th e teacher who works to ensure high quality programs and services for children and their families also increases the likelihood of achieving the improved working conditions, professional opportunities, and public recognition that the fi eld of early childhood education so richly deserves. Every day, we open our doors to young children by the millions.

Is this profession a worthwhile one? Th e early years are a special time of life, and those who work with young children might refl ect on the following aspects of professionalism:

■ Sense of identity. Early childhood professionals see themselves as caregivers who strive to educate the

Which of the four themes of early childhood is most compelling to you? Which of the issues facing early childhood educators today

are most applicable to you and the community in which you live? What steps are being taken to address these issues and how successful are they? How can you make a difference today?

What Do

YOU Think?

Arguably, nothing—but nothing—in the fi eld of early care and education deserves more attention than the way in which we teach young children. Not only are early child- hood curriculum and early childhood pedagogy at the center of early childhood education, they are a key determinant of the enduring results young children will derive during and after their experiences in early care and education settings.

In speaking about how we teach for tomorrow, we must consider who the children of tomorrow will be. In a landmark volume, Children of 2010, Washington and Andrews (1998) clearly point out that tomorrow’s children are not the children of today. Yes, of course at the core, children are children from one century to the next; their development proceeds in fairly predictable ways, they are more dependent than adults, and they always have and always will need love to thrive. Beyond these fundamentals, however, children of the future will be diff erent in the aggregate and they will be diff erent from chil- dren who grew up but a few short years ago.

In the aggregate, American children of the future will be more diverse, with many more being of color. Th ey will come from families where, increasingly, the home language is not English. Many will come to early childhood programs having had no prior experience in the United States. Many will come from familial and community environments characterized by abuse, drugs, and violence.

Simultaneously, many young children will come from families where, for the fi rst time in generations, mothers are working out of the home. Others will come from homes where technology is readily available, if not a pervasive element of the environment. Still others will come from families where sub- stantial wealth has recently been amassed. All these children come to our doors, each with diff erent, unique needs that re- quire equally diff erent and unique approaches in order to co- here their talents into a collective, well-functioning citizenry.

Given this diversity, what and how should early childhood teachers teach? Fortunately, we have some strong guidance on these matters. First, regarding what should be taught: Th e National Education Goals Panel has codifi ed what children need to learn so that they will be ready to enter school. Th ese necessary learnings are divided into fi ve dimensions:

1. Physical and motor development. 2. Social and emotional development. 3. Approaches toward learning. 4. Language, literacy, and communication skills. 5. Cognition and general knowledge.

We know that learning in all fi ve of these areas is equally impor- tant and that no one area should take precedence over the oth- ers, although at certain times in the developmental trajectory, it is important to focus a bit more on one domain than another. A

rounded and high quality early childhood program must have exciting content that addresses each of these domains.

With regard to how young children should be taught, I sug- gest that if we simply understand how little children learn we will have the key to how they should be taught. For example, we know that little children cannot master abstract thinking until they have mastered concrete thinking. As a result, it is critical that all programs that serve young children (be they in muse- ums, libraries, family child care homes, or early childhood cen- ters) provide abundant opportunities for hands-on learning. It is true that little children learn by doing. It is also true that they are episodic learners; that is, they often learn something one day, only to “forget” it the next day. While they don’t actually forget, little children do store knowledge, often retrieving it at odd time frames and in nonlinear ways. Th is is why it is inappropriate to rely on test results taken at a single point in time; children’s learning is very variable. For the teachers, this means we must be keen and constant observers; we must be informants for parents who often worry unnecessarily about the natural fi ts and starts that characterize children’s development.

We also know that young children learn according to their own timetables, with some learning some facts quickly and needing more time to master other facts. Th is means that as we teach, we must provide opportunities for diff erent learning styles. We also know that children’s learning is reinforced by repetition. Th is is why, innately, little children love to repeat stories, songs, and experiences; they derive pleasure (as do adults) from that which is familiar. Finally, we know that little children are constant learners; that is, they pick up ideas, facts, and gestures from all that is around them. Th is is why we must remember that as teachers, above all, we are role models. While it is axiomatic to early childhood educators that chil- dren learn by doing, it is also important to remember that children learn a great deal by watching.

All of this means that the early educators’ task is enormous. Little children don’t miss a trick; they want to learn, and they do learn. Our job as educators and caring adults is to be sure that what they are learning is important and that how they learn matches their developmental capacities and predilections to learning.

References Washington, V., & Andrews, J. D. (Eds.). (1998). Children of

2010. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Sharon Lynn Kagan is the Virginia and Leonard Marx Professor of Early Child- hood and Family Policy at Teachers College, Columbia University, and a Professor Adjunct at Yale University’s Child Study Center. Author of over 100 articles and 12 books, Kagan’s research focuses on the institutions and poli- cies that impact child and family life. Kagan consults with numerous federal and state agencies, Congress, governors, and legislators; is a member of 40 national boards; and is past president of the National Association for the Education of Young Children and Family Support America.

How Do We Teach for Tomorrow? by Dr. Sharon L. Kagan

541CHAPTER 15 Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education

Insights from the fi eld

542 SECTION 5 How Do We Teach for Tomorrow?

SUMMARY How might we approach the future as we start this new century? By refl ecting on our past and looking closely at the present, we are reminded of several important factors that illuminate today’s issues:

1. Out of the past, we create a vision of the future. A backward glance along the timeline shows us that today we have a living, viable organism: a growing comprehensive vision of the fi eld of early childhood; a growing defi nition of what early childhood means; a growing collaboration of early childhood profes- sionals from all walks of life; a growing involvement in the education reform movement; a growing sys- tem of early childhood programs to serve the fami- lies of the 21st century; and a growing sense of our own eff ectiveness as advocates.

2. Th e ultimate goal seems timeless but bears frequent repetition. Our aim is to help all children learn so that they can live full and satisfying lives, to help them develop their talents and capabilities. What is our vision of the future for these children? Our vi- sion is that they are prepared for the challenges and responsibilities of adult life.

3. Today’s children are learning in a new century. Th e growing cultural diversity and global connectedness provides rich opportunities and new challenges from which to learn. Learning about the values and attributes of other cultures through meaningful and accurate experience becomes an imperative agenda for the children, families, and early childhood pro- fessionals of the 21st century.

KEY TERMS ethic of social reform importance of childhood transmission of values professionalism child abuse

child neglect accreditation social capital racist classist

sexist ethnocentric demographics attitude crystallization cultural pluralism

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. Using the four themes of early childhood education, list at least one of the pressing issues facing early childhood

educators today.

2. What is the relationship between the quality of a child care program and the cost?

3. What are the signs that indicate child abuse?

4. What are the four major fi ndings on research about viewing media violence and their implications for ECE teachers?

5. What standards apply to early childhood practice in regards to the “Mariner’s Star”?

LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Interview teachers from a child care center, nursery school, and kindergarten about their salary scales and health

benefi ts. How do they compare with one another? What conclusions can you draw from their information?

543CHAPTER 15 Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education

2. Interview teachers of a child care center, a nursery school, and a fi rst grade about the policies for reporting sus- pected child abuse in their settings. Do they know what to do if they suspect child abuse? Are they aware of the signs that indicate abuse?

3. In addressing social diversity in ECE programs, interview at least two professionals and then describe how you would address the following issues:

a. A group of children says “No boys (girls) allowed.”

b. Children in your center have several diff erent home languages, and the class is typically taught by English- dominant staff .

c. Th e board of your program has decided to fully include children with special needs this year.

4. How can you advocate for improving the working conditions for the early care and education workforce? Make a list of several concrete actions you can take in your community.

HELPFUL WEBSITES Adults and Children Together Against Violence http://www.ACTagainstviolence.org American Academy of Pediatrics http://www.aap.org American Red Cross http://www.redcross.org/disaster/masters/ Annie E. Casey Foundation/KidsCount http://www.aecf.org Center for the Child Care Workforce http://www.ccw.org/ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention http://www.cdc.gov Child Maltreatment http://www.acf.hhs.gov Child Statistics http://www.childtrends.org Child Welfare League of America http://www.cwla.org Children’s Defense Fund http://www.childrensdefensefund.org Common Sense Media http://www.commonsensemedia.org Coping with Disaster http://www.counselingforloss.com Developmental Assets http://www.search-institute.org Educators for Social Responsibility http://www.esrnational.org National Association for the Education of Young Children http://www.naeyc.org Child Welfare Information Gateway http://www.childwelfare.gov National Indian Child Welfare Association http://www.nicwa.org Prevent Child Abuse America http://www.childabuse.org Stand for Children http://www.stand.org U.S. Census Bureau http://www.census.gov U.S. Department of Education http://www.ed.gov U.S. Department of Health and Human Services http://www.dhhs.gov

Additional resources including the TeachSource Videos can be found on the premium website for this book. Go to http://www.cengage.com/login to register your access code.

544 SECTION 5 How Do We Teach for Tomorrow?

REFERENCES Ethic of Social Reform Child Care Bredekamp, S., & Copple, C. (Eds.). (1997). Develop-

mentally appropriate practice in early childhood pro- grams serving children from birth through age 8. Wash- ington, DC: NAEYC.

Children’s Defense Fund. (2008). Th e state of America’s Children. Washington, DC: Children’s Defense Fund.

Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (Eds.). (2009). Develop- mentally appropriate practice in early childhood pro- grams serving children from birth through age 8. Wash- ington, DC: NAEYC.

Costs, Quality and Child Outcomes Study Team. (1995). Cost, quality and child outcomes in child care centers, executive summary. Denver: Economics De- partment, University of Colorado at Denver.

Galinsky, E., Howe, C., Cantos, S., & Schinn, M. (1994). Th e study of children in family child care and relative care: Highlight of fi ndings. New York: Families and Work Institute.

Herzenberg, S., Price, M., & Bradley, D. (2005). Losing ground in early childhood education: Declining work- force qualifi cations in an expanding industry. Washing- ton, DC: Economic Policy Institute.

Kagan, S. L., & Neuman, M. J. (1997, September). Highlights of the Quality 2000 Initiative: Not by chance. Young Children: 54–62.

Peisner-Feinberg, E. S., Burchinal, M. R., Cliff ord, R. M., Culkin, M. L., Howes, C., Kagan, S. L., Yazejian, N., Byler, P., Rustici, J., & Zelazo, J. (1999). Th e children of the cost, quality and outcomes study go to school: Techni- cal report. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Car- olina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child De- velopment Center.

National Association of Child Care Resource and Re- ferral Agencies (NACCRRA). (2009). Child care in America: 2008 Fact Sheet. Retrieved from website www.naccrra.org in March 2009.

Th e Children’s Foundation. (2001). Family child care li- censing summary data. Bloomington, IL.

U.S. Census Bureau. (2008). School enrollment in the United States—Social and economic characteristics of students. Washington, DC.

Whitebook, M., Sakai, L., Gerber, E., & Howes, C. (2001). Th en and now: Changes in child care staffi ng, 1994-2000. Washington, DC: Center for the Child Care Workforce.

Education Reform Committee for Economic Development. (2005). Pre-

school for all. Executive Summary. Pittsburgh. National Association of State Boards of Education.

(1988). Right from the start. Alexandria, VA: Th e re- port of the NABE Task Force on Early Childhood Education.

Sorrentino, J. (2008, December 17). New secretary of education Arne Duncan: What it could mean for kids. Retrieved from www.Education.com.

U.S. Department of Education. (2001). Th e No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Executive Summary and Fact Sheet. Washington, DC: United States Depart- ment of Education.

Th e Importance of Childhood Childhood Stress Brazelton, T. B., & Greenspan, S. D. (2000, March). Th e

irreducible needs of children. Young Children, 6–13.

Child Abuse and Neglect Childhelp. (2009). Signs of child abuse, 2006. Retrieved

from website www.childhelp.org/resources, March, 2009.

Childhelp. (2009). Child abuse in America, 2006. Re- trieved from website www.childhelp.org/resources, March 2009.

Children’s Defense Fund. (2008). Th e state of America’s children. Washington, DC: Author.

National Association for the Education of Young Chil- dren. (1997, March). Position statement on the preven- tion of child abuse in early childhood programs and the responsibilities of early childhood professionals to pre- vent child abuse (42–46). Washington, DC: Author.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1998). Child sexual abuse prevention—Tips to par- ents. Washington, DC: Author.

Poverty Casey Foundation. (2006). Kids Count Data Book. Bal-

timore: Annie E. Casey Foundation. Center for Children and Families. (2000). “Growing Up

in Poverty” Project. New York: Teachers College, Co- lumbia University.

Children’s Defense Fund. (2008). Th e state of America’s children. Washington, DC: Author.

Family Support Children’s Defense Fund. (2002). Th e state of children in

America’s union. Washington, DC: Author.

545CHAPTER 15 Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education

DelCampo, D., & DelCampo, R. (2006). Taking sides: Clashing views in childhood and society (6th Ed). Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill. (See Issue 7: Does Di- vorce Create Long-Term Negative Eff ects for Chil- dren?)

Elkind, D. (1991, September). Th e family and educa- tion in the postmodern world. Momentum.

Wallerstein, J. (2002). Th e unexpected legacy of divorce. New York: Hyperion.

Transmitting Values Media Culture Carter, B. (1991, May 1). Children’s TV, where boys are

king. New York Times. Center for Media Literacy. (1993, August). Beyond

blame: Challenging violence in the media: Report from the American Psychological Association’s Commis- sion on Violence and Youth in America. Malibu, CA.

Common Sense Media and Department of Clinical Bioethics, National Institutes of Health. (2008, De- cember). Media + child and adolescent health: A sys- tematic review. www.commonsensemedia.org

DelCampo, D. S., & DelCampo, R. L. (2006). Taking sides: Clashing views in childhood and society (6th Ed). Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill. (See Issue 8: Is Televi- sion Violence Viewing Harmful for Children?)

Johnson, M. O. (1996, April). Television violence and its eff ect on children. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 11(2).

Levin, D. (1998). Remote control children? Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Minow, N. (1991, June 19). Worth noting: Address to commemorate 30th anniversary of his “vast waste- land” speech. Education Week.

National Association for the Education of Young Chil- dren. (1990). Media violence and children. Washing- ton, DC: Author.

Nielsen Media Research. (1989, 2008). Nielsen Report on Television. New York: Nielsen Media Research.

Violence and Disaster Adults and Children Together Against Violence

(ACT). (2002). Violence prevention for families of young children. Washington, DC: American Psycho- logical Association.

Carlsson-Paige, N., & Levin, D. (2005). Th e war play dilemma (2nd Ed). New York: Teachers College.

Greenman, J. (2001). What happened to the world? Help- ing children cope in turbulent times. Portland, OR:

Th e Dougy Center, National Center for Grieving Children and Families.

Social Diversity Bowman, B.T. (1991). Educating language-minority

children. ERIC Digest. University of Illinois. Child Care Law Center. (1994, November). Th e ADA:

A new way of thinking. (Personal communication from M. Cruz, San Francisco, CA, 2001-02).

Children’s Defense Fund. (2008). Th e state of America’s children. Washington, DC: Author.

Derman-Sparks, L., & the ABC Task Force. (1989). Anti-bias curriculum. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

Frankenberg, E., Lee, C., & Orfi eld, G. (2004). A multi- racial society with segregated schools; are we losing the dream? In S. Books, Poverty & schooling in the U.S. Cambridge, MA: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Hale, J. E. (1993). Culturally appropriate pedagogy and the African American child. In A. Gordon & K. W. Browne (Eds.), Beginnings and beyond (3rd Ed). Clif- ton Park, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

Hale, J. E. (2001). Learning while black: Creating educa- tional excellence for African American children. Balti- more, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Haycock, K. (1991, March). Reaching for the year 2000. Childhood Education.

Takanishi, R. (2006). Leveling the playing fi eld: Support- ing immigrant children from birth to 8. Th e future of children. Princeton, NJ: Brookings Institute.

Gender and Sexuality American Association of University Women. (1992).

How schools short change girls. Washington, DC: Author.

Corbett, S. (1993, March). A complicated bias. Young Children.

Friemann, B. B., O’Hara, H., & Settel, J. (1996, Fall). What heterosexual teachers need to know about ho- mosexuality. Childhood Education.

Grossman, H., & Grossman, S. H. (1994). Gender is- sues in education. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Maccoby, E., & Jacklin, C. N. (1985, April). Gender seg- regation in nursery school: Predictors and outcomes. Pa- per presented to the National Society for Research in Child Development. Toronto, Ontario.

Sadker, M.,& Sadker, D. (1994). Failing at fairness: How our schools cheat girls. New York: Simon& Schuster.

Schlank, C. H., & Metzger, B. (1997). Together and equal. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

546 SECTION 5 How Do We Teach for Tomorrow?

Professionalism Children’s Defense Fund. (2008). Th e state of America’s

children. Washington, DC: Author. Edelman, J. (2000). Take a stand for children. In A. Gor-

don & K. W. Browne (Eds.), Beginnings and beyond (5th Ed). Albany, NY: Th omson Delmar Learning.

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National Association for the Education of Young Chil- dren. (1999). Tools for teaching developmentally appro- priate practice—the leading edge in early childhood edu- cation [videos]. Washington, DC: Author.

National Association for the Education of Young Chil- dren. (2005). Accreditation criteria and procedures of the National Academy of Early Childhood Programs. Washington, DC: Author.

Robinson, A., & Stark, D. R. (2002). Advocates in ac- tion: Making a diff erence for young children. Washing- ton, DC: NAEYC.

Snow, C. W., Teleki, J. K., & Reguero-de-Atiles, J. T. (1996, September). Child care center licensing stan- dards in the United States: 1981 to 1995. Young Children, 36–41.

Preamble NAEYC recognizes that those who work with young children face many daily decisions that have moral and ethical implications. Th e NAEYC Code of Ethical Con- duct off ers guidelines for responsible behavior and sets forth a common basis for resolving the principal ethical dilemmas encountered in early childhood care and edu- cation. Th e Statement of Commitment is not part of the Code but is a personal acknowledgement of an individu- al’s willingness to embrace the distinctive values and moral obligations of the fi eld of early childhood care and education. Th e primary focus of the Code is on daily practice with children and their families in programs for children from birth through 8 years of age, such as in- fant/toddler programs, preschool and prekindergarten programs, child care centers, hospital and child life set- tings, family child care homes, kindergartens, and pri- mary classrooms. When the issues involve young chil- dren, then these provisions also apply to specialists who do not work directly with children, including program administrators, parent educators, early childhood adult educators, and offi cials with responsibility for program monitoring and licensing. (Note: See also the “Code of Ethical Conduct: Supplement for Early Childhood Adult Educators.”)

Core Values Standards of ethical behavior in early childhood care and education are based on commitment to the following core values that are deeply rooted in the history of the fi eld of early childhood care and education. We have made a commitment to ■ Appreciate childhood as a unique and valuable stage

of the human life cycle.

■ Base our work on knowledge of how children de- velop and learn.

■ Appreciate and support the bond between the child and family.

■ Recognize that children are best understood and supported in the context of family, culture,* com- munity, and society.

■ Respect the dignity, worth, and uniqueness of each individual (child, family member, and colleague).

■ Respect diversity in children, families, and colleagues.

■ Recognize that children and adults achieve their full potential in the context of relationships that are based on trust and respect.

Conceptual Framework Th e Code sets forth a framework of professional re- sponsibilities in four sections. Each section addresses an area of professional relationships: (1) with children, (2) with families, (3) among colleagues, and (4) with the community and society. Each section includes an introduction to the primary responsibilities of the early childhood practitioner in that context. Th e introduc- tion is followed by (1) a set of ideals that refl ect exem- plary professional practice and (2) a set of principles describing practices that are required, prohibited, or permitted.

Th e ideals refl ect the aspirations of practitioners. Th e principles guide conduct and assist practitioners in re- solving ethical dilemmas.† Both ideals and principles are

547

Appendix Code of Ethical Conduct and Statement of Commitment

A position statement of the National Association for the Education of Young Children

Revised April 2005

* Culture includes ethnicity, racial identity, economic level, family structure, language, and religious and political beliefs, which profoundly infl uence each child’s development and relationship to the world. † There is not necessarily a corresponding principle for each ideal.

548 Appendix

intended to direct practitioners to those questions which, when responsibly answered, can provide the basis for conscientious decision making. While the Code provides specifi c direction for addressing some ethical dilemmas, many others will require the practitioner to combine the guidance of the Code with professional judgment.

Th e ideals and principles in this Code present a shared framework of professional responsibility that af- fi rms our commitment to the core values of our fi eld. Th e Code publicly acknowledges the responsibilities that we in the fi eld have assumed and in so doing supports ethical behavior in our work. Practitioners who face situ- ations with ethical dimensions are urged to seek guid- ance in the applicable parts of this Code and in the spirit that informs the whole.

Often, “the right answer”—the best ethical course of action to take—is not obvious. Th ere may be no readily apparent, positive way to handle a situation. When one important value contradicts another, we face an ethical dilemma. When we face a dilemma, it is our professional responsibility to consult the Code and all relevant parties to fi nd the most ethical resolution.

Section I: Ethical Responsibilities to Children Childhood is a unique and valuable stage in the human life cycle. Our paramount responsibility is to provide care and education in settings that are safe, healthy, nurturing, and responsive for each child. We are com- mitted to supporting children’s development and learn- ing; respecting individual diff erences; and helping chil- dren learn to live, play, and work cooperatively. We are also committed to promoting children’s self-awareness, competence, self-worth, resiliency, and physical well-being.

Ideals I-1.1—To be familiar with the knowledge base of early

childhood care and education and to stay informed through continuing education and training.

I-1.2—To base program practices upon current knowl- edge and research in the fi eld of early childhood edu- cation, child development, and related disciplines, as well as on particular knowledge of each child.

I-1.3—To recognize and respect the unique qualities, abilities, and potential of each child.

I-1.4—To appreciate the vulnerability of children and their dependence on adults.

I-1.5—To create and maintain safe and healthy settings that foster children’s social, emotional, cognitive, and physical development and that respect their dignity and their contributions.

I-1.6—To use assessment instruments and strategies that are appropriate for the children to be assessed, that are used only for the purposes for which they were designed, and that have the potential to benefi t children.

I-1.7—To use assessment information to understand and support children’s development and learning, to support instruction, and to identify children who may need additional services.

I-1.8—To support the right of each child to play and learn in an inclusive environment that meets the needs of children with and without disabilities.

I-1.9—To advocate for and ensure that all children, in- cluding those with special needs, have access to the support services needed to be successful.

I-1.10—To ensure that each child’s culture, language, ethnicity, and family structure are recognized and valued in the program.

I-1.11—To provide all children with experiences in a language that they know, as well as support children in maintaining the use of their home language and in learning English.

I-1.12—To work with families to provide a safe and smooth transition as children and families move from one program to the next.

Principles P-1.1—Above all, we shall not harm children. We

shall not participate in practices that are emotion- ally damaging, physically harmful, disrespectful, degrading, dangerous, exploitative, or intimidat- ing to children. Th is principle has precedence over all others in this Code.

P-1.2—We shall care for and educate children in positive emotional and social environments that are cogni- tively stimulating and that support each child’s cul- ture, language, ethnicity, and family structure.

P-1.3—We shall not participate in practices that dis- criminate against children by denying benefi ts, giving special advantages, or excluding them from programs or activities on the basis of their sex, race, national origin, religious beliefs, medical condition, disability, or the marital status/family structure, sexual orienta- tion, or religious beliefs or other affi liations of their families. (Aspects of this principle do not apply in

549Appendix

programs that have a lawful mandate to provide ser- vices to a particular population of children.)

P-1.4—We shall involve all those with relevant knowl- edge (including families and staff ) in decisions con- cerning a child, as appropriate, ensuring confi dential- ity of sensitive information.

P-1.5—We shall use appropriate assessment systems, which include multiple sources of information, to provide information on children’s learning and development.

P-1.6—We shall strive to ensure that decisions such as those related to enrollment, retention, or assignment to special education services, will be based on multi- ple sources of information and will never be based on a single assessment, such as a test score or a single observation.

P-1.7—We shall strive to build individual relationships with each child; make individualized adaptations in teaching strategies, learning environments, and cur- ricula; and consult with the family so that each child benefi ts from the program. If after such eff orts have been exhausted, the current placement does not meet a child’s needs, or the child is seriously jeopardizing the ability of other children to benefi t from the pro- gram, we shall collaborate with the child’s family and appropriate specialists to determine the additional services needed and/or the placement option(s) most likely to ensure the child’s success. (Aspects of this principle may not apply in programs that have a law- ful mandate to provide services to a particular popu- lation of children.)

P-1.8—We shall be familiar with the risk factors for and symptoms of child abuse and neglect, including physical, sexual, verbal, and emotional abuse and physical, emotional, educational, and medical neglect. We shall know and follow state laws and community procedures that protect children against abuse and neglect.

P-1.9—When we have reasonable cause to suspect child abuse or neglect, we shall report it to the appropriate community agency and follow up to ensure that ap- propriate action has been taken. When appropriate, parents or guardians will be informed that the refer- ral will be or has been made.

P-1.10—When another person tells us of his or her suspicion that a child is being abused or neglected, we shall assist that person in taking appropriate ac- tion in order to protect the child.

P-1.11—When we become aware of a practice or situa- tion that endangers the health, safety, or well-being of children, we have an ethical responsibility to protect children or inform parents and/or others who can.

Section II: Ethical Responsibilities to Families Families* are of primary importance in children’s devel- opment. Because the family and the early childhood practitioner have a common interest in the child’s well- being, we acknowledge a primary responsibility to bring about communication, cooperation, and collaboration between the home and early childhood program in ways that enhance the child’s development.

Ideals I-2.1—To be familiar with the knowledge base related to

working eff ectively with families and to stay informed through continuing education and training.

I-2.2—To develop relationships of mutual trust and cre- ate partnerships with the families we serve.

I-2.3—To welcome all family members and encourage them to participate in the program.

I-2.4—To listen to families, acknowledge and build upon their strengths and competencies, and learn from families as we support them in their task of nurturing children.

I-2.5—To respect the dignity and preferences of each family and to make an eff ort to learn about its struc- ture, culture, language, customs, and beliefs.

I-2.6—To acknowledge families’ childrearing values and their right to make decisions for their children.

I-2.7—To share information about each child’s educa- tion and development with families and to help them understand and appreciate the current knowledge base of the early childhood profession.

I-2.8—To help family members enhance their under- standing of their children and support the continu- ing development of their skills as parents.

I-2.9—To participate in building support networks for families by providing them with opportunities to in- teract with program staff , other families, community resources, and professional services.

Principles P-2.1—We shall not deny family members access to their

child’s classroom or program setting unless access is denied by court order or other legal restriction.

* The term family may include those adults, besides parents, with the re- sponsibility of being involved in educating, nurturing, and advocating for the child.

550 Appendix

P-2.2—We shall inform families of program philosophy, policies, curriculum, assessment system, and person- nel qualifi cations, and explain why we teach as we do—which should be in accordance with our ethical responsibilities to children (see Section I).

P-2.3—We shall inform families of and, when appropri- ate, involve them in policy decisions.

P-2.4—We shall involve the family in signifi cant deci- sions aff ecting their child.

P-2.5—We shall make every eff ort to communicate ef- fectively with all families in a language that they un- derstand. We shall use community resources for translation and interpretation when we do not have suffi cient resources in our own programs.

P-2.6—As families share information with us about their children and families, we shall consider this in- formation to plan and implement the program.

P-2.7—We shall inform families about the nature and purpose of the program’s child assessments and how data about their child will be used.

P-2.8—We shall treat child assessment information con- fi dentially and share this information only when there is a legitimate need for it.

P-2.9—We shall inform the family of injuries and inci- dents involving their child, of risks such as exposures to communicable diseases that might result in infec- tion, and of occurrences that might result in emo- tional stress.

P-2.10—Families shall be fully informed of any pro- posed research projects involving their children and shall have the opportunity to give or withhold con- sent without penalty. We shall not permit or partici- pate in research that could in any way hinder the education, development, or well-being of children.

P-2.11—We shall not engage in or support exploitation of families. We shall not use our relationship with a family for private advantage or personal gain, or enter into relationships with family members that might impair our eff ectiveness working with their children.

P-2.12—We shall develop written policies for the pro- tection of confi dentiality and the disclosure of chil- dren’s records. Th ese policy documents shall be made available to all program personnel and families. Dis- closure of children’s records beyond family members, program personnel, and consultants having an obli- gation of confi dentiality shall require familial consent (except in cases of abuse or neglect).

P-2.13—We shall maintain confi dentiality and shall re- spect the family’s right to privacy, refraining from disclosure of confi dential information and intrusion into family life. However, when we have reason to believe that a child’s welfare is at risk, it is permissible

to share confi dential information with agencies, as well as with individuals who have legal responsibility for intervening in the child’s interest.

P-2.14—In cases where family members are in confl ict with one another, we shall work openly, sharing our observations of the child, to help all parties involved make informed decisions. We shall refrain from be- coming an advocate for one party.

P-2.15—We shall be familiar with and appropriately refer families to community resources and profes- sional support services. After a referral has been made, we shall follow up to ensure that services have been appropriately provided.

Section III: Ethical Responsibilities to Colleagues In a caring, cooperative workplace, human dignity is re- spected, professional satisfaction is promoted, and posi- tive relationships are developed and sustained. Based upon our core values, our primary responsibility to col- leagues is to establish and maintain settings and relation- ships that support productive work and meet profes- sional needs. Th e same ideals that apply to children also apply as we interact with adults in the workplace.

A. Responsibilities to Co-workers Ideals I-3A.1—To establish and maintain relationships of re-

spect, trust, confi dentiality, collaboration, and coop- eration with co-workers.

I-3A.2—To share resources with co-workers, collaborat- ing to ensure that the best possible early childhood care and education program is provided.

I-3A.3—To support co-workers in meeting their profes- sional needs and in their professional development.

I-3A.4—To accord co-workers due recognition of pro- fessional achievement.

Principles P-3A.1—We shall recognize the contributions of col-

leagues to our program and not participate in prac- tices that diminish their reputations or impair their eff ectiveness in working with children and families.

P-3A.2—When we have concerns about the professional behavior of a co-worker, we shall fi rst let that person

551Appendix

know of our concern in a way that shows respect for personal dignity and for the diversity to be found among staff members, and then attempt to resolve the matter collegially and in a confi dential manner.

P-3A.3—We shall exercise care in expressing views re- garding the personal attributes or professional con- duct of co-workers. Statements should be based on fi rsthand knowledge, not hearsay, and relevant to the interests of children and programs.

P-3A.4—We shall not participate in practices that dis- criminate against a co-worker because of sex, race, national origin, religious beliefs or other affi liations, age, marital status/family structure, disability, or sexual orientation.

B. Responsibilities to Employers Ideals I-3B.1—To assist the program in providing the highest

quality of service. I-3B.2—To do nothing that diminishes the reputation

of the program in which we work unless it is violating laws and regulations designed to protect children or is violating the provisions of this Code.

Principles P-3B.1 – We shall follow all program policies. When we

do not agree with program policies, we shall attempt to eff ect change through constructive action within the organization.

P-3B.2—We shall speak or act on behalf of an organiza- tion only when authorized. We shall take care to ac- knowledge when we are speaking for the organization and when we are expressing a personal judgment.

P-3B.3—We shall not violate laws or regulations de- signed to protect children and shall take appropriate action consistent with this Code when aware of such violations.

P-3B.4—If we have concerns about a colleague’s behav- ior, and children’s well-being is not at risk, we may address the concern with that individual. If children are at risk or the situation does not improve after it has been brought to the colleague’s attention, we shall report the colleague’s unethical or incompetent be- havior to an appropriate authority.

P-3B.5—When we have a concern about circumstances or conditions that impact the quality of care and edu- cation within the program, we shall inform the pro- gram’s administration or, when necessary, other ap- propriate authorities.

C. Responsibilities to Employees Ideals I-3C.1—To promote safe and healthy working condi-

tions and policies that foster mutual respect, coop- eration, collaboration, competence, well-being, confi - dentiality, and self esteem in staff members.

I-3C.2—To create and maintain a climate of trust and candor that will enable staff to speak and act in the best interests of children, families, and the fi eld of early childhood care and education.

I-3C.3—To strive to secure adequate and equitable com- pensation (salary and benefi ts) for those who work with or on behalf of young children.

I-3C.4—To encourage and support continual develop- ment of employees in becoming more skilled and knowledgeable practitioners.

Principles P-3C.1—In decisions concerning children and pro-

grams, we shall draw upon the education, training, experience, and expertise of staff members.

P-3C.2—We shall provide staff members with safe and supportive working conditions that honor confi - dences and permit them to carry out their responsi- bilities through fair performance evaluation, written grievance procedures, constructive feedback, and op- portunities for continuing professional development and advancement.

P-3C.3—We shall develop and maintain comprehensive written personnel policies that defi ne program stan- dards. Th ese policies shall be given to new staff mem- bers and shall be available and easily accessible for review by all staff members.

P-3C.4—We shall inform employees whose performance does not meet program expectations of areas of con- cern and, when possible, assist in improving their performance.

P-3C.5—We shall conduct employee dismissals for just cause, in accordance with all applicable laws and regulations. We shall inform employees who are dis- missed of the reasons for their termination. When a dismissal is for cause, justifi cation must be based on evidence of inadequate or inappropriate behavior that is accurately documented, current, and available for the employee to review.

P-3C.6—In making evaluations and recommendations, we shall make judgments based on fact and relevant to the interests of children and programs.

P-3C.7—We shall make hiring, retention, termination, and promotion decisions based solely on a person’s

552 Appendix

competence, record of accomplishment, ability to carry out the responsibilities of the position, and professional preparation specifi c to the developmen- tal levels of children in his/her care.

P-3C.8—We shall not make hiring, retention, termina- tion, and promotion decisions based on an individu- al’s sex, race, national origin, religious beliefs or other affi liations, age, marital status/family structure, dis- ability, or sexual orientation. We shall be familiar with and observe laws and regulations that pertain to employment discrimination. (Aspects of this princi- ple do not apply to programs that have a lawful man- date to determine eligibility based on one or more of the criteria identifi ed above.)

P-3C.9—We shall maintain confi dentiality in dealing with issues related to an employee’s job performance and shall respect an employee’s right to privacy re- garding personal issues.

Section IV: Ethical Responsibilities to Community and Society Early childhood programs operate within the context of their immediate community made up of families and other institutions concerned with children’s welfare. Our responsibilities to the community are to provide pro- grams that meet the diverse needs of families, to cooper- ate with agencies and professions that share the respon- sibility for children, to assist families in gaining access to those agencies and allied professionals, and to assist in the development of community programs that are needed but not currently available.

As individuals, we acknowledge our responsibility to provide the best possible programs of care and education for children and to conduct ourselves with honesty and integrity. Because of our specialized expertise in early childhood development and education and because the larger society shares responsibility for the welfare and protection of young children, we acknowledge a collec- tive obligation to advocate for the best interests of chil- dren within early childhood programs and in the larger community and to serve as a voice for young children everywhere.

Th e ideals and principles in this section are presented to distinguish between those that pertain to the work of the individual early childhood educator and those that more typically are collectively engaged on behalf of the

best interests of children—with the understanding that individual early childhood educators have a shared re- sponsibility for addressing the ideals and principles that are identifi ed as “collective.”

Ideal (Individual) 1-4.1—To provide the community with high-quality

early childhood care and education programs and services.

Ideals (Collective) I-4.2—To promote cooperation among professionals

and agencies and interdisciplinary collaboration among professions concerned with addressing issues in the health, education, and well-being of young children, their families, and their early childhood educators.

I-4.3—To work through education, research, and advo- cacy toward an environmentally safe world in which all children receive health care, food, and shelter; are nurtured; and live free from violence in their home and their communities.

I-4.4—To work through education, research, and advo- cacy toward a society in which all young children have access to high-quality early care and education programs.

I-4.5—To work to ensure that appropriate assessment systems, which include multiple sources of informa- tion, are used for purposes that benefi t children.

I-4.6—To promote knowledge and understanding of young children and their needs. To work toward greater societal acknowledgment of children’s rights and greater social acceptance of responsibility for the well-being of all children.

I-4.7—To support policies and laws that promote the well-being of children and families, and to work to change those that impair their well-being. To partici- pate in developing policies and laws that are needed, and to cooperate with other individuals and groups in these eff orts.

I-4.8—To further the professional development of the fi eld of early childhood care and education and to strengthen its commitment to realizing its core val- ues as refl ected in this Code.

Principles (Individual) P-4.1—We shall communicate openly and truthfully about

the nature and extent of services that we provide.

553Appendix

P-4.2—We shall apply for, accept, and work in positions for which we are personally well-suited and profes- sionally qualifi ed. We shall not off er services that we do not have the competence, qualifi cations, or re- sources to provide.

P-4.3—We shall carefully check references and shall not hire or recommend for employment any person whose competence, qualifi cations, or character makes him or her unsuited for the position.

P-4.4—We shall be objective and accurate in reporting the knowledge upon which we base our program practices.

P-4.5—We shall be knowledgeable about the appropri- ate use of assessment strategies and instruments and interpret results accurately to families.

P-4.6—We shall be familiar with laws and regulations that serve to protect the children in our programs and be vigilant in ensuring that these laws and regu- lations are followed.

P-4.7—When we become aware of a practice or situation that endangers the health, safety, or well-being of children, we have an ethical responsibility to protect children or inform parents and/or others who can.

P-4.8—We shall not participate in practices that are in violation of laws and regulations that protect the children in our programs.

P-4.9—When we have evidence that an early childhood program is violating laws or regulations protecting chil- dren, we shall report the violation to appropriate au- thorities who can be expected to remedy the situation.

P-4.10—When a program violates or requires its em- ployees to violate this Code, it is permissible, after fair assessment of the evidence, to disclose the iden- tity of that program.

Principles (Collective) P-4.11—When policies are enacted for purposes that do

not benefi t children, we have a collective responsibil- ity to work to change these practices.

P-4.12—When we have evidence that an agency that provides services intended to ensure children’s well- being is failing to meet its obligations, we acknowl- edge a collective ethical responsibility to report the problem to appropriate authorities or to the public. We shall be vigilant in our follow-up until the situa- tion is resolved.

P-4.13—When a child protection agency fails to provide adequate protection for abused or neglected children, we acknowledge a collective ethical responsibility to work toward the improvement of these services.

Statement of Commitment * As an individual who works with young children, I com- mit myself to furthering the values of early childhood education as they are refl ected in the ideals and princi- ples of the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct. To the best of my ability I will

■ Never harm children. ■ Ensure that programs for young children are based

on current knowledge and research of child develop- ment and early childhood education.

■ Respect and support families in their task of nur- turing children.

■ Respect colleagues in early childhood care and edu- cation and support them in maintaining the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct.

■ Serve as an advocate for children, their families, and their teachers in community and society.

■ Stay informed of and maintain high standards of professional conduct.

■ Engage in an ongoing process of self-refl ection, real- izing that personal characteristics, biases, and beliefs have an impact on children and families.

■ Be open to new ideas and be willing to learn from the suggestions of others.

■ Continue to learn, grow, and contribute as a professional.

■ Honor the ideals and principles of the NAEYC Code of Ethical Conduct.

Reprinted by permission of the National Association for the Education of Young Children. Copyright ©2008. National Association for the Education of Young Children.

* This Statement of Commitment is not part of the Code but is a personal acknowledgement of the individual’s willingness to embrace the distinctive values and moral obligations of the fi eld of early childhood care and edu- cation. It is recognition of the moral obligations that lead to an individual becoming part of the profession.

Accommodation. A concept in Piaget’s cog- nitive theory as one of two processes peo- ple use to learn and incorporate new in- formation; the person adjusts what is already known to “accommodate” new learning. Children usually will change their way of thinking into a “schema” once they see that their usual ways do not take new information into account; they then will add new thought patterns to handle the new knowledge.

Accountability. Th e quality or state of being answerable to someone or of being re- sponsible for explaining exact conditions; schools often must give specifi c account of their actions to a funding agency to assure the group that the funds and operation of the school are being handled properly.

Accreditation. A system of voluntary evalu- ation for early childhood centers. Th e goal is to improve the quality of care and edu- cation provided for young children. Ac- creditation is administered by the Na- tional Academy, a branch of the National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Active Listening. A child guidance tech- nique of refl ecting back to the speaker what the listener thinks has been said.

Activity Centers. Similar to learning centers and interest areas; areas in a classroom or yard that are designed and arranged for various activities to take place. An early childhood setting will off er several centers, or stations, that are based on both chil- dren’s interests and what the staff hopes for them to learn in class.

Advocate. One who maintains, defends, or pleads the cause of another; in early child- hood terms, an advocate is someone who furthers the principles and issues of the fi eld by speaking to others about such issues.

Aesthetics. Sensitivity to what is beautiful; the study of beauty.

Aff ective. Of, caused by, or expressing emo- tion or feeling; emotional.

After-School Care. Programs designed to care for children after the regular aca- demic school day.

Age-Level Characteristics. Th ose features of children’s development and behavior that are most common among a given age group.

Alignment. Th e act of matching the subject matter of the curriculum with the desired outcomes that the learning standards require.

Anti-bias. A phrase describing the develop- ment of curriculum that emphasizes an inclusive look at people and problems, ex- tending the tenets of multicultural educa- tion and pluralism.

Articulation. Th e manner in which sounds and words are actually spoken.

Asperger’s Syndrome. A developmental disorder linked to autism and character- ized by a lack of social skills, poor concen- tration, self-absorption, and limited interests.

Assessment. An evaluation or determina- tion of importance, disposition, or state of something or someone, such as in evaluat- ing a child’s skills, a teacher’s eff ectiveness, or a classroom environment.

Assimilation. A concept in Piaget’s cognitive theory as one of two processes people use to learn and incorporate new information; the person takes new information and puts it together with what is already known in order to “assimilate” the new in- formation intellectually, such as when a toddler shakes a toy magnet fi rst, as with all other toys, in order to get to know this new object. Children usually fi rst try to put new experiences into the “schema,” or categories, they already know and use.

Atelierista. A person trained in the arts who acts as a resource and teaches techniques and skills to children in the schools of Reggio Emilia, Italy.

Attachment/Attachment Behaviors. Th e relational bond that connects a child to another important person; feelings and behaviors of devotion or positive connection.

Attention-Defi cit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). A condition aff ecting children and adults, making them prone to restless-

554

Glossary

ness, anxiety, short attention spans, and impulsiveness.

Attitude Crystallization. To assume a defi - nite, concrete form in one’s attitudes; re- fers to the formation of a fi rm set of atti- tudes and behaviors about others’ race, ethnicity, gender, and ability that may be prejudicial and diffi cult to change.

Auditory Learners. Th ose who prefer to lis- ten to others and discuss what they learn.

Authentic Assessment. Th e quantitative and qualitative study of a child’s work, ac- tivity, and interactions that focuses on the whole child within the context of family, school, and community. Such assessment occurs in a child’s natural settings in which the child is performing real tasks. Viewed as a process rather than an end, authentic assessment includes collecting and organizing information over time, from multiple sources, and using a variety of methods.

Autonomy. Th e state of being able to exist and operate independently, of being self- suffi cient rather than dependent on others.

Baseline. A picture of the status of a child, teacher, or environment that serves as the basis for evaluation and later comparison.

Basic Emotions. Th ose emotions that are present and observable in the newborn or within the fi rst few months of life; they include happiness, interest, surprise, dis- gust, distress, fear, anger, and sadness.

Basic Needs. Conditions, described by Abraham Maslow and other humanists, that are necessary for growth; these needs, such as physiologic conditions and safety and security, are critical for a person’s survival.

Behavior Model. A guidance and behavior technique based on the adult’s actions and behavior as an example to follow.

Behaviorist Th eory. A psychological theory developed in the United States in the 20th century, which states that all important as- pects of behavior and people are learned and can be modifi ed or changed by vary- ing external conditions.

555Glossary

Bias. A tendency that prevents an unpreju- diced consideration of a question, person, or action; a prejudice or favoritism that can aff ect one’s thinking or behavior.

Bicognitive Development. A term coined by Ramirez and Casteneda (see Chapter 4) to describe a set of experiences and en- vironments that promote children’s ability to use more than one mode of thinking or linguistic system. Each of us grows up with a preferred cognitive style, such as global or analytic, fi eld dependent or fi eld independent, seeing the parts vs. seeing the whole, as well as a linguistic style. For true cultural democracy to take place, we need to develop a fl exibility to switch learning styles or cognitive modes (i.e., de- velop bicognitive abilities) and have an awareness of and respect for diff ering cog- nitive styles.

Bilingualism. Th e acquisition of two lan- guages during the fi rst years of life; using or being able to use two languages.

Biracial. Having parents of two diff erent races.

Brainstorming. Th e process of thinking that involves bringing up as many ideas as pos- sible about a subject, person, event, etc.

Building Block Years. Th e phrase refers to the foundation years of early childhood; namely, the fi rst eight years of life in which the basic skills of life and future learning is set, such as locomotor skills of walking and manipulating, cognitive skills of lan- guage/ literacy and thinking, and aff ective skills of social interaction, personal iden- tity, and self-expression.

Charter School. A public school operated independently of the local school board, often with a curriculum and educational philosophy diff erent from the other schools in the system.

Checklist. A modifi ed child study technique that uses a list of items for comparison, such as a “yes/no” checklist for the demon- stration of a task.

Child Abuse. Violence in the form of physi- cal maltreatment, abusive language, and sexual harassment or misuse of children.

Child Care Center. A place for care of chil- dren for a large portion of their waking day; includes basic caretaking activities of eating, dressing, resting, toileting, as well as playing and learning time.

Child-Centered Approach. Th e manner of establishing educational experiences that takes into consideration children’s ways of perceiving and learning; manner of orga- nizing a classroom, schedule, and teaching methods with an eye toward the child’s viewpoint.

Child Neglect. Th e act or situation of par- ents’ or other adults’ inattention to a child’s basic health needs of adequate food, clothing, shelter, and health care; child neglect may also include not noticing

a child or not paying enough attention in general.

Classical Conditioning. Th e most common and basic category of learning in behavior- ist theory, involving an association be- tween a stimulus and a response so that a refl ex response (eye-blinking, salivating, etc.) occurs whenever a neutral and new stimulus is activated (a bell for a light, food, etc.); conditioned-response experi- ments conforming to the pattern of Pav- lov’s experiment, sometimes known as “stimulus substitution.”

Classifi cation. Th e ability to group like ob- jects in sets by a specifi c characteristic.

Classist. A biased or discriminating attitude based on distinctions made between social or economic classes.

Clinical Method. An information-gathering technique, derived from therapy and coun- seling fi elds, in which the adult observes and then interacts with the client (in this case, children) by asking questions and posing ideas to the person or group being observed.

Coacting. A situation in which the partici- pants simply act together in a spontaneous way; a goal is not required, as in coopera- tion, and may be one-on-one rather than in groups; a necessary prerequisite to co- operation is the ability to engage in coactivity.

Cognition. Th e act or process of knowing, thinking, and perceiving. Cognition in- volves perceptual, intellectual, and emo- tional skills that begin as a child makes connections among objects and people and later extends to formulating mental representations.

Cognitive Th eory. Th e psychological theory developed by Jean Piaget and others; the theory focuses on thought processes and how they change with age and experience; this point of view contrasts with the stim- ulus-response aspects of behaviorist theory.

Competency-Based Assessment. Evalua- tion in which a teacher is judged or rated in comparison with a predetermined set of skills, or competencies, related to the job.

Complex Emotions. Th ose emotions that emerge in the child after infancy; these in- clude shame, guilt, envy, and pride.

Comprehensive. Inclusive, covering com- pletely, such as a program for children that concerns itself with the physical, intellec- tual, social, emotional, creative, and health needs of the children.

Concrete. Concerning the immediate expe- rience of actual things or events; specifi c and particular rather than general or symbolic.

Connected Knowledge. Th at kind of knowledge and information that is con- nected to the child in ways that are real and relevant to that individual; also

known as meaningful knowledge in Piage- tian terms, it is elaborated by Gilligan (see Chapter 4) and others.

Constructivism. A theory of learning, devel- oped from the principles of children’s thinking by Piaget and implemented in programs as those in Reggio Emilia, Italy, which states that individuals learn through adaptation. Th e “constructivist” model of learning posits that children are not passive receptacles into which knowl- edge is poured but rather are active at making meaning, testing out theories, and trying to make sense of the world and themselves. Knowledge is subjective as each person creates personal meaning out of experiences and integrates new ideas into existing knowledge structures.

Continuing Education. Th e commitment of teachers to learning new approaches and ideas and to continuing to challenge them- selves to higher levels of learning and competence.

Continuum. Something that is continuous; an uninterrupted, ordered sequence.

Convergent Th inking. Th inking that brings together information focussed on solving a problem (especially solving problems that have a single correct solution).

Core Values. Th e basic purposes or issues a professional group acknowledges as com- mon concerns to all its members.

Cortisol. Hormone released when the brain perceives a threat or stress.

Cultural Pluralism. A state or society in which members of diverse ethnic, racial, or cultural groups maintain participation in and development of their traditional cul- ture within the common society.

Culturally Appropriate Curriculum. Cur- riculum that helps children understand the way individual histories, families of or- igins, and ethnic family cultures make us similar to and yet diff erent from others.

Curriculum. A framework in which teachers defi ne the content, the process, and the context for what is being taught and what children will learn.

Custodial. Th ose tasks relating to guardian- ship of a child’s basic needs for food, clothing, and shelter; they include provid- ing for eating, dressing, toileting, resting, and appropriate protection from physical hardships such as weather, danger, etc.

Daily Schedule. A plan or procedure that outlines the sequence and time periods for a children’s day in a program.

Decoding. Converting from code into ordi- nary language; in terms of language devel- opment, decoding is the process of making sense out of printed letters or words.

Demographics. Th e statistical graphics of a population, especially showing average age, income, etc.

Dendrites. Branches of brain cells that reach out to make connections with other cells.

556 Glossary

Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP). Th at which is suitable or fi tting to the development of the child; refers to those teaching practices that are based on the observation and responsiveness to children as learners with developing abili- ties who diff er from one another by rate of growth and individual diff erences, rather than of diff ering amounts of abilities. It also refers to learning experiences that are relevant to and respectful of the social and cultural aspects of the children and their families.

Dialect. A variation of a language, suffi - ciently diff erent from the original to be- come a separate entity but not diff erent enough to be considered as a separate language.

Diary Descriptions. A form of observation technique that involves making a compre- hensive narrative record of behavior, in di- ary form.

Disability. A measurable impairment or in- capacity that may be moderate to severe. Th e Individuals with Disabilities Act de- fi nes 13 categories that identify specifi c limitations or challenges, such as hearing, speech, visual, or orthopedic impairments. Individuals who are classifi ed with one or more impairments may be eligible for early intervention and special education classes.

Discipline. Ability to follow an example or to follow rules; the development of self- control or control in general, such as by imposing order on a group. In early child- hood terms, discipline means everything adults do and say to infl uence children’s behavior.

Discrimination. To make a distinction in or between, such as being able to note or dis- tinguish as diff erent two or more objects, processes, persons, or actions.

Divergent Th inking. Th e processes of thought and perception that involve taking a line of thought or action diff erent from what is the norm or common; fi nding ideas that branch out rather than converge and center on one answer.

Documentation. Keeping written records of events, progress, correspondence, etc.

Down Syndrome. A genetic abnormality that results in mongolism, one of the most common and easily identifi ed forms of mental retardation.

Dramatic Play. Also known as imaginative play, this is a common form of spontane- ous play in which children use their imagi- nation and fantasy as part of the setting and activity.

Dual Language Learners. Young children who are learning a second language while still acquiring their fi rst.

Dynamic. Having energy or eff ective action; a basic skill is one with consequences that

will motivate the child, aff ecting develop- ment or stability.

Early Childhood Education. Education in the early years of life; the fi eld of study that deals mainly with the learning and experiences of children from infancy through the primary years (up to approxi- mately eight years of age).

Early Learning Standards. Statements that describe expectations for the learning and development of young children across the domains of: health and physical well-be- ing; social and emotional well-being; ap- proaches to learning; language develop- ment and symbol systems; and general knowledge about the world around them (CCSSO, 2005).

Ebonics. Term used to describe “black Eng- lish” and the center of a controversy in the late 1990s over whether such language is a dialect of standard English or a separate language altogether.

Eclectic. Choosing what appears to be best in various doctrines, methods, styles; com- prising elements drawn from various sources.

Educaring. A concept of teaching as both educating and care giving; coined by Magda Gerber in referring to people working with infants and toddlers.

Egocentric. Self-centered; regarding the self as the center of all things; in Piaget’s the- ory, young children think using themselves as the center of the universe or as the en- tire universe.

Elaboration. Th e act of expanding language; developing language by building complex structures from simple ones and adding details.

Emergent Curriculum. A process for cur- riculum planning that draws on teachers’ observations and children’s interests. Plans emerge from daily life interests and issues. Th is approach takes advantage of chil- dren’s spontaneity and teachers’ planning.

Emergent/Early Literacy. Th e process of building upon prereading skills in a child- centered fashion, so that the ability to read evolves from children’s direct experiences.

Emergent Writing. Th e early skills that help children learn to write, such as scrib- bling and invented spelling.

Emotional Framework. Th e basic “feeling” structure of a classroom that determines the tone and underlying sensibilities that aff ect how people feel and behave while in class.

Emotional Intelligence. An understanding of how to feel, interpret, and express emotions.

Employer-Sponsored Child Care. Child care supported in some way by the par- ents’ employers. Support may be fi nancial (as an employee benefi t or subsidy) or physical (off ering on-site care).

Entry Level. Th e level of development or behavior that a child shows on beginning a program or group experience; usually an observation-based informal assessment af- ter the fi rst few weeks of school.

Environment. All those conditions that af- fect children’s surroundings and the peo- ple in them; the physical, interpersonal, and temporal aspects of an early child- hood setting.

Environmental Adaptation. Forces that are not innate or hereditary aspects of devel- opment; in early childhood terms, envi- ronmental aspects of growth are all those infl uences of physical conditions, interper- sonal relationships, and world experiences that interact with a person to change the way he or she behaves, feels, and lives.

Equilibration. To balance equally; in Piag- et’s theory, the thinking process by which a person “makes sense” and puts into bal- ance new information with what is already known.

Ethic of Social Reform. Th e quality of pro- grams and services needed for children under eight and the education reforms that provide it.

Ethics. A theory or system of oral principles and standards; what is “right and wrong”; one’s values; the principles of conduct gov- erning both an individual teacher and the teaching profession.

Ethnocentric. Having one’s race as a central interest, or regarding one’s race or cultural group as superior to others.

Evaluation. A study to determine or set sig- nifi cance or quality.

Event Sampling. An observation technique that involves defi ning the event to be ob- served and coding the event to record what is important to remember about it.

Exceptionalities. Th e preferred expression for the term disabilities, which are mea- surable impairments or incapacities that may be moderate to severe.

Experimental Procedure. An observation technique that gathers information by es- tablishing a hypothesis, controlling the variables that might infl uence behavior, and testing the hypothesis.

Expressive Language. Th ose aspects of lan- guage development and skill that deal with expression: pronunciation, vocabu- lary, and grammar, as well as speaking and articulation.

Extended Discourse. Denoting written or spoken communication that goes on for longer than most; in the case of language development, this is meant to be a conver- sation between child and adult that serves to extend the child’s expressive language skills.

Extrinsic. Originating from or on the out- side; external, not derived from one’s es- sential nature.

557Glossary

Faith-Based Programs. Th ose programs that teach the religious dogma of the sponsoring organization.

Family Child Care. Care for children in a small, homelike setting; usually six or fewer children in a family residence.

Feedback Loop. In terms of evaluation, feedback loop is used to describe the pro- cess whereby an evaluator gives informa- tion to a teacher, who in turn uses this in- formation to improve teaching skills.

Fine Motor. Having to do with the smaller muscles of the body and the extremities, such as those in the fi ngers, toes, and face.

Flexibility. Capable of modifi cation or change; willing or easily moved from one idea to another.

Fluency. Th e ability to produce many ideas; an easy and ready fl ow of ideas.

Formal Assesments. Evaluation instru- ments that are administered in a conven- tional, “test-like” atmosphere that have standardized measures and have statistics that are compared to data on other chil- dren and are usually described as stan- dards or percentiles. Th ey may or may not be developed commercially.

Four “I”s. Th e four components (I, Initia- tive, Independence, and Interaction) of early childhood curriculum for building self-esteem.

Frames of Mind. A theory of intelligence developed by Gardner that refers to intel- ligence as a host of diff erent skills and abilities.

Full Inclusion. Providing the “least restric- tive environment” for children with physi- cal limitations.

Gender Diff erences. A distinction of char- acteristics, behaviors, or attitudes typically associated as being either male or female such that the diff erences are attributed with the sex that a person identifi es with.

Gender Identity. Th e characteristics deter- mining who or what a person is; in this case, those social and cultural diff erences around being male and female.

Gender Role. Th e function or part played by a person according to the social and cultural expectations of being male and female.

Genes. Th e biological elements that trans- mit hereditary characteristics.

Gifted and Talented Children. Children who have unusually high intelligence, as characterized by: learning to read sponta- neously; being able to solve problems and communicate at a level far advanced from their chronological age; excellent memory; extensive vocabulary; and unusual ap- proaches to ideas, tasks, people.

Gross Motor. Having to do with the entire body or the large muscles of the body, such as the legs, arms, and trunk.

Group Times. Th ose parts of the program in which the whole class or group is to-

gether during one activity, such as music, movement, fi ngerplays, or stories.

Growth Needs. Conditions, as described by Abraham Maslow and other humanists, that are important to a person’s well-be- ing; these needs, such as love and belong- ing, self-esteem and respect for others, playfulness, truth, beauty, etc., while not critical to a person’s survival, are necessary for growth.

Guidance. Th e ongoing system by which adults help children learn to express and manage their feelings, solve their prob- lems, and learn the diff erence between ac- ceptable and unacceptable behavior.

Holistic. A viewpoint that takes into ac- count several conceptions of a child or sit- uation to form a wider, more rounded de- scription; in early childhood terms, this view includes a child’s history, present sta- tus, relationships with others, and the in- terrelationships of development to arrive at a picture of the child; in medicine, this view includes dealing with a person’s men- tal and emotional state, relationships, etc., as well as body signs.

Humanist Th eory. Th e psychological theory of Abraham Maslow and others; it in- volves principles of motivation and well- ness, centering on people’s needs, goals, and successes.

Hypothesis. A tentative theory or assump- tion made to draw inferences or test con- clusions; an interpretation of a practical situation that is then taken as the ground for action.

Identity Crisis. A period of uncertainty or confusion in which a person’s sense of self becomes insecure.

IEP. An individualized education plan is a process of planning for the education of children with special needs that involves joint eff orts of specialists, teachers, and parents.

Imaginary Companions. Also known as imaginary friends, these are pretend char- acters often created by children.

Importance of Childhood. Children’s health and welfare and the changes in family life.

Inclusion. When a child with a disability is a full-time member of a regular classroom with children who are developing nor- mally as well as with children with special needs.

Inclusive Curriculum. Th ose aspects of a program that refl ect awareness of and sen- sitivity to a person’s culture, home lan- guage, religion, gender, and abilities.

Independent. Not controlled or infl uenced by others; thinking for oneself and autonomous.

Individualized Curriculum. A course of study developed and tailored to meet the needs and interests of an individual, rather than those of a group without regard for the individual child.

Inductive Guidance. A guidance process in which children are held accountable for their actions and are called on to think about the impact of their behavior on oth- ers. Reasoning and problem-solving skills are stressed.

Inference. A conclusion reached by reason- ing from evidence or after gathering infor- mation, whether direct or indirect.

Initiative. An introductory step; in early childhood terms, the energy, capacity, and will to begin taking action.

Inquiry. A questioning process that is a seeking or request for information, knowl- edge, or truth.

Integrated Curriculum. A set of courses designed to form a whole; coordination of the various areas of study, making for con- tinuous and harmonious learning.

Integrated Day. A school schedule with no prescribed time periods for subject matter, but rather an environment organized around various interest centers among which children choose in organizing their own learning experiences.

Intelligence. Th e cluster of capabilities that involves thinking (see Chapter 13 for details.)

Interaction. Acting on one another, as in the interplay or reciprocal eff ect of one child upon another.

Interdependence. Dependence on one an- other, as in the relationship between teachers’ experience in the areas of disci- pline and their competence at knowing and using appropriate language for discipline.

Interest Areas. Similar to learning centers and activity areas; one way to design phys- ical space in a classroom or yard, dividing the space into separate centers among which children move about, rather than assigning them desks.

Interpersonal. Relating to, or involving rela- tionships with, other people; those parts of the environment that have to do with the people in a school setting.

Interracial. Relating to, involving, or repre- senting diff erent races.

Intervention. Entering into a situation be- tween two or more persons or between a person and an object; to interpose oneself into another’s aff airs, such as when teach- ers enter into children’s interactions when their behavior calls for some action on the part of an adult.

Intrinsic. Belonging to the essential nature of or originating from within a person or body, such as intrinsic motivation, whereby one needs no external reward in order to do something.

Intuition. Th e direct perception of a fact or truth without any reasoning process; im- mediate insight.

Invented Spelling. Children’s fi rst attempts at spelling words the way they sound to

558 Glossary

them, based on their current knowledge of letters and sounds. Far from “correct” (“scnd” for second, “grrn” for green, or “relly” for really), invented spelling be- comes more conventional over time.

Job Burnout. Exhaustion and stress from one’s job, characterized by a wearing down of body and attitude.

Kindergarten (Children’s Garden). A school or class for children four to six years old; in the United States, kindergar- ten is either the fi rst year of formal, public school or the year of schooling before fi rst grade.

Kindergartners. (1) A modern term to de- scribe the children who are attending kin- dergarten programs; (2) a term used in 19th-century America to describe early childhood practitioners who worked in kindergartens patterned after Froebelian models.

Laboratory Schools. Educational settings whose purposes include experimental study; schools for testing and analysis of educational and/or psychological theory and practice, with an opportunity for experimentation, observation, and practice.

Learning Centers. Similar to interest areas and activity areas; hubs or areas in a class- room designed to promote learning; the classroom is arranged in discrete areas for activity, and children move from one area to another rather than stay at an assigned desk or seat.

Learning Styles. A child’s preferred method of integrating knowledge and experiences.

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE). Un- der the Individuals with Disabilities Edu- cation Act (IDEA), a child with identifi ed special needs is entitled to a placement into an environment that is most like that of other children in which the child can succeed; this refers to the physical location of the child’s learning and how the child will be taught, so the preference is that the child be included in regular education ac- tivities as much as possible.

Licensing. Th e process of fulfi lling legal re- quirements, standards and regulations for operating child care facilities.

Limits. Th e boundaries of acceptable behav- ior beyond which actions are considered misbehavior and unacceptable conduct; the absolute controls an adult puts on children’s behavior.

Linchpin. Something that serves to hold to- gether the elements of a situation.

Log/Journal. A form of observation tech- nique that involves making a page of notes about children’s behavior in a cumulative journal.

Logical Mathematical Knowledge. One of three types of knowledge in Piagetian the- ory; the component of intelligence that uses thinking derived from logic.

Looping. Th e practice of keeping a teacher and a group of children in a class together for two or more years.

Magnet Schools. A public school off ering a specialized curriculum, often with high ac- ademic standards, to a student body rep- resenting a cross-section of the community.

Mainstreaming. Th e process of integrating handicapped children into classrooms with the nonhandicapped.

Maturation. Th e process of growth whereby a body matures regardless of, and rela- tively independent of, intervention such as exercise, experience, or environment.

Maturation Th eory. A set of ideas based on the notion that the sequence of behavior and the emergence of personal characteris- tics develop more through predetermined growth processes than through learning and interaction with the environment; the theory of growth and development pro- posed and supported by Dr. Arnold Gesell and associates.

Meaningful Knowledge. Th e form of know- ing that is learned within the context of what is already known; that knowledge that has meaning because it has particular signifi cance of value to an individual.

Methode Clinique. A kind of information- gathering technique, fi rst used extensively by Jean Piaget, that involves observing children and asking questions as the situa- tion unfolds. Th e purpose of this tech- nique is to elicit information about how children are thinking as they behave naturally.

Misbehavior. Improper behavior or conduct.

Mixed-Age Groups. Th e practice of placing children of several levels, generally one year apart, into the same classroom. Also referred to as family grouping, heteroge- neous grouping, multiage grouping, verti- cal grouping, and ungraded classes.

Modeling. A part of behavior theory, model- ing is a way of learning social behavior that involves observing a model (either real, fi lmed, or animated) and mimicking its behavior, thus acquiring new behavior.

Multiple Intelligences. A theory of intelli- gence, proposed by Howard Gardner, that outlines several diff erent kinds of intelli- gence, rather than the notion of intelli- gence as measured by standardized test- ing, such as the IQ (see Frames of Mind).

Multiracial. Having ancestors of several or various races.

Myelination. Th e forming of the myelin sheath, the material in the membrane of certain cells in the brain; the development of the myelination of the brain seems to parallel Piagetian stages of cognitive development.

Narratives. A major observation technique that involves attempting to record nearly

everything that happens, in as much detail as possible, as it happens. Narratives in- clude several subtypes such as baby biog- raphies, specimen descriptions, diary de- scriptions, and logs or journals.

Naturalistic Assessments. Methods of ap- praisal or child evaluations done in the usual natural surroundings.

Nature/Nurture Controversy. Th e argu- ment regarding human development that centers around two opposing viewpoints; nature refers to the belief that it is a per- son’s genetic, inherent character that de- termines development; nurture applies to the notion that it is the sum total of expe- riences and the environment that deter- mine development.

Negative Reinforcement. Response to a be- havior that decreases the likelihood that the behavior will recur; for instance, a teacher’s glare might stop a child from whispering at group time, and from then on, the anticipation of such an angry look could reinforce not whispering in the future.

Norm. An average or general standard of development or achievement, usually de- rived from the average or median of a large group; a pattern or trait taken to be typical of the behavior, skills, or interests of a group.

Norm-Referenced Tests. Standardized tests that compare the child’s performance to a large sample of similar children (the norm sample) that represents the general population. Th ere are strict procedures to be followed when administering the test.

Objectivity. Th e quality or state of being able to see what is real and realistic, as dis- tinguished from subjective and personal opinion or bias.

Observational Learning. Any acquired skills or knowledge having to do with in- teracting with others; in Bandura’s Social Learning theory, observational learning occurs when children watch other people directly or in fi lm, etc., and imitate what they have seen in the model.

Open-ended. Activities or statements that allow a variety of responses, as opposed to those that allow only one response; any- thing organized to allow for variation.

Open School. A style of education, devel- oped in progressive American schools and in the British infant schools, that is orga- nized to encourage freedom of choice and that does not use predetermined roles and structure as the basis of education; an ed- ucational setting whose ultimate goal and base for curriculum is the development of the individual child, rather than of pro- grammed academic experiences.

Operant Conditioning. A category of learn- ing in behavior theory that involves a rela- tion between a stimulus and a response. Th e response is learned, rather than

559Glossary

refl exive, and is gradually and carefully de- veloped through reinforcement of the de- sired behavior as it occurs in response to the stimulus; behavior leading to a reward.

Organic Reading. A system of learning to read, popularized by Sylvia Ashton-War- ner, that lets children build their own vo- cabulary with the words they choose.

Parent Cooperative Schools. An educa- tional setting organized by parents for their young children, often with parental control and/or support in the operation of the program itself.

Pedagogista. A person trained in early childhood education who meets weekly with the teachers in the schools of Reggio Emilia, Italy.

Pediatrician. A medical specialist in pediat- rics, the branch of medicine dealing with children, their development, care, and diseases.

Peer Interactions. Associations with people of the same age group or with those one considers equals.

Perceptual-Motor Development. Th e growth of a person’s ability to move (mo- tor) and perceive (perceptual) together; perceptual-motor activity involves the body and the mind together, to co-ordi- nate movement.

Performance-Based Assessment. Evalua- tion based on observable, specifi c informa- tion on what a teacher actually does (per- formance while on the job).

Philosophy. Concepts expressing one’s fun- damental beliefs; in early childhood edu- cational terms, the beliefs, ideas, and atti- tudes of our profession.

Phobia. A strong, exaggerated, and illogical fear of an object or class of things, people, etc.; one of several reactions children often have to divorce.

Phonemes. Language sounds; the smallest units of meaningful speech; two examples of phonemes are /a/ (as in hat) and /p/ (as in sip).

Phonemic Awareness. Having knowledge or perception of the distinct units of sounds that distinguish one word from another; in English this would include buh [b], puh [p], and sss [s], among others.

Physical Environment. Having to do with equipment and material, room arrange- ment, the outdoor space, and facilities available.

Physical Knowledge. One of three types of knowledge in Piagetian theory; that knowledge that is learned through exter- nal, sensory experiences.

Portfolio. An intentional compilation of materials and resources, collected over a period of time that provides evidence for others to review.

Portfolio-based Assessment. An evaluation of a teacher’s work using materials, jour-

nals, and other resources compiled over a period of time.

Positive Reinforcement. A response to a be- havior that increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated or increased; for instance, if a child gets attention and praise for crawling, it is likely that the crawling will increase—thus, the attention and praise were positive reinforcers for crawling.

Positive Stress. Refers to an amount of strain or tension that encourages a person to be active and challenged rather than overwhelmed or discouraged.

Precedent. Something done or said that serves as an example or rule to authorize or justify other acts of the same or similar kind; an earlier occurrence of something similar.

Precursor. What precedes and indicates the approach of another; predecessor or forerunner.

Prejudices. Ideas and attitudes that are al- ready formed about other people, situa- tions, ideas, etc., before hearing or experi- encing full or suffi cient information; in teaching terms, those attitudes or biases that may be based less on mature thought and reasoning than on incomplete or non- existent personal experiences.

Prepared Environment. Th e physical and interpersonal surroundings of an educa- tional setting that are planned and ar- ranged in advance with the group of chil- dren in mind.

Prerequisite. Something necessary or essen- tial to carrying out an objective or per- forming an activity; when early childhood teachers determine what skills children will need in order to successfully engage in an activity, they are clarifying the prerequi- sites for that activity.

Private (Inner) Speech. Th e language chil- dren use for self-guidance and self- direction, as well as for helping them think about their behavior and plan for action; once known as “egocentric speech,” it is used for self-regulation.

Professional. One engaged and participating in a profession and accepting the technical and ethical standards of that profession; in early childhood terms, one who has accu- mulated methods, course work, and teach- ing experience with young children along with attitudes of competency, fl exibility, and continual learning.

Professional Confi dentiality. Spoken, writ- ten, or acted on in strict privacy, such as keeping the names of children or schools in confi dence when discussing observations.

Professional Organizations. Th ose associa- tions developed for the purpose of extend- ing knowledge and teaching/learning op- portunities in the fi eld of education.

Professional Standards. Th e level of re- quirement, excellence, or attainment man-

dated by a professional group, organiza- tion, or association for its membership.

Professionalism. Th e competence or skill expected of a professional; in early child- hood education, this includes a sense of identity, purpose to engage in develop- mentally appropriate practices, a commit- ment to ethical teaching and to child ad- vocacy, and participation in the work as a legitimate livelihood.

Project Approach. An in-depth study of a particular subject or theme by one or more children. Exploration of themes and topics over a period of days or weeks. Working in small groups, children are able to accommodate various levels of complex- ity and understanding to meet the needs of all the children working on the project.

Prosocial. Behaviors that are considered positive and social in nature, such as shar- ing, inviting, including, and off ering help or friendship.

Psychodynamic Th eory. Th e psychological theory of Dr. Sigmund Freud and others; it asserts that the individual develops a ba- sic personality core in childhood and that responses stem from personality organiza- tion and emotional problems as a result of environmental experiences.

Psychosocial. Th ose psychological issues that deal with how people relate to others and the problems that arise on a social level; a modifi cation by Erikson of the psychodynamic theories of Freud with at- tention to social and environmental prob- lems of life.

Psychosocial Domain: Th e area of develop- ment that includes the development of emotions, temperament, social skills, cre- ativity, and spiritual development.

Punishment. Th e act of infl icting a penalty for an off ense or behavior.

Racist. Attitudes, behavior, or policies that imply either a hatred or intolerance of other race(s) or involving the idea that one’s own race is superior and has the right to rule or dominate others.

Rating Scale. A modifi ed child study tech- nique similar to a checklist that classifi es behavior according to grade or rank, such as using the descriptors “always, some- times, never” to describe the frequency of a certain behavior.

Readiness. Th e condition of being ready, such as being in the state or stage of devel- opment so that the child has the capacity to understand, be taught, or engage in a particular activity.

Receptive Language. Th ose aspects of lan- guage development and skill that deal with the ability to receive messages: listen- ing, understanding, and responding.

Reciprocal. Th e stage of children’s friend- ship in which friendship is given or felt by each toward the other; a kind of give-and- take or two-way relationship, this is the

560 Glossary

stage most often seen in the latter part of the early childhood years.

Reinforcement. A procedure, such as re- ward or punishment, that changes a re- sponse to a stimulus; the act of encourag- ing a behavior to increase in frequency.

Reinforcers. Rewards in response to a spe- cifi c behavior, thus increasing the likeli- hood that behavior will recur; reinforcers may be either social (praise) or nonsocial (food) in nature and may or may not be deliberately controlled.

Rote Knowledge. A form of knowing that is learned by routine or habit and without thought of the meaning.

Roughhousing. Rough and disorderly, but playful, behavior.

Routines. Regular procedures; habitual, re- peated or regular parts of the school day; in early childhood programs, routines are those parts of the program schedule that remain constant, such as indoor time fol- lowed by cleanup and snack, regardless of what activities are being off ered within those time slots.

Running Record. Th e narrative form of re- cording behavior; this kind of descriptive record of one’s observations involves writ- ing down all behavior as it occurs.

Scaff olding. A useful structure to support a child in learning. A child who gets advice or hints to help master an activity is said to have scaff olding learning, a term Vy- gotsky used.

Schema. A plan, scheme, or framework that helps make an organizational pattern from which to operate; in Piaget’s theory, cogni- tive schemas are used for thinking.

Screening. Evaluations to determine a child’s readiness for a particular class, grade, or experience.

Self-Actualization. Th e set of principles set forth by Abraham Maslow for a person’s wellness or ability to be the most that a person can be; the state of being that re- sults from having met all the basic and growth needs.

Self-Awareness. An awareness of one’s own personality or individuality; in teaching terms, an ability to understand one’s self and assess personal strengths and weaknesses.

Self-Care. A current description for latch- key children (see Latchkey Children).

Self-Concept. A person’s view and opinion of self; in young children, the concept of self develops as they interact with the en- vironment (objects, people, etc.); self-con- cept can be inferred in how children carry themselves, approach situations, use ex- pressive materials such as art, etc.

Self-Correcting. Materials or experiences that are built or arranged so that the per- son using them can act automatically to correct errors, without needing another person to check or point out mistakes.

Self-Effi cacy. Th e feelings or thoughts about how competent a person perceives him/herself to be.

Self-Esteem. Th e value we place on our- selves; how much we like or dislike who we are; self-respect.

Self-Help. Th e act of helping or providing for oneself without dependence on others; in early childhood terms, activities that a child can do alone, without adult assistance.

Self-Regulation. Th e term used to describe a child’s capacity to plan and guide the self. A disposition or part of the personal- ity (rather than a skill or behavior such as self-control), self-regulation is a way of monitoring one’s own activity fl exibly over changing circumstances.

Sensorimotor. Relating to or functioning in both sensory and motor aspects of body activity.

Sensory. Having to do with the senses or sensation, as in an awareness of the world as it looks, sounds, feels, smells, tastes.

Separation Process. Th e act and procedure that occur when parents leave a child at school.

Seriation. Th e process of sequencing from beginning to end or in a particular series or succession.

Sex Diff erences. Th e biological diff erences between males and females.

Sex-Role Stereotyping. A standardized mental picture or set of attitudes that rep- resents an oversimplifi ed opinion of peo- ple’s abilities or behavior according to their sex; overgeneralizing a person’s skills or behavior on the basis of an inequitable standard of sex diff erences.

Sexist. Attitudes or behavior based on the traditional stereotype of sexual roles that includes a devaluation or discrimination based on a person’s sex.

Shadow Study. A modifi ed child study technique that profi les an individual at a given moment in time; similar to diary de- scription, the shadow study is a narrative recorded as the behavior happens.

Simultaneous/Successive Acquisition. Th e two major ways second-language learning occurs. Simultaneous acquisition happens if a child is exposed to two languages from birth. Successive acquisition occurs as a child with one language begins to learn another language.

Social Action. Individual or group behavior that involves interaction with other indi- viduals or groups, especially organized ac- tion toward social reform.

Social Capital. Th e richness and resources that social relationships provide for a child.

Social Cognition. Th e application of think- ing to personal and social behavior; giving meaning to social experience.

Social Competence. Th e ability to success- fully deal with social interactions and

problems; the skills and personal knowl- edge to deal with others.

Social Knowledge. One of three types of knowledge in Piagetian theory; that knowledge that is learned about and from people, such as family and ethnic culture, group behavior, social mores, etc.

Social Learning Th eory. A psychological theory developed in the 20th century by Albert Bandura of Stanford University, which states that learning often takes place by observing and modeling others.

Social Mores. Standards of conduct and be- havior that are determined by society, as opposed to those established by family or personal preference.

Social Referencing. Th e process used to gauge one’s own response to a situation by relying on another person’s emotional re- action, such as a child who looks to a teacher after falling down before crying or getting up.

Social Reform. Th e ethic of social reform is a major theme in early childhood educa- tion and history, and refers to the idea that schooling for young children will lead to social change and improvement.

Social Skills. Strategies children learn to en- able them to respond appropriately in many environments.

Socialization. Th e process of learning the skills, appropriate behaviors, and expecta- tions of being part of a group, particularly society at large.

Sociocentric. Oriented toward or focused on one’s social group rather than on oneself.

Sociocultural. Aspects of theory or develop- ment that refer to the social and cultural issues; key descriptor of Vygotsky’s theory of development.

Sociodramatic Play. At least two children participating in dramatic play or play that involves two basic elements; imitation and make-believe.

Software. Th e programs used to direct the operation of a computer, as opposed to the physical device on which they are run (known as “hardware”).

Spatial. Having to do with the nature of space, as in the awareness of the space around a person’s body.

Special-Needs Children. Children whose development and/or behavior require help or intervention beyond the scope of the ordinary classroom or adult interactions.

Specimen Description. A form of narrative observations technique that involves tak- ing on-the-spot notes about a child (the “specimen”) to describe behavior.

Spontaneous Play. Th e unplanned, self-se- lected activity in which a child freely participates.

Standardized Testing. Formal assessment techniques whose results have been tabu- lated for many children and thus have

561Glossary

predetermined standards, or norms, for evaluating the child being tested.

Standards. Th e degree or level of require- ment, excellence, or attainment, mandated by local or national government agencies that describe the learning outcomes for various age groups.

Stimulus–Response. Th e kind of psycho- logical learning, fi rst characterized in be- havior theory, that makes a connection be- tween a response and a stimulus; that is, the kind of learning that takes place when pairing something that rouses or incites an activity with the activity itself in such a way that the stimulus (such as a bell) will trigger a response (such as salivating).

Stress. Th e physical and emotional reactions and behaviors that come from having to cope with diffi cult situations beyond one’s capabilities.

Superhero. Th ose characters who embody a higher nature and powers beyond ordi- nary human abilities, such as Superman, Wonder Woman, etc.

Support System A network of people who support each other in their work and advancement.

Tabula Rasa. A mind not aff ected yet by ex- periences, sensations, and the like. In John Locke’s theory, a child was born with this “clean slate” upon which all experiences were written.

Tactile. Perceptible or able to be learned through the sense of touch.

Tactile Learners. Th ose who are full, active- body learners and learn by hands-on activities.

Teaching Objectives. A set of goals teachers set for themselves as they plan activities for children; these goals remind teachers what they will do to help children learn.

Team Teaching. Group-based manner of teaching, where a group composed of peo- ple with varying skills, experience, and training teach jointly.

Temporal. Having to do with time and time sequence; in the early childhood setting, refers to scheduling and how time is se- quenced and spent, both at home and in school.

Th eory. A group of general principles, ideas, or proposed explanations for explaining some kind of phenomenon; in this case, child development.

Time Sampling. A form of observational technique that involves observing certain

behavior and settings within a prescribed time frame.

Traditional Nursery School. Th e core of early childhood educational theory and practice; program designed for children aged two-and-a-half to fi ve years of age, which may be a part- or an all-day program.

Transactional Model. A model of educa- tion that describes the interaction of an individual with one or more persons, espe- cially as infl uenced by their assumed roles. Th is model implies that the role of parent, child, or teacher has an eff ect on what and how information is taught and learned.

Transcurricular. Able to be used or applied in a variety of situations or activities.

Transformative Curriculum. Th e process of viewing events and situations from di- verse perspective to gain new insights and ways of thinking in order to create more culturally appropriate curriculum.

Transitions. Changes from one state or ac- tivity to another; in early childhood terms, transitions are those times of change in the daily schedule (whether planned or not), such as from being with a parent to being alone in school, from playing with one toy to choosing another, from being outside to being inside, etc.

Transmission Model. A model of education describing the transference of information directly from one person to another, such as in the sense of passing on knowledge directly from teacher to child.

Transmitting Values. A major theme in early childhood education and history, helping children learn and accept basic values of the family and community has been one of the reasons for education for centuries.

Trauma. A deeply distressing or disturbing experience.

Unconscious. Not conscious, without awareness, occurring below the level of conscious thought.

Undiff erentiate Th e stage of children’s friendships in which children do not dis- tinguish between “friend” and “person I’m playing with,” considered the fi rst stage, usually from infancy into the preschool years.

Unilateral. Th e stage of children’s friend- ships in which children think of friend- ship as involving one side only; that is, a one-way situation in that a “friend” is “someone who does what I want him to

do,” usually spanning the preschool years and into early primary.

Universal Infection Control Precautions. Th ese are procedures to be followed by all teaching staff who are caring for an in- jured or ill child who might be harboring a highly contagious, dangerous pathogen that is transmitted in blood, blood prod- ucts, and other body fl uids. Universal pre- cautions were described in directives and guidelines issued by the CDC in the late 1980s.

Vertical Groupings. See Mixed-Age Groups.

Visual Learners. Th ose who prefer to lean through pictures, photos, charts, and graphs and represent their learning through reading, writing, and drawing.

Webbing. A process through which teachers create a diagram based on a topic or theme. It is a planning tool for curriculum and includes as many resources as teachers can name.

Whole Language. Th e area of graphic lan- guage development that refers to a partic- ular way in which language, particularly reading and writing, is learned; whole lan- guage refers to that movement within pri- mary education that emphasizes an inte- grated and literary-based approach rather than a phonics, decoding-skills approach.

Word Pictures. Descriptions of children that depict, in words, norms of develop- ment; in this text, these are age-level charts that describe common behaviors and characteristics, particularly those that have implications for teaching children (in groups, for curriculum planning, with dis- cipline and guidance).

Working Portfolio. A type of child portfo- lio that is used and added onto regularly, documenting a child’s skills and behavior over time. Rather than one that collects only a child’s exemplary work or every- thing a child has done, this type of portfo- lio attempts to capture key documentation to demonstrate a child’s growth.

Zone of Proximal Development. Th e term in Vygotskys sociocultural theory that de- fi nes which children can learn. Interper- sonal and dynamic, the zone refers to the area a child can master (skill, information, etc.) with the assistance of another skilled person; below that, children can learn on their own; above the limit are areas be- yond the child’s capacity to learn, even with help.

A ABC Bill of 1990, 526 Academic redshirting, 58 Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture,

286–287 Accommodations, 198 Accountability, of childhood programs, 65 Accreditation, 170, 178 Active listening, 251, 256 Active observation, 249 Active problem solving, 253–254 Activity centers, 346–347 Adaptive processes of assimilation and accommo-

dation, 117–118 Administration, 66 Adult space, 306 Adults and Children Together (ACT), 529 Advocacy, 166

for children, 539–540 types of, 539

Aesthetics, 495 Affi liations, professional, 165 African Americans, 7

children’s enslavement, 16–17 ebonics and, 428–429 “educational malpractice” for, 532 equality for, 23–24 laboratory kindergarten for, 17

Age-level characteristics, 78–87 Aggression, role of, 115 Aggressive and disruptive behaviors, 256, 258

media violence and, 527–528 Alignment, curriculum, 60 Americans with Disabilities Act (P.L. 101-336)

(ADA), 94, 534 Anti-bias approach, 173 Anti-bias environments, 289–291 Art, 504–507

aesthetics, 495 drawing, 358

Asperger syndrome (AS), 93 Assessment, 26

authentic, 197 baseline for, 213–215 concerns about, 227–228 entry-level, 213–214 ethnicity and cultural diversity, 131 family communication and, 220–221 formal, 222–223 for guidance and information, 217–218 health assessment and school policies, 298–299 to monitor progress, 215–217 naturalistic, 222 observation and, 193, 197 performance-based assessment, 182–183 to plan curriculum, 219–220 program accountability and quality, 221

reasons for, 212–221 types of, 221–223 use of, 228

Assimilation, 117–118 Associative play, 134–135 Atelierista, 365 Attachment, 57, 132–134, 141 Attention-Defi cit/Hyperactivity Disorder

(ADHD), 92–93 Attention-Defi cit/Hyperactivity Disorder (com-

bined type) (ADHD-C), 92 Attention-Defi cit/Hyperactivity Disorder (pre-

dominately hyperactive-impulsive) (ADHD-HI), 92

Attention-Defi cit/Hyperactivity Disorder (pre- dominately inattentive type) (ADHD-I), 92

Attitude crystallization, 531–532 Audiovisuals, 452 Auditory environment, 288, 294 Auditory learner, 89, 342 Authentic assessment, 197 Authoritarian parents, 269–270 Automobile safety, 301

B Baker, Katherine Read, 21, 47 Balance role, 109 Bandura, Albert, 113, 138, 144, 148 Bank Street: Developmental-Interaction Model,

363–364 Baseline, for assessment, 213–215 Basic emotions, 463 Basic needs, defi ciency needs v., 129–130 Beginning teachers, 184–185 Behavior, 78, 202

active listening, 251, 256 active observation, 249 active problem solving, 253–254 aggressive and disruptive, 256, 258, 527–528 model, teacher as, 248 challenging, 256–258 choices, giving, 251–252, 256 classroom checklist on, 239 cultural factors, 241–242 culturally appropriate guidance, 246–247 developmental factors, 238 developmentally appropriate guidance, 246 discipline, 244 distraction, 251 emotional and social factors in, 242–243 environmental factors and, 238 factors that aff ect, 237–242 feelings and, 463–466 guidance, process of, 243–244 guidance and discipline for, 244 guidance strategies for, 242, 250–255

562

Subject Index

“I” messages and, 250 ignoring, 250, 256 implications for teaching, 248–249 individual factors, 238–240 inductive guidance, 243–244 interactive approach, 245 interdependence, 247 intervention, physical, 255 language of guidance and discipline, 247–248 natural and logical consequences, 254–255 observation infl uences on, 199–200 preventing misbehavior, 249 punishment, 244–245 realistic expectations of, 248 redirecting activity, 251, 256 reinforcement, positive and negative, 113–115,

251, 256 self-discipline, toward, 244, 246 setting limits, 252–253 stress and, 466–467 tantrums, 258 theories of, 237 time out, 255

Behavior model, teacher as, 248 Behaviorist theory

aggression, role of, 115 application to work with children, 116, 145 Bandura, Albert, 113 classical conditioning, 114 development of, 112–113 observational learning, 115 operant conditioning, 114–115 Pavlov, Ivan, 113 reinforcement, 113–115 reinforcer, positive, 114 Skinner, B. F., 113 socialization, 113 stimulus-response technique, 113 Th orndike, Edward L., 113, 144 Watson, John B., 113

Bias anti-bias approach, 173 anti-bias environments, 289–291 equal play and gender issues and, 535–536 observation, 194–196, 210 special needs children and, 97 television and, 528

Bicognitive development, 124 Biglan, Barbara, 186 Bilingual education, 425–429, 532–533 Bilingual immersion method, 533 Bilingualism, 425–428

school-age children and, 533 Bill of Rights for the Handicapped, 93–94 Bipolar disorder, 92 Biracial children, 98–99

563Subject Index

Blow, Susan, 19 Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, 127, 339–340,

342, 377–378 Body language, 247 Books

with illustrations, 10 selection of, 447–448

Brain classroom application and, 142–143 environmental eff ects on, 285 learning and, 141–143, 285 maturation of, 118 physical growth/motor development, 374 stress and, 142

Brain-based research, 140–143, 398–401 Brainstorming, 357 Brazelton, T. Berry, 8, 26–27, 526 Bronfenbrenner, Urie, 125–126 Brook Farm, 21 Bullying, 480 Burnout, teacher, 173–174 Butler School, 7

C Caldwell, Louise, 322–323 Campus child care centers, 52–53 Career matrix, 161–162 Carolina Abecedarian Project, 62–63 CDA, 9 Center for Media Literacy, 527–528 Center for the Child Care Workforce, 518 Centers for Disease Control, 297–298 Change

ability to handle, 466–467 of childhood, 520–521, 541 families and, 267, 269, 515 of issues and times, 515–520 teacher’s role and, 33–35, 186

Charlesworth, Rosalind, 148–149 Charter schools, 262 Checklist

multicultural environment checklist, 288 observation, 205–207, 210 for program evaluation areas, 66–67 for understanding behavior, 239

Child abuse signs of, 522 solutions for, 522–523 teacher’s role in, 523

Child care, 8, 9, 23, 516 cost and quality of, 63, 517–518 national crisis of, 518–519 school-age, 60

Child care centers, 50 campus child care centers, 52–53 daily schedule, 48 defi nition of, 47 licensing, 48 staffi ng, 48–49

Child development attachment, 57, 132–134, 141 behaviorist theories of, 112–116 cognitive theories of, 116–122, 145 ecological theories of, 125–126 ethnicity and cultural diversity, 131–132 humanistic theories of, 129–130 maturation theories of, 128 multiple intelligences theories of, 97, 126–128,

338–342, 397–398 psychoanalytic theories of, 108–109 psychodynamic theories of, 108–112 psychosocial theories of, 109–112 sociocultural theories of, 122–125

Child neglect signs of, 522 solutions for, 522–523 teacher’s role in, 523

Child Study Movement, 28, 51–52 Child-centered approach, 20 Childhood

change of, 520–521, 541 importance of, 31–32, 520–527

Children of mixed heritage, 98–99 Children’s Defense Fund (CDF), 30, 516, 524 Choices, giving, 251–252, 256 Class diff erences, 534–535 Classical conditioning, 114 Classifi cation, 401–404 Classroom, 142–143

behavior checklist for, 239 classroom activity centers, 346–347 computers in, 413–416 inclusive, for special needs children, 94–96,

534 management of, 168

Clinical method, for observation, 208–210 Clothing, 299 Coacting environment, 484 Cognition, 395 Cognitive development, 345

bicognitive development, 124 brain-based research, 140–143, 398–401 classifi cation, 401–404, 406 classroom computers and, 413–416 curriculum planning, 407–413 defi nition of, 395–396 development of, 79, 80–87, 396–400 eight-year-olds, 87 fi ve-year-olds, 85 four-year-old, 84 Gardner’s multiple intelligence, 97, 126–128,

338–342, 397–398 infant, 80 inquiry, skills of, 400, 404, 406 language and, 395–396 logical mathematical knowledge, 396 meaningful knowledge, 397 numbers, concept of, 402–403 physical world, knowledge of, 401, 404 Piagetian perspective, 117–119, 396–397 (See

also Piaget) rote knowledge, 396–397 seriation, 402, 404 six- and seven-year-olds, 86 social knowledge, 396, 406 social world, knowledge of, 401, 404 spatial relationships, 403, 404, 406 symbols’ use in, 403, 404 teacher’s role in, 405–413 three-year-olds, 83 time, understanding, 404, 406 toddler, 81 transcurricular skill, 400 two-year-olds, 82 Vygotsky sociocultural theory, 123–125, 397

(See also Vygotsky) Cognitive theory

accommodation, 117–118 adaptive processes of assimilation and accom-

modation, 117–118 applying cognitive theory to work with children,

120–122, 145 assimilation, 117–118 brain maturation, 118 constructivist theory, 120 criticisms of Piaget’s theory, 118 equilibration, 117–118 myelination, 118 Piaget, Jean Jacques, 116–119, 138, 139, 144,

148–149, 202, 396–397 Piaget’s Th eory of Cognitive Development,

117–119 purpose, 117 schemas, 117

stages, 117, 119 teacher’s role in, 121–122 transmission model of teaching, 120

Collectivism, individualism v., 148 Comenius, Johann Amos, 7, 10 Committee of Nineteen, 7 Common Sense Media, 527 Communicable disease, 297–298 Communication/language disorders, 432 Competition, 390 Complex emotions, 463 Computers in classrooms, 413–416 Conditions for learning, 146 Conduct disorder (CD), 92 Confl ict resolution, 480–482, 485, 488, 490–492,

508 Connected knowledge, 197–198 Consortium for Longitudinal Studies, 51 Construct theory, 196–197 Constructivism, 120 Constructivist theory, 117 Continuing education, 164 Convergent thinking, 494 Cooperation, 491–492 Cooperative play, 134–135 Cortisol, 141 Costs, Quality and Child Outcomes Study Team

(1995), 63, 517 Creative development, 79, 345

art and, 504–507 dramatic play in, 135–136, 434, 451, 487 drawing, 358 eight-year-olds, 87 fi ve-year-olds, 85 four-year-old, 84 infant, 80 six- and seven-year-olds, 86 three-year-olds, 83 toddler, 81 two-year-olds, 82

Creative growth curriculum planning, 498–502 development of, 493–495 divergent thinking, 494 experience, role of, 496–497 fl exibility and fl uency, 495 imagination/originality, use of, 496 music and movement experiences, 499–500 self as a resource, using, 496 sensitivity, 495 teacher’s role in, 497–502 willingness to take risks/elaboration, 496

Cultural awareness identity development and, 79, 80–87 sensitivity and, 183 word pictures in, 79

Cultural diff erence model, 51 Cultural disadvantage model, 51 Cultural factors, in understanding behavior,

241–242 Cultural identity development

eight-year-olds, 87 fi ve-year-olds, 85 four-year-old, 84 infant, 80 six- and seven-year-olds, 86 three-year-olds, 83 toddler, 81 two-year-olds, 82

Cultural pluralism, 532 Cultural responsiveness, 67 Cultural sensitivity, 98–99, 183, 431 Culturally appropriate curriculum, 332, 334,

349–350 Curriculum, 5

activity centers, 346–347 alignment, 60

564 Subject Index

Curriculum (continued) Bank Street: Developmental-Interaction Model,

363–364 culturally appropriate, 332, 334, 349–350 defi nition of, 331 developmentally appropriate, 332–333 emergent, 337–338 environment and, 346 fi eld dependent/independent learning style, 343 goals, setting curriculum, 352 high/scope: cognitively oriented model, 363 holiday themes, 360 inclusive curriculum, 334–335 integrated curriculum, 335–337, 350–352 learning styles diff erences and, 341–343, 368 life-centered themes, 360–361 Montessori Schools, 366–367 multicultural, 334 multiple intelligences and, 338–342 planning of, 219–220, 386–388, 407–413,

434–437, 471–475, 486–493, 498–502 play-base curriculum, 344–347 preplanning, 347–349 project approach, 361–363 Reggio Emilia model, 364–366 sensory styles, 342 skills acquisition, planning for, 347 sources for ideas, 338 state standards, 350–352 teacher-directed learning, 352–355, 368 themes, 359–361 Waldorf Schools and, 366 webbing, 357–358 written plans, 355–357

D Daily schedules, 5, 47, 48, 310–315 Death, 502–503 Decoding, 439 Demographics, diversity and, 531 Dendrites, 141 Desensitization, to violence, 527–528 Development

nature of, 105–107 nature v. nurture, 106

Developmental and learning theories basic tenets, 143–145 learning conditions, 146 research conclusions, 146 teachers and, 146 use of, 143–149

Developmental diff erences environment and, 88–89 gender and race, 89 genetic makeup and, 88 learning styles and, 89–90 planning for, 90

Developmental milestones eight-year-olds, 87 fi ve-year-olds, 85 four-year-old, 84 infant, 80 six- and seven-year-olds, 86 three-year-olds, 83 two-year-olds, 82

Developmental relationships, 199 Developmental theory, 104

developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) and, 148–149

Developmental view, of violence, 529 Developmentally and culturally appropriate prac-

tice (DCAP), 44 Developmentally appropriate guidance, 246 Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP), 32,

33, 104, 376, 382, 390, 540 in action, 43 benefi ts of, 43–44 core considerations of, 41–42

developmental theory and, 148–149 guidelines of, 42–43 Mariner’s Star as, 538–539 standards as, 537

Dewey, John, 3, 7, 18–20 Dialect diff erences, 428–429 Diary descriptions, 202, 210 Disaster

death v., 502–503 exposure to, 300–301 violence and, 529–530

Discipline, 244 Discrimination, 396 Distraction, 251 Divergent thinking, 494 Diversity

bilingual education and, 425–429, 532–533 demographics and, 531 educational attainment and, 531 linguistic and cultural, 423–429 multicultural education and, 453 sexual, 536 as society fact, 531–532 teachers and, 159

Divorce, 525 Dowley, Edith M., 68–70 Dramatic play, 135–136, 434, 451, 487 Drawing, 358 Dual immersion method, 533 Dual language learners (DDLs), 423–425

E Early child education

age and, 25 in ancient times, 3, 6 building block years, 6 Child Study Movement, 28, 51–52 children’s enslavement, 16–17 in colonial days, 7, 15–17 contributors to, 6–15, 20–22, 25–29 (See also

specifi c contributors) defi nition of, 5–6 equality in, 23–24 European renaissance/reformation and, 6–10 historical development, 3–25 interdisciplinary infl uences, 25–27 kindergarten, 19–20 midcentury developments, 23–25 nontraditional perspectives, 15 nursery schools, 20–22, 46–47 philosophy of teaching, 4–5 professionalism’s role in, 4, 33–35 Progressive Movement, 17–19 psychology and, 29–30 social reform, ethic of, 30–32 themes in, 3–5, 30–34 universal education and literacy, 10

Early Childhood Special Education (ECSE), 55–56 Early Head Start, 51, 515–516 Early intervention

evaluation of, 51–52 special programs and, 55–56, 515

Early learning standards, 197, 223–225 Ebonics, 428–429 Ecological theory

applications, 126 basis of, 125 Bronfenbrenner’s model of, 125–126

Economics, education attainment and, 531 Edelman, Marion Wright, 9, 30, 516, 540 Educaring, 56 Education of the Handicapped Amendments Act,

94, 225, 268 Education reform, 262

No Child Left Behind, 173, 438, 519–520 reform strategies for, 520 universal preschool, 520

Education with the senses, emphasis on, 10, 12

Eight-year-olds cognitive development, 87 creative development, 87 cultural identity development, 87 developmental milestones, 87 language development, 87 physical-motor development, 87 social-emotional development, 87 word pictures, 87

Eisenberg, Nancy, 139–140, 144 Elaboration, 423, 430, 496 Elementary and Secondary Eduction Act of 1965,

519 Eliot, Abigail, 8, 22, 27 Emergent curriculum, 337–338 Emergent literacy, 439–441 Emergent writing, 443–446 Emotional abuse, 522–523 Emotional and social factors

divorce and, 525 for understanding behavior, 242–243

Emotional framework, 169 Emotional intelligence, 463 Emotional skill development

ability to deal with feelings, 463–466 ability to exercise judgment, 467–468 ability to handle change, 466–467 basic emotions, 463 complex emotions, 463 curriculum planning, 471–475 development of emotions, 462–463 emotional growth, 462–475 emotional intelligence and, 463 emotional skills in early childhood, 463–469 empathy, 466 enjoying one’s self and one’s power, 468–469,

476 psychosocial domain, 459–460, 476 resilience, 469 self-esteem, 130, 292, 461–462 sense of self, 460–462, 476 social mores, 463 superhero play, 136, 468–469 teacher’s role in, 469–475

Employer-sponsored child care, 53–54 Kaiser Shipbuilding Corporation, 23, 68–70

English as a second language, 423–425, 533, 541 English language learners (ELL), 453

limited-English-profi cient (LEP) students, 533 Environment(s), 88–89

adult space, 306 anti-bias, 289–291 auditory, 288, 294 bathrooms, 303–304 characteristics, 282–295 coacting environment, 484 creating, 301–323 culture and, 288, 453 curriculum and, 346 defi nition of, 282 developmental diff erences and, 88–89 developmentally appropriate learning environ-

ments, 285–289 food service, 304–306 group size, 283–284 health and safety in, 296–301 inclusive, 292–295 indoors, 302–307 interest areas/learning centers, 286, 302–303,

307–310 interpersonal environment, 282 interpersonal settings, 315, 319–323 kindergarten, 309 language development and, 435 materials and equipment selection, 286–288,

306–308 multicultural environment checklist, 288 open-ended materials, 307

565Subject Index

organizing space and room arrangements, 307–310

outdoor play areas, 306 physical environment, 66, 282 physical plant, 283 physical setting, 293, 301–310, 315 planning, 295–301 playground designs, 310, 313 program goals, 284–286 refl ecting goals in, 285 resources, 283 rest areas, 304 self-help, 286, 291–292 social, 288, 294–295 temporal, 310–319 temporal setting, 287, 295 visual, 293–294

Environmental adaptations, 292 Environmental factors, in understanding behavior,

238 Equal play and gender issues, 535–536 Erickson, Erik, 138, 144, 148

application of Erikson’s theory, 111–112 balance role and, 109 Freud v., 109 stage 1: trust v. mistrust, 109–110 stage 2: autonomy v. doubt, 110 stage 3: initiative v. guilt, 110–111 stage 4: industry v. inferiority, 110–111

Ethics, 163–164 commitment to, 540

Ethnicity and cultural diversity, 132 assessment and, 131 child development, 131–132 language and, 131, 423–429 physical growth/motor development and, 375

Ethnocentricity, 531 Evaluating children

authentic assessment, 197 baseline establishment in, 213–215 entry-level assessment, 213–214 portfolio plan, 223–224 showcase portfolios, 223, 229 working portfolios, 223

Evaluating teachers, 176–184 competency-based assessment, 182 components of, 178 cultural awareness and sensitivity, 183 evaluators, 179, 181–182 feedback loop, 179, 184 follow-through, 179, 184 issues in, 178–184 peer evaluation, 181–182 performance-based, 182–183 portfolio, 182–183 portfolio-based, 182–183 productive techniques for, 184 purpose of, 177 self-evaluation, 179–180, 182 supervisory evaluation, 179–181 team evaluation, 176

Evaluation observation and, 193 of program quality, 63–67

Evaluation of childhood programs accountability, establishing, 65 components of, 65–67 defi nition of, 63–64 purpose of, 64–65

Evaluators, 179, 181–182 Event sampling, 203–205, 210 Experimental procedures, 207–208 Expressive language, 421, 429–430, 433, 436 Extended discourse, 422 External assets, 527 Extrinsic feedback, 381 Eye-hand coordination, 388

F Faith-based early childhood program, 54–55 Families and teachers

changing American family, 267, 269, 515 communication, 274–277 conferences, 276 family contributions, 263–265 family structures, 269 family support, 93, 267, 524–527 family support movement, 268 family-friendly schools, 266 historical precedent, 262 immigrant families’ needs, 271–272 media culture and, 528–529 mutual collaboration, 262–263, 267–268 patterns of child rearing, 269–270 privacy and confi dentiality, 276 Reggio Emilia, 268 single parents’ need, 271 teacher contribution, 265–267 tips for, 264, 277 unique needs’ families, 270–273 web of infl uences for, 515–516

Families and Work Institute, 54 Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA), 9 Family child care, 309

advantages of, 49 challenges of, 49 percentage use of, 50 ratios in, 49

Family culture, 241–242, 265 Family support

divorce and, 525 working mothers, 524

Feedback feedback loop, 179, 184 intrinsic v. extrinsic, 381

Field dependent/independent learning style, 343

Fine-motor activity, 378, 388, 389 First aid, 300 Five-year-olds

cognitive development, 85 creative development, 85 cultural identity development, 85 developmental milestones, 85 language development, 85 physical-motor development, 85 social-emotional development, 85 word pictures, 85

Flexibility, 317 Food service, 304–306 Formal assessments, 222–223 Four-year-olds

cognitive development, 84 creative development, 84 cultural identity development, 84 developmental milestones, 84 language development, 84 physical-motor development, 84 social-emotional development, 84 word pictures, 84

“Free School,” 24 Freud, Sigmund, 25–26, 108–109, 138 Froebel, Friedrich Wilhelm, 3, 7, 12–13, 19–20,

262, 502 Full inclusion, 292

G Gardner, Howard, 126–128, 144, 364, 482,

505–506 Gardner’s multiple intelligences (MI), 97, 126–

128, 338–342, 397–398 Gender and race diff erences, 89, 138–139

academic performance and, 531 children’s awareness of, 531–532 equal play and gender issues, 535–536

interracial children, 98–99 physical-motor development and, 375 in preschool eff ectiveness, 52

Gender identity, 138, 531–532 Gender role, 138 Gender stereotyping, 139 Genetic makeup, 88

sexuality and, 536 German school system, 10 Gesell, Arnold, 8, 26, 128, 144, 201 Gifted and talented children, 96–97 Gilligan, Carol, 140, 144 Goleman, Daniel, 482 Graphic language, 423, 424, 430, 433, 436 Gross-motor activity, 378, 388, 389 Group size, 283–284 Group teaching, 12 Group times, 319, 354–355, 474, 487–489,

499–500 Groupings, 357–358, 483

mixed-age, 45–46 Growth needs, 130 Guidance, 78, 217–218

culturally appropriate, 246–247 language of guidance and discipline, 247–248 process of, 243–244 strategies of, 242, 250–255

Guidance triangle, 236

H Hailmann, Eudora, 19 Hampton Institute, 17 Harris, William, 19 Head Start, 3

contemporary role of, 52 development of, 24–25, 50 Early Head Start, 51, 515–516 eff ectiveness, evaluating, 51–52 multiculturalism and, 50–51 parents and, 262, 268 Reauthorization Act, 51 special needs children, 50, 93, 534 standards, 350 underuse of, 515–516

Health, 146 child abuse, 522–523 child neglect, 522–523 childhood obesity, 382 communicable disease, 297–298 disaster and violence, 529–530 divorce and, 525 fi rst aid, 300 media culture and, 527–529 poverty and, 523–524 safety and, 296–301 sexual abuse, 522–523 of staff , 299

Health assessment and school policies, 298–299 Helping, 492–493 High/Scope Perry Preschool Study, 51–52 Hill, Patty Smith, 7, 20 Holiday themes, 360 Homeschooling, 61 Hospital settings, for child care, 56 Howard, Dorothy, 8 Humanistic theories, 129–130 Hurried child syndrome, 32 Hypothesis, 104

I Identity, 540

crisis, 109 development, 79, 80–87 gender, 138, 531–532 interracial children, 98–99

Ignoring behavior, 250, 256 Illustrations, books with, 10

566 Subject Index

Imaginary companions, 468–469 Imagination/originality, use of, 496 Immersion system, of learning English, 533 Immigrant families’ needs, 271–272 Immigrants

bilingual education and, 425–428, 532–533 family literacy programs for, 534 social diversity and, 271–272, 533–534

Inclusion, 94–96, 492 Inclusive classroom, 94–96, 534 Inclusive curriculum, 334–335 Inclusive education, 534 Inclusive environments, 292–295 Individual

learning time and, 541 skills learned as an, 483–484

Individualism, collectivism v., 148 Individualized curriculum, 197–198 Individualized program (IEP), 93–94 Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

(IDEA) (P.L.101-576), 94, 534 Inductive guidance, 243–244 Infant School, 28–29 Infants

cognitive development, 80 creative development, 80 cultural identity development, 80 disasters and, 530 language development, 80 physical-motor development, 80 response to language, 422, 423 social-emotional development, 80 word pictures, 80

Infant/toddler programs, 56–57 Inference, 396 Inquiry, skills of, 400, 404, 406 Integrated curriculum, 12 Intelligence

bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, 127, 339–340, 342, 377–378

curriculum and multiple intelligences, 338–342 emotional intelligence, 463 Gardner’s multiple intelligence, 97, 126–128,

338–342, 397–398 interpersonal intelligence, 127, 340–341, 342 intrapersonal intelligence, 127 linguistic intelligence, 127, 338–339, 342 logical-mathematical intelligence, 127, 339, 342 multiple intelligences theories of, 126–128 musical intelligence, 127, 340 naturalist intelligence, 127, 341 social intelligence, 482 spatial intelligence, 127, 339, 342 special needs children and, 97

Interdependence, 247 Interdisciplinary infl uences, 25–27 Interest areas/learning centers, 286, 302–303,

307–310 Internal assets, 527 International Nanny Association, 54 Interpersonal intelligence, 127, 340–341, 342 Interpersonal environment, 282 Interpersonal settings, 315, 319–323 Interracial children, 98–99 Interrelated nature of growth, 77–78 Intervention, 198

early, evaluation of, 51–52 early intervention and special programs, 55–56,

515 physical, 255

Intrapersonal intelligence, 127, 341, 342 Intrinsic feedback, 381 Isaacs, Susan, 8, 27–28

J Journals, 202–203 Judgment, ability to exercise, 467–468

K Kagan, Sharon L., 541 Kaiser Child Care Centers, 23, 68–70 Katz, 164 Kindergarten, 7, 12–13

academic redshirting, 58 curriculum in, 59–60 for early child education, 19–20 environment, 309 history of, 19–20 laboratory, for African Americans, 17 length of day in, 58 philosophy of, 57–58 schedule, 314 school entry age, 58–59

Kohlberg, Lawrence, 139–140, 144 Kohn, Alfi e, 116 Kostelnik, Marjorie, 368 Kozol, Jonathan, 30–31

L Laboratory kindergarten, for African Americans,

17 Laboratory schools, 17, 28, 52–53 Language

body language, 247 cognitive development and, 395–396 communication/language disorders, 432 dual language learners (DDLs), 423–425 English as a second language, 423–425, 533,

541 English language learners (ELL), 453, 533 equal play and gender issues in, 535–536 ethnicity/cultural diversity and, 131, 423–429 expressive language, 421, 429–430, 433, 436 of guidance and discipline, 247–248 infants’ response to, 422, 423 teacher diversity and, 159 whole language, 441

Language development articulation, 429 bilingualism, 425–428 curriculum planning, 434–437 dialect diff erences, 428–429 dual language learners (DDLs), 423–425 ebonics, 428–429 eight-year-olds, 87 elaboration, 423, 430 environments and, 435 expressive language, 421, 429–430, 433, 436 extended discourse, 422 fi ve-year-olds, 85 four-year-old, 84 graphic language, 423, 424, 430, 433, 436 infant, 80 infant’s response to language, 422, 423 language skills, 429–431, 436 phonemic awareness, 80, 423 precursors of speech, 80, 423, 424 receptive language, 421, 429, 433, 436 research fi ndings, 422 sentences, 423, 424 simultaneous acquisition, 425 six- and seven-year-olds, 86 stages of, 423–424 teacher’s role in, 431–437 themes, 436–437 three-year-olds, 83 toddler, 81 vocalization, 80, 423, 424 word development, 423, 424, 429

Learning centers, 286, 302–303, 307–310 Learning disabilities, 91–92 Learning style

developmental diff erences and, 89–90 diff erences in, 341–343, 368 fi eld dependent/independent, 343

Learning theory, 104 Learning through play

associative play, 134–135 basis of, 134 dramatic play, 135–136, 434, 451, 487 onlooker play, 134–135 parallel play, 134–135 solitary play, 134–135, 202 superhero play, 136, 468–469 types of play, 134–136 unoccupied play, 135 values of, 136–137

Least restrictive environment, 292 Life-centered themes, 360–361 Lighting, classroom, 297 Limited-English-profi cient (LEP) students, 533 Limit-setting, for television, 528 Linguistic intelligence, 127, 338–339, 342 Literacy, early

audiovisuals and, 452 book selection, 447–448 children and reading, 447–449 children’s literature, 437–452 dramatizing and, 451 emergent literacy, 439–441 emergent writing, 443–446 phonics, 441–443 puppet shows and, 451 role of, 438 storytelling, 450–451 teacher strategies, 438, 442, 446 whole language, 441

Literature, children’s, 437–452 Locke, John, 7, 10–11 Locomotor abilities, 379 Logical-mathematical intelligence, 127, 339, 342 Logical-mathematical knowledge, 396 Logs, 202–203, 210 Love, 130

M Maccoby, Eleanor, 138, 144 Magnet schools, 262 Mainstreaming, 94–96, 292 Malaguzzi, Loris, 29, 196–197, 268, 322 Manipulative abilities, 379–380 Maslow, Abraham, 129–130, 144, 148 Maslow’s Th eory of Human Needs, 129–130 Materials and equipment selection, 170–171,

286–288, 306–308 Math, social diversity and, 531, 534–535 Maturation, 128 Maturation theory, 128, 145 McMillan, Margaret, 7, 27 McMillan, Rachel, 27 Meaningful knowledge, 397 Media culture

passivity and, 527–529 violence and, 527–528

Memory and experience, 380 Method clinique, 208–210 Migrant children’s programs, 56 Miles, Libby, 277 Mitchell, Lucy Sprague, 7, 21–22, 363 Modeling, 113–115 Modifi ed child study techniques, 207–209 Montessori, Maria, 3, 7, 13–14, 25, 142, 367 Montessori Schools, 3, 7, 13–14, 25, 366–367 Moral development, 139–140 Morality, 502–503, 508 Multicultural curriculum, 334 Multicultural environment checklist, 288 Multicultural literature, 447, 449, 453 Multiple exceptionalities, 90–91 Multiple intelligences theory, 97, 126–127, 338–

342, 397–398 applications, 128

567Subject Index

Music and movement experiences, 499–500 Musical intelligence, 127, 340 Mutual collaboration, 262–263, 267–268 Myelination, 118

N NAEYC’s Standards, 161, 351 Nannies, 54 Narratives, 201–203, 210 National Association for Nursery Education

(NANE), 20 National Association for the Education of Young

Children (NAEYC), 8–9, 20, 41, 165, 221, 283

on child abuse, 522–523 National Education Goals Panel, 541 National Institute of Child Health and Human

Development Study of Early Child Care, 524

National Institutes of Health, 527 Natural disaster, 300–301 Naturalism, 11 Naturalist intelligence, 127, 341 Naturalistic assessments, 222 Nature, 502–503 Nature v. nurture, 106 Neill, A. S., 8, 24 Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale, 26 Nielsen Report on Television (1989), 527 1968 Bilingual Education Act, 533 No Child Left Behind (NCLB), 173, 438,

519–520 Nonlocomotor abilities, 379–380 Norm-referenced tests, 222 Norms, 198–199 Numbers, concept of, 402–403 Nursery schools, 20–22 Nutrition, 299

O Obesity, childhood, 382 Objectivity, 194–196 Observation(s)

active observation, 249 assessment and, 193, 197 beginning to observe, 211–212 bias, 194–196, 210 checklists, 205–207, 210 clinical method, 208–210 common elements of, 201 connected knowledge, 197–198 defi nition of, 192–193 developmental relationships, 199 diary descriptions, 202, 210 evaluation and, 193 event sampling, 203–205, 210 experimental procedures, 207–208, 210 guidelines for, 194, 196, 211 individualized curriculum, 197–198 infl uences on behaviors, 199–200 modifi ed child study techniques, 207–209 narratives, 201–203, 210 objectivity, 194–196 observational learning, 115 parents’ help and, 220–221 purpose of, 193–197 rating methods, 205–207, 210 rating scales, 210 recording of, 200–212 running record, 201–202, 210 shadow study, 207–208, 210 specimen descriptions, 202, 210 teaching and, 209–211 theory, construct theory v., 196–197 time sampling, 203–204, 210 types of, 201–209 understanding of self, 200

understanding our observations, 197–200 use of, 228

Onlooker behavior, 202 Onlooker play, 134–135 Open school, 29 Open-ended materials, 307 Operant conditioning, 114–115 Oppositional defi ant disorder (ODD), 92 Organization, 66 Outdoor environment

fostering motor development in, 388–389 language development and, 434

Owen, Robert, 7, 28–29

P Parallel play, 134–135 Parent/family education and involvement,

262–277 Parents

authoritarian, 269–270 child rearing patterns and, 269–270 Head Start and, 262, 268 help of, for observation, 220–221 parent cooperative schools, 53 permissive, 269 program relationships with, 66 separation process and, 273–274 single parents, 271 special needs of, 271–272 stages of parent development, 270 teen, 55

Passivity, media culture and, 527–529 Pavlov, Ivan, 113 Peabody, Elizabeth, 19 Peace, 503, 508 Peace Table, 508 Pedigogista, 365 Peer evaluation, 181–182 Peer interactions, 480–482 Perceptual-motor development, 378 Performance-based assessment, 182–183 Permissive parents, 269 Permissiveness, 26 Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, 12, 262 Phonemes, 436 Phonemic awareness, 423 Phonics, 441–443 Physical development, 345 Physical environment, 66, 282 Physical knowledge, 396 Physical plant, 283 Physical setting, 293, 301–310, 315 Physical world, knowledge of, 401, 404 Physical-motor development, 79, 80–87

childhood obesity, 382 competition, 390 cultural/ethnic diff erences, 375, 389 curriculum planning, 386–388 developmentally appropriate practice (DAP),

31, 33, 104, 376, 382, 390, 540 eight-year-olds, 87 encouraging physical play, 386 feedback, 381 fi ne-motor activity, 378 fi ve-year-olds, 85 four-year-old, 84 gender diff erences, 375, 382–383 gross-motor activity, 378, 388, 389 infant, 80 learning motor skills, 379–380 learning through movement, 373–374 locomotor abilities, 379, 389 manipulative abilities, 379–380 memory and experience, 380 motor development, 377–379 nonlocomotor abilities, 379–380 perceptual-motor development, 378

physical growth, 374–377 playground enrichment, 383–385 practicing basic skills, 380–381 research, 373, 374 self-concept, children’s, 385–386 sensory awareness, 379 six- and seven-year-olds, 86 spatial awareness, 378 special needs children, 375–377 teacher’s role in, 381–390 temporal awareness, 378–379 three-year-olds, 83 toddler, 81 two-year-olds, 82

Piaget, Jean Jacques, 116–119, 138, 139, 144, 148–149, 202, 396–397

Pica, Rae, 390 Play, 134–136

learning and, 137–138 Play-based curriculum, 344–347 Playground designs, 310, 313 Portfolios, 197, 223–224, 229 Positive reinforcement, 113–115, 251, 256 Poverty

children in, 523–524 minorities and, 524 race and, 534–535

Precursors of speech, 80, 423, 424 Preschoolers, disasters and, 530 Preventing misbehavior, 249 Primary grades, 60 Problem solving, 253–254 Productive techniques, for evaluating teachers,

184 Professionalism, 160–167

advocacy, 539–540 a reason to teach, 538–539 standards, 536–538

Program accountability and quality, 221 Program evaluation areas, checklist for, 66–67 Programs

developmentally and culturally appropriate practice (DCAP), 44

developmentally appropriate practice (DAP), 41–44

for diverse needs, 44–46 early intervention and special education,

55–56 employer-sponsored child care, 53–54 factors in types of, 45 for-profi t child care, 54 homeless children’s needs, 56 homeschooling, 61 hospital settings, 56 infant-toddler, 56–57 laboratory schools, 52–53 looping, 46 migrant children’s programs, 56 mixed-age groupings, 45–46 nanny care, 54 parent cooperative schools, 53 quality evaluation, 63–67 quality indicators, NAEYC criteria for, 61–62 quality issues, 63 quality studies, 62–63 religious facilities’ programs, 54–55 standards, 536–538 teen parent, 55 traditional nursery school (preschool), 46–47 universal preschools, 52

Progressive assumption, 526 Project approach, 361–363 Project Zero, 505–506 Psychoanalytic theories of child development,

108–109 Psychodynamic theories of child development,

108–112

568 Subject Index

Psychosocial domain, 459–460, 476 Psychosocial theories of child development, 109–

112, 145 Punishment, 115, 244–245 Puppet shows, 451

Q Quality 2000: Advancing Early Child Care and

Education, 518–519

R RAND Corporation study, 63 Rating methods, 205–207, 210 Ratios

in child care, 537 in family child care, 49

Readiness, 10 Reading, social diversity and, 531 Reauthorization Act, 51 Receptive language, 421, 429, 433, 436 Record keeping, 169–170 Recording observations, 200–212 Redirecting activity, 251, 256 Reggio Emilia, 29, 196–197, 268, 322–323, 364–

366, 497, 498 as community life, 527

Reinforcement, positive and negative, 113–115, 251, 256

Reinforcer, 114 Rest areas, 304 Rote knowledge, 396–397 Roughhousing, 292 Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 3, 7, 11–12 Routines, 315–317, 474, 487–489, 499 Ruggles Street Nursery School, 8 Running record, 201–202, 210

S Safety, 296–300

automobile safety, 301 Sanitation, 296–297 Schemas, 117 School-age children

bilingualism and, 533 child care, 60 disasters and, 530

Schools charter schools, 262 family support by, 524–527 family-friendly, 266 “Free School,” 24 German system of, 10 homeschooling, 61 Infant Schools, 29 laboratory, 17, 28 laboratory schools, 17, 28, 52–53 magnet schools, 262 Montessori Schools, 3, 7, 13–14, 25, 366–367 nursery schools, 20–22, 46–47 open school, 29 parent cooperative schools, 53 social capital and, 526–527 traditional nursery school (preschool), 20–22,

46–47 universal preschools, 52 values transmission in, 527–536

Schurtz, Margaretha, 19 Screening, 225–227 Self care, 60 Self-actualization, 129–130 Self-awareness, 172 Self-concept, 385–386 Self-discipline, 244, 246 Self-effi cacy, 113 Self-esteem, 130, 292, 461–462 Self-evaluation, 179–180, 182 Self-help environments, 286, 291–292

Self-regulation, 468 Sensitivity, 495

cultural awareness and, 183 cultural sensitivity, 98–99, 183, 431 desensitization, to violence, 527–528

Sensory awareness, 379 Sensory styles, 342 Separation process, 273–274 Seriation, 402, 404 Sesame Street, 9, 128 Setting limits, 252–253 Sex diff erences, 138–139 Sex role stereotyping, 382–383, 535–536 Sexist attitudes, 531–532, 535–536 Sexual abuse, 522–523 Shadow study, 207–208, 210 Sharing, 358, 488, 490 Simultaneous acquisition, 425 Six- and seven-year-olds

cognitive development, 86 creative development, 86 cultural identity development, 86 developmental milestones, 86 language development, 86 physical-motor development, 86 social-emotional development, 86 word pictures, 86

Skills acquisition, planning for, 347 Skinner, B. F., 113, 144 Slavery, children and, 16–17 Social action, 484

confl ict resolution, 480–482, 485, 488, 490– 492, 508

Social capital, 526–527 Social cognition, 482 Social competence, 475, 477–478, 486 Social diversity

attitude crystallization, 531–532 bilingual education, 532–533 class diff erences, 534–535 cultural pluralism, 532 equal play and gender issues, 535–536 facing reality, 531–532 immigrants and, 271–272, 533–534 inclusive education, 534 math and, 531, 534–535 multicultural education, 532 racist attitudes, 531–532 reading and, 531 sexist attitudes, 531–532, 535–536 sexuality, 536 teacher attitudes and, 532

Social growth, 345 adults, skills learned with, 483 common social challenges, 479–482 curriculum planning, 486–493 early childhood, social skills in, 490 group, skills learned in a, 483 individual, skills learned as an, 483–484 peer relationships, 480–482 peers, skills learned with, 483 skills, 482–484 social action, 484 social cognition, 482 social competence, 475, 477–478, 486 social development, 478–479 social intelligence, 482 social knowledge and understanding, 486–488 socialization, 477 sociocentric viewpoint, 480 undiff erentiated level, 481 unilateral level, 481

Social knowledge, 396 Social mores, 463 Social referencing, 470 Social reform, 10, 516–520

child care, 516–519

ethic of, 30–31 Social skills, 482 Social world, knowledge of, 401, 404 Social-emotional development, 79, 80–87

eight-year-olds, 87 fi ve-year-olds, 85 four-year-old, 84 infant, 80 six- and seven-year-olds, 86 three-year-olds, 83 toddler, 81 two-year-olds, 82

Socialization, 113, 477 Sociocultural, 44, 123 Sociocultural theory

application, 124–125, 145 bicognitive development, 124 private (inner) speech, 124 scaff olding, 123 Vygotsky, Lev, 122–125 Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, 123–125 zone of proximal development (ZPD),

123–125 Sociodramatic play, 136 Sociopolitical view, of violence, 529 Solitary play, 134–135, 202 Spanking, 240 Spatial awareness, 378 Spatial intelligence, 127, 339, 342 Spatial relationships, 403, 404 Special needs children

art adaptations for, 507 Asperger syndrome (AS), 93 Attention-Defi cit/Hyperactivity Disorder

(ADHD), 92–93 bias and stereotypes, 97 bipolar disorder, 92 children with exceptionalities/multiple excep-

tionalities, 90–91 cultural, racial, and ethnic considerations,

96–99 defi nition of, 90 Down syndrome, 91 dyslexia, 91 family support for, 93 Gardner’s MI, 97 gifted and talented children, 96–97 Head Start, 50, 93 inclusive classroom for, 94–96, 534 individualized program (IEP), 93–94 learning disabilities, 91–92 mainstreaming, 94–96 oppositional defi ant disorder (ODD), 92 physical growth/motor development and,

375–377 P.L. 94-42, 376 P.L. 94-142 (Education for All Handicapped

Children Act), 93–94, 225 P.L. 99-457 (Education of the Handicapped

Amendments Act), 94, 225, 268 P.L. 101-336 (Americans with Disabilities Act)

(ADA), 9, 94, 534 P.L.101-576 (Individuals with Disabilities Edu-

cation Act) (IDEA), 94 public recognition, 93–94 race and, 535 teacher and parental role, 93–98

Specimen descriptions, 202, 210 Spiritual development

children as a spiritual resource, 503–504 issues, 502–503 teacher’s role, 503

Spock, Benjamin, 8, 26 Staff , 66 Standards

in curriculum, 350–352

569Subject Index

as developmentally appropriate practice (DAP), 537

early learning, 197, 223–225 Head Start, 350 NAEYC’s Standards, 161, 351 programs, 536–538 state standards, 350–352

Steiner, Rudolf, 14–15, 142, 366, 502 Stereotyping

equal play and gender issues in, 535–536 gender, 139 sex role, 382–383, 535–536 sexuality, 536 special needs children, 97 television and, 528

Stimulus-response technique, 113 Stolz, Lois Meeks, 8, 21, 23, 68 Storytelling, 450–451 Stress

behavior and, 466–467 divorce and, 525 early, 142 needs v., 521–522 sources of, 521

Successive acquisition, 425 Superhero play, 136, 468–469

equal play and gender issues in, 535–536 Symbols, use of, 403, 404

T Tabula rasa, 10–11 Tactile learner, 89, 342 Tantrums, 258 Taylor, Katherine Whiteside, 8 Teacher-directed learning, 352–355, 368 Teachers

advocacy, 166 affi liations, professional, 165 anti-bias approach, 173 beginning, 184–185 behavior model, teacher as, 248 burnout, 173–174 career matrix, 161–162 career options, knowledge of, 162, 165–166 classroom management, 168 code of ethical conduct, 34–35, 163–164 comparison with teaching on other educational

settings, 159–160 contacts, making, 171 continuing education and professional develop-

ment, 164–165 cultural competency, 165–166 defi nition of, 167 developmental and learning theories, 146–147 diversity, 159 early literacy strategies for, 438, 442, 446 emotional framework, establishing the, 169,

345 evaluation of, 176–184 families, working with, 171–172 fi rst-time, 184–185 materials, organizing and collecting, 170–171 meetings, attending, 170 out-of-class responsibilities, 169–172 personal qualities of, 172–174

preparation for, 537–538 professionalism in action, 167–174 record keeping, 169–170 role defi nitions, 162 roles and responsibilities, changing, 33–35, 186 self-awareness, 172 social diversity attitudes of, 532 student teacher, 184–185 team teaching, 174–176 tone setting, 168–169

Teacher’s role changing responsibilities and, 33–35, 186 child abuse and, 523 child neglect and, 523 in cognitive development, 405–413 in cognitive theory, 121–122 in creative growth, 497–502 defi nitions, 162 disasters and, 530 in emotional skill development, 469–475 in language development, 431–437 in physical-motor development, 381–390 in play, 344 special needs children and, 93–98 spiritual development and, 503 traditional nursery school and, 47

Team teaching, 174–176 Teen parent programs, 55 Temperature, ventilation, lighting, 297 Temporal awareness, 378–379 Temporal environment, 282 Testing, 225–226 Th eories, 104–105 Th orndike, Edward L., 113, 144 Th ree-year-olds

cognitive development, 83 creative development, 83 cultural identity development, 83 developmental milestones, 83 language development, 83 physical-motor development, 83 social-emotional development, 83 word pictures, 83

Time, understanding, 404, 406 Time out, 255 Time sampling, 203–204, 210 Toddlers

cognitive development, 81 creative development, 81 cultural identity development, 81 language development, 81 physical-motor development, 81 social-emotional development, 81 word pictures, 81

Traditional nursery school (preschool), 20–21 programs, 46–47 teacher’s role, 47

Transactional model of teaching, 120 Transcurricular skill, 400 Transformative curriculum, 332 Transitions, 317–319, 388, 434, 436, 472, 474,

487–489, 499 Transmission model of teaching, 120 Transmitting values, 32–33, 527–536 Two-year-olds

cognitive development, 82 creative development, 82 cultural identity development, 82 developmental milestones of, 82 physical-motor development, 82 social-emotional development, 82 word pictures, 82

U U.N. Children’s World Summit, 9 Undiff erentiated level, 481 Unique needs, families with, 270–273 Universal characteristics of children, 78 Universal education and literacy, 10 Universal infection control precautions, 297 Universal preschool, 9, 52, 520 Unoccupied behavior, 202 Unoccupied play, 135

V Values transmission, in schools, 32–33, 527–536 Ventilation, 297 Victimization, from media violence, 527–528 Violence

desensitization to, 527–528 developmental view of, 529 disaster and, 529–530 in media culture, 527–528 sociopolitical view of, 529

Visual learner, 89, 342 Vocalization, 80, 423, 424 Vygotsky, Lev, 122–125, 144, 148–149, 397

W Waldorf Schools, 14–15, 366, 451 Wardle, Francis, 99 Warford, Sue, 508 Watson, John B., 113, 144 Webbing, 357–358 Whole child, concept of the, 77–78 Whole language, 441 Williams, Scott M., 35 Word pictures

in behavior and guidance, 78 in cultural awareness, 79 in curriculum, 79 eight-year-olds, 87 fi ve-year-olds, 85 four-year-old, 84 guidelines for using, 88 infant, 80 six- and seven-year-olds, 86 teachers and, 79, 88 three-year-olds, 83 toddler, 81 two-year-olds, 82

Working parents, 526, 541 Working portfolios, 223 Works Projects Association (WPA), 8, 23

Z Zone of proximal development (ZPD), 123–125,

344

A Abrutyn, L., 223 Ainsworth, M., 132, 133 Alexander, N. P., 297 Allen, K. E., 56, 77, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96 Ambery, M. E., 317 Ames, L. A., 27, 128 Anziano, M. C., 358 Arbuthnot, M. H., 452 Arce, E., 335, 336, 352 Armer, M., 478 Armstrong, T., 338 Atkins-Burnett, S., 226, 227

B Baker, C., 425 Balaban, N., 194 Bandura, A., 112, 113, 115 Banks, J. A., 332, 334, 349 Barbour, N., 194 Barnett, W. S., 52 Baumrind, D., 269 Bee, H., 90, 375 Bellis, M., 46 Bennenson, J. F., 382 Bergan, J. R., 226 Berger, K. S., 104, 105, 115, 125, 141, 251, 374,

375, 400, 463, 479, 480, 536 Berk, L. E., 57, 88, 89, 91, 92, 96, 98, 123, 269,

341, 375, 382, 470 Biber, B., 29 Bieleck, S., 61 Bigelow, J. H., 63 Blaska, J. K., 492 Bloom, P. J., 173, 176 Blow, Susan, 19 Bobys, A. R., 446 Bodrova, E., 224 Bos, B., 484, 486 Bowers, F. B., 207 Bowlby, J., 132 Bowling, J. H., 475 Bowman, B., 131, 136, 351, 397, 469 Boyd, D., 12, 90, 375 Bradburn, E., 28 Bradley, J., 265 Brazelton, T. B., 33, 521 Bredekamp, S., 42, 57, 63, 148, 283, 331, 332,

350, 519 Breslin, D., 469 Brewer, J., 363 Bright, A., 449 Brittain, W. L., 495, 498 Broman, B. L., 29 Bronfenbrenner, U., 125 Bronson, M. R., 468 Brooks, A., 13

Broughman, S., 61 Brown, B., 51 Browne, K. W., 174, 241, 243, 244, 251, 269, 479 Bruer, J.T., 142, 143 Bukowski, W., 478 Burchinal, M. R., 517 Bushnell, M. M., 201, 203 Buzzelli, C. A., 140 Byler, P., 517

C Cadwell, L., 365, 366 Caldwell, B. M., 78 Campbell, D. M., 182 Canady, R. J., 437 Cannon, J. S., 438 Carlson, S. M., 468 Carlsson-Paige, N., 529 Carter, B., 528 Carter, M., 173, 197, 209, 302 Caruso, J. J., 178, 179, 183 Castaneda, A., 122, 343 Cazden, C. B., 429 Chalufour, I., 407 Chandler, K., 61 Chang, H., 431 Chapman, J., 46 Chard, S., 357, 361 Chase, P., 46 Chattin-McNichols, J., 15 Chen, J. Q., 398 Chesler, P., 428, 429 Chess, S., 239, 244 Chomsky, N., 422 Chouinard, M. N., 400 Christensen, D., 192 Cignetti, P. B., 182 Clements, D. H., 403 Cliff ord, R. M., 222, 517 Cloud, J., 61 Cohen, D. H., 21, 194 Cohen, D. L., 52 Colbert, C., 498 Coles, R., 502 Colker, L., 487 Colker, L. J., 282, 302 Comer, D. E., 492 Cook, J. W., 475 Cook, R. E., 432, 436 Cooper, R. M., 465 Coplan, R. J., 478 Copple, C., 42, 57, 283, 287, 332, 350, 519 Corbett, S., 536 Cowdery, G., 56, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96 Cox, P., 343 Cross, W. E., 290 Cruikshank, S., 441

570

Name Index

Cruz 2008, 35 Cryan, J. R., 228 Cubberly, E. P., 17 Culkin, M. L., 517 Curenton, S., 477 Curry, N. E., 460 Curtis, D., 197, 302 Cutler, K. M., 410

D Danielson, C., 223 David, J., 364 Dawes, H. C., 198 de Melendez, R. W., 325 Deasey, D., 28 Delattre, E. J., 502 DelCampo, D., 525, 528 DelCampo, R. L., 525, 528 DePasquale, R., 413 Derman-Sparks, L., 97, 98, 173, 289, 290, 360,

475, 484, 531 Dewey, J., 18, 52 Diamond, K. E., 262 Dickenson, D. K., 422 Dickerson, M., 24 Diezmann, C., 410 Dillon, J. J., 502, 503 Doan, J., 46 Dodge, D. T., 282, 302 Dowley, E., 34 Drew, W., 400

E Edelman, J., 539 Edelman, M. W., 31 Edwards, C., 301, 364 Eisenberg, N., 138, 139 Eisenbud, L., 272 Eliot, Abigail, 22, 27 Elgas, P. M., 307 Elkind, D., 117, 122, 137, 150, 413, 503, 526 Epstein, A., 364, 431 Erikson, E. H., 110, 111, 112 Estes, J. S., 226 Evangelou, D., 45, 46

F Fabes, R. A., 138 Fawcett, M. T., 178, 179, 183 Feeney, S., 163, 192, 200 Fein, G. G., 137 Feinberg, S. G., 504 Feld, J. K., 226 Fenwich, T., 223 Fitzpatrick, J. G., 503 Flavell, E. R., 121 Flavell, J., 117

571Name Index

Flavell, J. H., 121 Fong, B., 113 Ford, D. Y., 96 Fowler, W. J., 283 Fox, J., 496, 497, 499, 506 Frankenberg, E., 531 Freeman, N. K., 163 Freud, S., 108 Friemann, B. B., 536 Froschl, M., 290 Frost, J. L., 134, 344, 351, 363, 364, 384

G Galinsky, E., 141, 270, 399, 517 Gallagher, S. A., 93 Gallahue, D. L., 376, 377, 378, 379, 385 Gandini, L., 30, 268, 364, 499 Garcia Coll, C., 131, 132, 134, 141 Gardner, H., 97, 128, 337, 505 Geist, E., 402 Gerber, E., 63, 518 Gerber, M., 56 Gesell, A. L., 26, 128 Gestwicki, C., 262, 336, 359 Gillespie, C. W., 499 Gilligan, C., 140 Ginsburg, K. R., 469 Glowacki, S., 63 Goble, F. G., 130 Golbeck, S. L., 148 Goleman, D., 463 Gonzalez-Mena, J., 16, 32, 149, 246, 270 Goodenough, D., 343 Goodman, K., 441 Gopnik, A., 398 Gordon, A. M., 174, 241, 243, 244, 251. 269, 479,

480 Green, F. L., 121 Greenberg, D. N., 382 Greenberg, P., 50 Greenman, J., 286 Greenspan, S., 33 Greenspan, S. D., 521 Gronlund, G., 223, 224, 289, 350 Grossman, H., 535 Grossman, S. H., 535 Gullo, D. F., 59, 213 Gunnar, M. R., 142 Gura, P., 131 Gutierrez, M. E., 290

H Hale, J. E., 532 Hampton, D., 55 Harms, T., 29, 284, 302, 309 Hartman, J. A., 45, 46 Hatch, J. A., 59 Haugland, S. W., 413, 414 Hawkins, J. D., 492 Haycock, K., 535 Heath, M., 485 Helm, J. H., 353, 361 Heroman, C., 282, 287, 302 Herzenberg, S., 518 Heuwinkel, M. K., 120 Hewes, D., 6, 13, 20, 22 Hilliard, A.,131 Hilliard, A. G., 4 Hironaka Cowee, M., 131 Hirsch, E. S., 336 Hoerr, T., 398 Hoff man, E., 136, 468 Hohmann, N., 363 Holland, H., 493 Honig, A. S., 290 Hoover, M., 428 Howes, C., 63, 255, 283, 517, 518

Huston, A. C., 382 Hymes, Jr., J. L., 23, 24, 28 Hyson, M., 160, 282, 538 Hyun, E., 44, 135

I Ilg, F. L., 27, 78 Irons, P., 24 Irwin, D. M. 201, 203 Isbell, R. T., 422, 450 Isenberg, J., 137

J Jacklin, C. N., 382, 535 Jensen, E., 285, 373, 400, 407 Johnson, C. N., 460 Johnson, M. L., 503 Johnson, M. O., 527 Jones, E., 137, 167, 183, 196, 283, 310, 338, 358 Jones, E. J., 209

K Kagan, J., 133 Kagan, S. L., 58, 212, 518, 592 Karoly, L. A., 63, 438, 439 Katz, L., 45, 46, 58, 353, 357, 361 Katz, L. G., 45, 46, 163, 164, 361, 477 Kauerz, K., 58 Keatinge, M. W., 11 Kellogg, R., 505 Kelly, R., 98 Kendall, F. E., 486 Kibera, P., 265 Kipnis, K., 163 Kirmani, M. H., 449 Klein, A. S., 226 Klein, M. D., 432, 436 Klein, T. P., 137 Kohlberg, L., 139 Kohn, A., 116, 120 Kostelnik, M. J., 477, 478, 486 Kritschevsky, S., 283, 310 Kuster, C. A., 173 Kutner, B., 290

L Ladd, C.O., 142 Lally, J. R., 401 Lawrence, S., 60 Lee, C., 531 Lense, S., 403 Leong, D., 224 LeShan, E., 172, 176 Levin, D., 529 Lightfoot, S. L., 131 Lillard, A., 477 Linas, K., 137 Lindner, E., 55 Lopez-Morgan, C., 493, 497 Lowenfeld, V., 495, 498 Lowman, L. H., 308 Lundin, A., 447 Lynch, E. C., 492

M Maccoby, E. E., 138, 382, 535 MacDonald, B., 201 Malaguzzi, L., 30, 196 Maniates, H., 485 Marion, M., 465 Marotz, L., 77, 94, 296, 304 Marshall, H. H., 462 Martin, C. L., 138 Maslow, A. H., 129, 130 Matsumoto, D., 463 Maxwell, K. L., 222 McAdoo, L., 364

McCartney, K., 57 McClennan, D. E., 477 McCormick, J., 472 McMurrain, M. K., 504 McNeely, S. L., 343 Meade-Roberts, J., 120 Meisels, S. J., 226, 227 Melenyzer, B. J., 182 Metzger, B., 535 Midgley, C., 285 Miller, K., 431 Miller, R., 336 Mintz, S., 32, 33 Mitchell, A., 364 Mitchell, L. S., 22, 23 Mooney, C. G., 110 Moore, C., 343 Moravcik, E., 192 Morse, J., 61 Murphy, K. K., 413

N Nakahata, A., 459 Neill, A. S., 25 Nelson, J., 255 Nelson, K., 397 Nettles, D. H., 182 Neugebauer, R., 54, 55, 60 Neuman, M. J., 518 Nimmo, J., 358

O O’Hara, H., 536 Olds, A., 302 Orfi eld, G., 531 Osborn, D. K., 17, 18, 25 Ostertag, V., 325

P Packard, E., 415 Paley, V. G., 482, 492 Parker, J. G., 478 Parsons, J., 223 Parten, M. B., 198 Patterson, J., 21 Peisner-Feinberg, E. S., 517 Pendowski, J. L., 223 Peters, D. L., 4 Phillips, C. B., 167 Phillips, D., 283 Phillips, L., 422 Piaget, J., 139 Pica, R., 383 Picariello, M. L., 382 Pillemer, D. B., 382 Planty, M., 272 Pleasant, M. B. B., 18 Plotsky, P. M., 142 Pool, C. R., 463 Porro, B., 480 Powell, D. R., 267, 262 Prescott, E., 283, 310

Q Quisenberry, N., 137

R Raines, S. C., 437 Randolph, M., 21 Ramirez, M., 122, 343 Read, K., 21 Reguero-de-Atiles, J. T., 537 Reifel, S., 134 Reisner, T., 446 Resnick, M., 113 Reynolds, G., 196 Richardson-Gibbs, A. M., 432, 436

572 Name Index

Riojas-Cortez, M., 34 Ritchie, S., 255 Rivkin, M. S., 306 Roberts, J. M., 397 Rofrano, F., 470 Rogers, C., 292 Rogers, S., 475 Rogoff , B., 123, 131, 397 Rosegrant, T., 331 Ross, M.E., 409 Rothstein-Fisch, 149 Rubin, E., 290 Rubin, K. H., 137, 478 Ruhmann, L. H., 308 Rushton, S. P., 286, 407 Rustici, J., 517

S Sadker, D., 535 Sadker, M., 535 Sakai, L., 63, 518 Sanchez, M., 142 Sanders, S. W., 382 Sandstrom, S., 503 Santrock. J. W., 107, 111, 117, 146, 374, 375 Saracho, O. N., 4 Sarama, J., 403 Sawyer, W. E., 492 Saxton, R., 133 Saxton, R. R., 194, 429, 502, 503, 504 Schickedanz, J., 443 Schiller, P., 225, 398 Schirrmacher, R., 342, 353, 496, 497, 499, 506,

507 Schlank, C. H., 535 Schore, A., 143 Schweinhart, L. J., 52, 213, 363, 364 Seefeldt, C., 194 Selman, R., 431 Settel, J., 536 Shade, D. D., 414 Shanahan, T., 439

Shepard, L. A., 212 Shillady, A. L., 223 Shonkoff , J. P., 141 Shore, R., 143, 224, 373 Siegel, D. J., 141 Siegel, D. L., 399, 401 Silber, K., 13 Singer, D. G., 137 Smith, F., 438, 443 Smith, M. M., 163 Snow, C. W., 537 Sorrentino, J., 520 Soundy, C. S., 436 Spitz, G., 120, 397 Spitz, R. A., 109 Spodek, B., 4 Sprung, B., 290 Stern, V., 194 Stonehouse, A., 312 Stout, N. L., 436 Strock, M., 92 Suransky, V. P., 112 Sutherland, Z., 452

T Tabors, P. O., 422, 425, 426, 427 Takanishi, R., 534 Tatum, B. D., 124 Taunton, M., 498 Taylor, M., 468 Teachout, C., 449 Teleki, J. K., 537 Th omas, A., 239, 244 Tracy, R., 29 Trelease, J., 448 Trumbull, 149

V Vandenberg, B., 137 Vasquez, D. M., 142 Vaughn-Scott, M., 131 Vygotsky, L. S., 124, 421

W Walker, L. R., 19 Wallerstein, J., 525 Ward, E. H., 163, 179 Wardle, F., 98, 139 Wasik, Barbara, A., 423 Waters, R.,143 Weikart, D. P., 52, 363 Weinberg, M., 24 Weinberger, N., 309 Whitebook, M., 63, 283, 296, 518 Whitebrook, M., 159 Wilcox-Herzog, A., 320 Willer, B., 178 Willis, C., 422 Willis, C. A., 225 Wirth, D., 137 Witkin, H., 343 Wolf, A. D., 502, 503 Wolf, K. M., 109 Wood, K., 292 Woolfolk, A., 341, 349 Workman, S., 358 Worth, K., 407 Wortham, S. C., 134 Wurm, J., 282 Wurtz, E., 212 Wyman, R. M., 182

Y Yazejian, N., 517 Yelland, N. J., 410 Yopp, H. K., 442 Yopp, R. H., 442 York, S., 124, 131, 360, 461 Youcha, V., 292

Z Zeavin, C., 320 Zelazo, J., 517 Zepeda, 149

Standard 1. Promoting Child Development and Learning

a) knowing and understanding young children’s characteristics and needs

b) knowing and understanding the multiple infl uences on de- velopment and learning

c) using developmental knowl- edge to create healthy, respect- ful, supportive, and challeng- ing learning environments

Chapter 1 Interdisciplinary Infl uences Th emes in Early Childhood

Education Chapter 2 Developmentally Appropriate

Practices in Early Childhood Programs

Th ree Core Considerations of DAP

Teaching to Enhance Develop- ment and Learning

DAP in Action How DAP Benefi ts Children’s

Learning Early Childhood Programs:

Serving Diverse Needs Mixed-Age Groupings Looping Th e Core Programs of Early

Childhood Education Family Child Care Chapter 3 Th e entire chapter refl ects the

key elements of Standard 1. Chapter 4 Th e entire chapter articulates the

theories that support Standard 1. Chapter 5 Knowledge and Skills Interacting with Children Cultural Awareness and

Sensitivity Chapter 6 Improve Your Teaching Children as Individuals Children in General Infl uences on Behavior Chapter 7 Th e entire chapter emphasizes

the key elements of Standard 1. Chapter 8 Understanding Parenthood Families with Diverse Needs Valuing All Families with Di-

verse Needs Chapter 9 Th e entire chapter is devoted to

creating the type of learning envi- ronments defi ned in Standard 1.

Chapter 10 Multiple Intelligences Learning Styles Factors Th at Enhance Maximum

Learning Culturally Responsive Teaching Teacher-Directed Learning Group Times Play-Based Curriculum Models

Chapter 11 A Safe and Challenging Environment

Chapter 12 Learning through Cognitive Experiences

Curriculum Planning for Cogni- tive Development

Chapter 13 Learning through Language Experiences

Curriculum Planning for Lan- guage Development

A Print-Rich Environment Creating a Rich Literary

Environment Chapter 14 Learning through Psychosocial

Experiences Th e Development of Emotions Curriculum Planning for Emo-

tional Growth Th e Development of Social

Competence Social Development Social Intelligence Plan and Arrange a Social

Environment Curriculum Planning for Social

Growth Th e Development of Creativity Curriculum Planning for Cre-

ative Growth Spiritual Development Chapter 15 Th e Importance of Childhood Family Support

Standard 2: Building Family and Community Relationships

a) knowing about and under- standing family and commu- nity characteristics

b) supporting and empowering families and communities through respectful, reciprocal relationships

c) involving families and commu- nities in their children’s devel- opment and learning

Chapter 1 Infl uences from Abroad American Infl uences Chapter 2 What Is Known about the Social

and Cultural Contexts in Which Children Live

Establishing Reciprocal Rela- tionships with Families

Developmentally and Culturally Appropriate Practice

Child Care Centers Family Child Care Head Start: An Early Interven-

tion Model Employer-Sponsored Child Care Programs in Religious Facilities Teen Parent Programs

Where to Find the NAEYC Standards for Early Childhood Professional Preparation in This Text

Note: Th e Code of Ethical Conduct, Developmentally Appropriate Practices, and Issues of Cultural Diversity are integrated into every chapter in the text.

Early Intervention and Special Education Programs

Migrant Children’s Programs Hospital Settings Meeting the Needs of Children

Who Are Homeless Chapter 3 Family Support Culture, Race, and Ethnic

Considerations Chapter 4 Ecological Th eory Chapter 5 Working with Families Chapter 7 Factors Th at Aff ect Behavior What Is Guidance? What Is Discipline? Chapter 8 Th e entire chapter stresses a col-

laborative partnership between school and families.

Chapter 9 Build Culturally Responsive Environments

Give Families Ways to Identify Children’s Space

Th e Anti-Bias Environment Families Chapter 10 Culturally Appropriate Curriculum Inclusive Curriculum Culturally Responsive Teaching Chapter 11 Ethnic Variations Including Children with Special

Needs Considerations Use of Th emes Chapter 13 Dual Language Learning Bilingualism Dialect Diff erences Chapter 15 Child Care Quality and Cost Poverty Family Support Divorce and Family Structures Community and School Support Th e Media Culture Multicultural Education Bilingual Education Advocacy

Standard 3: Observing, Documenting, and Assessing to Support Young Children and Families

a) understanding the goals, bene- fi ts, and uses of assessment

b) knowing about assessment partnerships with families and other professionals

c) knowing about and using ob- servation, documentation, and other appropriate assessment tools and approaches

d) understanding and practicing responsible assessment to pro- mote positive outcomes for each child

Chapter 2 Assessing Children’s Develop- ment and Learning

Evaluating Early Intervention Eff ectiveness

Evaluating Programs for Quality Why Evaluate? How to Evaluate a Program Chapter 3 Th e Value of Word Pictures Word Pictures Chapter 5 Evaluating Teachers: A Key to

Quality Why Evaluate? Components of an Eff ective

Evaluation Issues in Teacher Evaluations Chapter 6 Th e entire chapter describes and

explains the use of observation, documentation, and assessments.

Chapter 10 Th e Schools of Reggio Emilia

Standard 4: Using Developmentally Eff ec- tive Approaches to Connect with Children and Families

a) understanding positive rela- tionships and supportive in- teractions as the foundation of working with children

b) knowing and understanding eff ective strategies and tools for early education

c) using a broad repertoire of de- velopmentally appropriate teaching/learning approaches

d) refl ecting on one’s own prac- tice to promote positive out- comes for each child

Chapter 2 Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs

Th ree Core Considerations of DAP

Guidelines for DAP DAP in Action How DAP Benefi ts Children’s

Learning Developmentally and Culturally

Appropriate Practice Th e Core Programs of Early

Childhood Education Variations on Early Childhood

Core Programs Chapter 3 Th e Whole Child How Children Are Alike Word Pictures How Children Diff er Learning Styles Children with Special Needs Children Who Are Gifted and

Talented Culture, Race, and Ethnic

Considerations Children of Mixed Heritage

Chapter 5 Th e Teacher’s Role: Professional- ism in Action

A Collaborative Eff ort: Team Teaching

Chapter 6 Seeing Children through Observation

Understanding What We Observe

Chapter 7 Understanding Behavior Guiding Young Children Developmentally Appropriate

Guidance Culturally Appropriate Guidance Th e Guidance Continuum: Ten

Essential Strategies Behavior Th at Is Challenging Chapter 9 Principles for Developing Ap-

propriate Learning Environments

Create High-Activity, Low- Stress, and Brain-Compatible Environments

Let Children Teach One Another

Allow Children to Solve Th eir Own Problems Whenever Possible

Make It Safe to Make a Mistake Self-Help Environment Th e Interpersonal Environment Chapter 10 Most of this chapter includes a

variety of tools and strategies that refl ect the key elements in Standard 4.

Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum

Culturally Appropriate Curriculum

Integrated Curriculum Emergent Curriculum Multiple Intelligences Learning Styles Play-Based Curriculum: Th e

Foundation of Learning Supporting Play Setting the Stage for Play Culturally Responsive Teaching Chapter 11 Learning through Movement Learning Motor Skills A Safe and Challenging

Environment Playground Enrichment Encouraging Physical Play Curriculum Planning for Physi-

cal/Motor Development Chapter 12 Learning through Cognitive

Experiences Vygotsky, Th inking, and Culture Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Brain-Based Research Cognitive Skills Curriculum Planning for Cogni-

tive Development

Computers in the Classroom Developmentally Appropriate

Software Websites Integrating the Computer into

Learning Chapter 13 Learning through Language

Experiences Language Development What Research Tells Us Stages of Language

Development Dual Language Learning Bilingualism Dialect Diff erences Language Skills Receptive Language Expressive Language Emergent Literacy Chapter 14 Learning through Psychosocial

Experiences Th e Psychosocial Domain Th e Development of Emotions Routines, Transitions, and

Groups Social Competence Th e Development of Creativity Spiritual Development Chapter 15 Family Support Divorce and Family Structures Th e Working Parent Community and School Support Transmitting Values Social Diversity Multicultural Education Bilingual Education Inclusive Education Class Diff erences Equal Play and Gender Issues

Standard 5: Using Content Knowledge to Build Meaningful Curriculum

a) understanding content knowl- edge and resources in aca- demic disciplines

b) knowing and using the central concepts, inquiry tools, and structures of content areas or academic disciplines

c) using one’s knowledge, appro- priate learning standards, and other resources to design, im- plement, and evaluate mean- ingful, challenging curriculum for each child

Chapter 1 Infl uences from Abroad American Infl uences Interdisciplinary Infl uences Th emes in Early Childhood

Education Chapter 2: Developmentally Appropriate

Practice in Early Childhood Programs

Where to Find the NAEYC Standards for Early Childhood Professional Preparation in This Text (continued)

Th ree Core Considerations of DAP

Guidelines for DAP How DAP Benefi ts Children’s

Learning Mixed Age Groupings Looping Th e Core of Programs of Early

Childhood Education Variations on Early Childhood

Core Programs Philosophy of Infant/Toddler

Care Indicators of Quality Chapter 3 Th e Whole Child How Children Are Alike Word Pictures How Children Diff er Learning Styles Planning for Developmental

Diff erences Children with Special Needs Children with Exceptionalities Th e Inclusive Classroom Children Who Are Gifted and

Talented Culture, Race, and Ethnic

Considerations Chapter 4 Psychodynamic Th eory Behaviorist Th eory Cognitive Th eory Sociocultural Th eory Ecological Th eory Multiple Intelligences Th eory Maturation Th eory Humanistic Th eory Ethnicity and Cultural Diversity Attachment Play Gender Moral Development Brain-Based Research Conditions for Learning Chapter 5 Cultural Competency Defi ning the Early Childhood

Teacher’s Role Chapter 6 Document Children’s Learning Plan Curriculum Testing and Screening Chapter 7 Guiding Young Children Developmentally Appropriate

Guidance Culturally Appropriate Guidance Th e Guidance Continuum: Ten

Essential Strategies Active Problem Solving Chapter 8 Reggio Emilia: An Exemplary

Partnership Chapter 9 Build Culturally Responsive

Environments

Involve Children in Planning and Setting Up the Environment

Let Children Teach One Another

Allow Children to Solve Th eir Own Problems Whenever Possible

Th e Anti-Bias Environment Self-Help Environment Health and Safety in the

Environment Guarding Children’s Safety Outside Playground Designs Developmentally Appropriate

Schedules Insights from the Field Chapter 10 Developmentally Appropriate

Curriculum What Is a Curriculum? Culturally Appropriate

Curriculum Inclusive Curriculum Integrated Curriculum Emergent Curriculum Multiple Intelligences Play-Based Curriculum: Th e

Foundation for Learning Th e Teacher’s Role in Play Planning for Skills Acquisition Factors Th at Enhance Maximum

Learning Integrating Learning Standards Written Plans for Creating

Curriculum Chapter 11 Learning through Movement Gross-Motor Development Fine-Motor Development Perceptual-Motor Development Learning Motor Skills Memory and Experience Role of the Teacher A Child’s Self-Concept Encouraging Physical Play Curriculum Planning for Physi-

cal/Motor Development Focus on Skills Chapter 12 Th e entire chapter refl ects the

key elements of Standard 5. Chapter 13 Th e entire chapter refl ects the

key elements of Standard 5. Chapter 14 Th e entire chapter refl ects the

key elements of Standard 5. Chapter 15 Education Reform Transmitting Values Multicultural Education Bilingual Education Inclusive Education Class Diff erences Sexuality

Standards

Standard 6: Becoming a Professional a) identifying and involving one-

self with the early childhood fi eld

b) knowing about and upholding ethical standards and other professional guidelines

c) engaging in continuous, col- laborative learning to inform practice

d) engaging in informed advo- cacy for children and the profession

All Chapters: Code of Ethical Conduct

Chapter 1 Professionalism Chapter 2 Developmentally Appropriate

Practice in Early Childhood Programs

Developmentally and Culturally Appropriate Practice

Th e Core of Programs of Early Childhood Education

Variations on Early Childhood Core Programs

Extending the Age Range Th e Issue Is Quality Evaluating Programs for Quality Chapter 3 Th e Whole Child How Children Are Alike How Children Diff er Children with Special Needs Chapter 5 All of this chapter meets the cri-

teria for the key elements of Standard 6.

Chapter 6 Understanding What We Observe

Document Children’s Learning Types of Assessments How to Observe and Record

Eff ectively Chapter 8 Today’s Families What Is a Family? Understanding Parenthood Patterns of Child Rearing Families with Diverse Needs Chapter 10 Th e Teacher’s Role in Play Planning Curriculum Culturally Responsive Teaching Play-Based Curriculum Models Chapter 15 Education Reform No Child Left Behind Transmitting Values Professionalism Teacher Preparation A Reason to Teach Advocacy

Where to Find the NAEYC Standards for Early Childhood Professional Preparation in This Text (continued)

  • Cover Page
  • Title Page
  • ISBN 9780495808176
  • Contents
  • Preface
  • Acknowledgments
  • Section 1: What Is the Field of Early Childhood Education?
    • Chapter 1: History of Early Childhood Education
      • Introduction to the Field
      • Influences from Abroad
      • Nontraditional Perspectives
      • American Influences
      • Interdisciplinary Influences
      • Themes in Early Childhood Education
        • TeachSource Video
        • Insights from the Field: A Delightful Story
      • Summary
      • Key Terms
      • Review Questions
      • Learning Activities
      • Helpful Websites
      • References
    • Chapter 2: Types of Programs
      • Developmentally Appropriate Practice in Early Childhood Programs
        • TeachSource Video
      • Early Childhood Programs: Serving Diverse Needs
      • The Core of Programs of Early Childhood Education
      • Variations on Early Childhood Core Programs
      • Extending the Age Range
      • The Issue Is Quality
      • Evaluating Programs for Quality
        • Insights from the Field: Early Childhood Education in the Shipyards
      • Summary
      • Key Terms
      • Review Questions
      • Learning Activities
      • Helpful Websites
      • References
  • Section 2: Who Is the Young Child?
    • Chapter 3: Defining the Young Child
      • The Whole Child
      • How Children Are Alike
      • The Value of Word Pictures
      • Using Word Pictures
      • How Children Differ
      • Children with Special Needs
        • TeachSource Video
      • Culture, Race, and Ethnic Considerations
        • Insights from the Field: Children of Mixed Heritage
      • Summary
      • Key Terms
      • Review Questions
      • Learning Activities
      • Helpful Websites
      • References
    • Chapter 4: Developmental and Learning Theories
      • Introduction
      • Psychodynamic Theory
      • Behaviorist Theory
      • Cognitive Theory
        • TeachSource Video
      • Sociocultural Theory
      • Ecological Theory
      • Multiple Intelligences Theory
      • Maturation Theory
      • Humanistic Theory
      • Developmental Topics
      • Using Developmental and Learning Theories
        • Insights from the Field: Developmental Theory: The Foundation of Developmentally Appropriate Practice
      • Summary
      • Key Terms
      • Review Questions
      • Learning Activities
      • Helpful Websites
      • References
  • Section 3: Who Are the Teachers?
    • Chapter 5: Teaching: A Professional Commitment
      • Who Are the Teachers of the Young Child?
      • The Beginnings of Professionalism
        • TeachSource Video
      • The Teacher’s Role: Professionalism in Action
      • A Collaborative Effort: Team Teaching
      • Evaluating Teachers: A Key to Quality
      • The Beginning Teacher
        • Insights from the Field: Teaching: A Professional Commitment
      • Summary
      • Key Terms
      • Review Questions
      • Learning Activities
      • Helpful Websites
      • References
    • Chapter 6: Observation and Assessment of Children
      • Seeing Children through Observation
      • Understanding What We Observe
      • Recording What We See
      • Assessment: Evaluating Children
        • TeachSource Video
        • Insights from the Field: The Portfolio: “Unfolding” of the Child
      • Summary
      • Key Terms
      • Review Questions
      • Learning Activities
      • Helpful Websites
      • References
    • Chapter 7: Guiding Children’s Behavior
      • The Guidance Triangle
      • Understanding Behavior
      • Guiding Young Children
        • TeachSource Video
      • Implications for Teaching
      • The Guidance Continuum: Ten Essential Strategies
      • Behavior That Is Challenging
        • Insights from the Field: Tantrums as a Teaching Tool: Ways to Help Children Learn
      • Summary
      • Key Terms
      • Review Questions
      • Learning Activities
      • Helpful Websites
      • References
    • Chapter 8: Families and Teachers: Partners in Education
      • A Historical Overview
      • Strengthening the Partnership
        • TeachSource Video
      • Today’s Families
      • Separation: The Beginning of Trust
      • Communicating with Families
        • Insights from the Field: It All Starts with the Stories
      • Summary
      • Key Terms
      • Review Questions
      • Learning Activities
      • Helpful Websites
      • References
    • Chapter 9: Creating Environments
      • What Is the Environment?
      • Characteristics of the Environment
      • Planning for the Environment
      • Creating the Environment
        • TeachSource Video
        • Insights from the Field: Thinking about the Environment: Inspirations from the Reggio Approach
      • Summary
      • Key Terms
      • Review Questions
      • Learning Activities
      • Helpful Websites
      • References
  • Section 4: What Is Being Taught?
    • Chapter 10: Curriculum: Creating a Context for Learning and Play
      • Developmentally Appropriate Curriculum
      • Effective Curriculum: Four Basic Factors
      • Play-Based Curriculum: The Foundation for Learning
      • The Teacher’s Role in Play
        • TeachSource Video
      • Planning Curriculum
      • Written Plans for Creating Curriculum
      • Play-Based Curriculum Models
        • Insights from the Field: Making a Difference in Young Children’s Lives
      • Summary
      • Key Terms
      • Review Questions
      • Learning Activities
      • Helpful Websites
      • References
    • Chapter 11: Planning for the Body: Physical/Motor Development
      • Learning through Movement
      • Physical Growth/Motor Development
      • Physical/Motor Skills in Early Childhood
        • TeachSource Video
      • Role of the Teacher
        • Insights from the Field: Is Competition Developmentally Appropriate?
      • Summary
      • Key Terms
      • Review Questions
      • Learning Activities
      • Helpful Websites
      • References
    • Chapter 12: Planning for the Mind: Cognitive Development
      • Learning through Cognitive Experiences
      • The Development of Cognition: Multiple Perspectives
      • Cognitive Skills
        • TeachSource Video
      • Role of the Teacher
      • Computers in the Classroom
        • Insights from the Field: How Does Technology in the Early Childhood Classroom Relate to Children’s Learning?
      • Summary
      • Key Terms
      • Review Questions
      • Learning Activities
      • Helpful Websites
      • References
    • Chapter 13: Planning for the Mind: Language Development
      • Learning through Language Experiences
      • Language Development
      • Language Skills
        • TeachSource Video
      • Role of the Teacher
      • Early Literacy
      • Children’s Literature
        • Insights from the Field: Welcoming English Language Learners to the World of Language and Literacy
      • Summary
      • Key Terms
      • Review Questions
      • Learning Activities
      • Helpful Websites
      • References
    • Chapter 14: Planning for Heart and Soul: Psychosocial Development
      • Learning through Psychosocial Experiences
      • Emotional Growth
      • Social Growth
      • Creative Growth
      • Role of the Teacher
      • Spiritual Development
      • Art
        • TeachSource Video
        • Insights from the Field: The Peace Table in Action
      • Summary
      • Key Terms
      • Review Questions
      • Learning Activities
      • Helpful Websites
      • References
  • Section 5: How Do We Teach for Tomorrow?
    • Chapter 15: Issues and Trends in Early Childhood Education
      • Changing Issues/ Changing Times
      • Ethic of Social Reform
        • TeachSource Video
      • The Importance of Childhood
      • Transmitting Values
      • Professionalism
        • Insights from the Field: How Do We Teach for Tomorrow?
      • Summary
      • Key Terms
      • Review Questions
      • Learning Activities
      • Helpful Websites
      • References
  • Appendix
  • Glossary
  • Subject Index
  • Name Index