Annotated Bibliography

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Running head: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1

8

Annotated Bibliography on Cyber Simulations & Training

Student Name

Information Assurance Research Literature

ITS-834

Date

Dr. Bill Souza

Annotated Bibliography

West, C., Slatin, C., Sanborn, W., & Volicer, B. (2009). Computer-based simulation in blended learning curriculum for hazardous waste site worker health and safety training. International Journal of Information and Communication Technology Education, 5(1), 62-73.

This study is targeted at providing insight and knowledge to individuals and organizations responsible for computer-based simulation training. The specific target audience addressed in the paper is hazardous waste site workers. In this study the authors present the simulation’s development, implementation and assessment for learning health and safety issues related to hazardous waste.

Within the article the authors discuss the application and learning utility of a computer-based simulation to conduct small-group hazardous waste health and training. The literature review provides four foundational components to the training. First, is to anchor the knowledge in authentic situations and activities. Second, situate the knowledge in multiple contexts. Third, create cognitive flexibility by ensuring that information is seen from multiple perspectives, and finally, set the stage but have the participants collaborate and generate knowledge for themselves.

The development and implementation for the study spanned a four year period and included a diverse set of learners. Once underway, trainee and trainer feedback was used to assess the success and utility of the simulation. The evaluation was organized into three areas: 1. Usefulness of the simulation for training, 2. Value of the training format, and 3. Usefulness in supporting the pre-defined curriculum.

The authors conclude that the responses from both trainees and trainers validate broad agreement on the educational usefulness of the simulation modules. Additionally, they go on to report that the computer based simulations provides significant advantages to traditional training in the areas of safety, cost and efficiency. However, in closing they emphasize that the simulation should serves a single component to an overall blended learning experience.

Lauren, M. K. (2002). Firepower concentration in cellular automaton combat models -- an alternative to lanchester. The Journal of the Operational Research Society, 53(6), 672-679.

This paper provides a very interesting and well informed approach to developing firepower concentration in cellular automaton combat models based on first-order differential equations. It investigates the probability of various factors on the battlefield to predict the attrition ratio of combat forces through the use of combat modeling. The author proposes a new methodology that leverages historical agent-based models, which are placed into combat simulations, to generate measured result for environmentally specific outcomes. The historical approach is based on the work of Mr. F.W. Lanchester from 1914. His proposals have served as the groundwork for many of the mathematical analysis methods that have been used to predict the outcome of warfare for the past century.

The equations presented in the model deal with force strength and kill ration of red and blue forces. The author also references other notable military luminaries as a foundation for the model. The two previously documented models presented in the paper are the cellular automaton model and the Irreducible Semi-Autonomous Adaptive Combat Model or ISAAC. Although these models provide mathematical rigor, the author contends that they are difficult to apply in real-world scenarios individually. This argument becomes the basis for the bi-model approach presented in the paper.

The key result from the study is that after applying the proposed bi-model effects to the military engagements, more realistic outcomes are obtained. In some cases it might be possible although improbable that a dispersed red force may be able to concentrate firepower and unexpectedly destroy the blue force. Particular reactions by either side can dramatically affect the outcome of the engagement. The author contends that the approach presented in the paper takes into account the human component of warfare and discards Lanchster’s treatment of the forces as a lifeless mass that result in an inability to predict the full range of potential outcomes.

Herrington, J., Reeves, T., & Oliver, R. (2007). Immersive learning technologies: Realism and online authentic learning. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 19(1), 80-99.

This paper examines how learning technologies such as virtual reality and advanced computer applications can create realistic simulation environments that offer invaluable training for military operations. The authors propose the question of how realistic do problems need to be in order for effective learning to occur. The background information presents the historical argument that problems must be real or that simulations should possess a near physical similarity to an actual context in order to produce effective learning. However, the authors find through their research that cognitive realism, that is a result of immersing students in engaging and complex tasks, is of greater value to learning than merely application of the historical context.

In the introduction the authors provide a comprehensive perspective of the concepts of reality, virtualization, and the relationship to the human learning process. Based on the information presented it is clear that the general consensus is that situational learning affords the learner the most effective results. In more recent times however, the use of simulations has augmented the situational learning process as means to improve efficiency and productivity.

The paper next highlights the measured value of realistic simulations with examples from the space exploration, aviation and medical training environments. Then the authors present how cognitive realism is applied to online training. The suggested value of applying cognitive realism is the reduction of resources necessary for the training, and usage of realistic and engaging ideas by the learner.

The finding of the study concluded through the use of participant surveys, that the savings in cost and logistics of this proposed system provided significant benefits over using real situations. By applying the realistic scenarios, with immersive type situations, the resulting cognitive realism may provide specific training objectives to be achieved at a very low cost to the organization. In closing the author points out that while the technologies and techniques provided do enhance the learning process, it is ultimately the responsibility of the learner to decide the steps necessary to complete the specific task assigned.

Thilmany, J. (2004). Intelligent outfits. Mechanical Engineering, 126(12), 84.

The article provides interesting thought and insight into the application of Nano bioscience to modern military equipment that can be applied to the combat environment. The information is based on research conducted at Arizona State University in the development of a smart bodysuit. Based on the current work at the university, two prototypes have already been developed, one for civilian and one for military usage.

The article explains that the military version of the suit also includes a fuel cell that is capable of powering some of the soldier’s operational equipment. The idea behind the development of the suit is to provide a monitoring and response capability through an automated real-time process of determining bodily requirements. Through a series of sensors, the suite is able to assess a set of physiological and environmental factors such as temperature, perspiration, and blood-glucose levels of the individual. The body suite demonstrates how electronics and fluidics can be incorporated into clothing to perform a wide range of tasks according to the developer.

The author points out that one of the many potential military uses of the suit includes alerting the soldier of exposure to biological or chemical agents as well as monitoring user vital signs. As the technology advances the application of drugs or insulin in response to cues from the body may also be developed. In closing the developer points out that through network download, it is possible to execute real-time modifications such as changing the colors or patterns of the fabric to suite the appropriate environment. While this technology is still evolving, the potential value to the military operator is significant given the transition to our network centric operational environment.

Singer, P. (2010). Meet the sims. Foreign Policy, 4(178), 91-95.

This paper provides a detailed discussion and understanding of the current trend to leverage computer gaming for improving individual military operational performance. The author presents the term “militainment” as an overarching concept applied to the process. He contends that this current model of video game based military training programs will have an enormous effect on both the future warriors as well as the perceptions of the general public.

The author identifies the historical link between games and war dating back over 3000 years as a means to sharpen warrior skills. However, in modern times a genuine concern quickly arises from both the ubiquity of computer games and the apparent minimal concern for the increasing violence they present. The issue at hand is the potential blurring of lines between entertainment and war. The author goes on to provide some insightful statistics concerning the use and distribution of modern computer war-games leaving little question for the breadth of consumption for this technology.

The author also discusses in detail the development of the U.S. Army’s recruiting tool game called America’s Army, and how that product morphed into a significant market hit in addition to serving as recruiting tool. As more advanced training software is discussed, the author points out that it becomes more difficult for the user to determine where the game ends and the war begins. The real issue of concern is the psychological implications of an individual’s ability to possess or not possess feelings of guilt or remorse following the killing of another human being as opposed to a virtual death. This argument is a primary concern for those who question the militainment approach to training fighting personnel. The author contends that in addition to the value to the military in the usage of this technology; the public perception of war is being modified as a result of the distribution of this software. While the paper provides no conclusive finding or recommendation, it does present many critical viewpoints to allow the reader to evaluate the potential risks and values of the use of this technology.

Cane, S., McCarthy, R., & Halawi, L. (2010). Ready for battle? A phenomenological study of military simulation systems. The Journal of Computer Information Systems, 50(3), 33-40.

This study is attempting to answer the question of whether there is a task to technology fit for the use of simulation training in military operations. More specifically the research examines whether military officers experience an appropriate fit between the simulations with which they were trained and the tasks that they were assigned. This value is measured by their perception of improved performance and how well the simulation supported their individual activity.

The authors assign three types of military simulations, live, virtual, and constructive. However, they go on to point out that while there have been previous quantitative studies in this field; there have been few if any on the task-technology fit. It is proposed that the research presented will more precisely describe and understand the meaning and critical dimensions of task-technology fit. The authors contend that the benefit of this research could reduce spending cost, improve functionality and effectiveness of training, and provide benefits beyond the military community.

The review of the literature presented in the paper provided a strong argument for various models that support the task-technology fit concept. The authors point out that while there are many articles espousing the benefits of simulation for training, there is little empirical research on the effectiveness of this training for management and leadership. The paper then transitions into the specific methodology of the research. The two research questions presented are distilled into what experience is gained that enables decision making, and do military commanders undergoing this training perceive it as effective.

While the study concluded that the simulation model did provide effective training, it also left numerous questions unanswered. The authors stated that this research may serve to uncover capabilities of the technology for the user. However, they state that there is still not a clear outcome to the researcher or developer. Therefore they propose additional research should be focused on software simulation design and conclude that this research is necessary to address these unanswered questions.

Wray, R.E., Laird, J.E., Nuxoll, A., Stokes, D., & Kerfoot, A. (2005). Synthetic adversaries for urban combat training. AI Magazine, 26(3), 82-92.

This paper describes the required components for developing synthetic adversaries in an urban combat training environment. The authors introduce a prototype computer game application called MOUTBots to define, implement, and test basic behavior patterns to develop the requirements for these virtual adversaries. As a means to reduce the cost and expand the experience beyond physical mock-ups, the authors state that developing immersive virtual trainers for military operations in urban terrain (MOUT), provides a feasible alternative to the user. However, in order to maximize effectiveness the authors contend that these virtual adversaries must exhibit responsive behaviors.

According to the authors six high-level requirements drove the implementation of intelligent synthetic adversaries: 1. competence, 2. taskability, 3. observational fidelity, 4. behavior variability, 5. transparency, and 6. minimal computational footprint. Each of the requirements is explained in the document. The authors then provide examples of existing research that support their approach and highlight the unique differences for MOUT training. These differences include a compressed time scale, loose mission structure, teamwork and coordination, indoor special reasoning, and behavior variability.

Through the use of computer game technology the researchers were able to develop MOUTbot entities without the use of high-fidelity simulators. The existing architecture was leveraged to provide efficient execution, allowing a full complement of opponents to run within the simulation on standard PC hardware. According to the authors these MOUTBots combined the strengths of human behavior with game technology to demonstrate that realistic, autonomous, and intelligent agents that can meet the requirements of virtual interactive training. The authors do state however that additional research will be required to achieve a higher level of realism as both warfare and technology evolve.

Murthy, N., Challagalla, G., Vincent, L., & Shervani, T. (2008). The impact of simulation training on call center agent performance: A field-based investigation. Management Science, 54(2), 384-399.

This paper presented an interesting and in-depth study comparing the value of simulation training to role-play training for call center agent performance. According to the authors traditional role-based training is grounded in behavior modeling that entails observation, practice, and feedback. Simulation-based technologies offer enhancements to behavior modeling that are not available in role-based training. The study collected data from call center personnel at two Fortune 50 firms and examined on-job performance metrics to evaluate the effectiveness of this simulation training.

In the introduction the authors present the case for the criticality of identifying efficient and effective training techniques for the call center community. This is followed by a detailed synopsis of the traditional training process used within the industry to date. For this study the simulation training follows a three step process that includes observation, modularized practice with feedback, and integrated practice with feedback. Each step is detailed in the paper.

The authors present details for the theoretical underpinnings of the behavior modeling that is foundational to the training process. The adaptive character of thought (ACT) theory forms the hypothesis developed in the paper. The research suggests that the closer the training experience is to the real job situation, the greater the transfer of knowledge and skills.

The authors conclude from the research that after controlling such factors as the trainee’s learning and technology orientation, age, education, and experience, the results showed that simulation-based training was superior in both accuracy and speed of processing customer calls. Additionally, the relative superiority of simulation training improves as the tasks increased in complexity. According to the authors future research should explore tasks beyond those addressed in this study and attempt to define the boundary conditions for the effectiveness of this training.

Hunsaker, P.L. (2007). Using social simulations to assess and train potential leaders to make effective decisions in turbulent environments. Career Development International, 12(4), 341-360.

This paper examines the limitations and opportunities of applying current computer-assisted technology to social simulations for assessing and developing leaders’ decisional effectiveness in turbulent environments. The study presented two environments for measuring the leaders’ decision making ability. One is a military combat command and the other is a lunar space colony. The justification for the study was based largely on what the author contends is the need for cost effective ways for organizations to assess and train leaders to make effective decisions in these turbulent environments.

The authors hypothesis is that social simulation can serve as an effective tool to train and assess leaders in their decision making process. The methodology for the study is based on an individual’s prior exposure to a wide variety of stresses in an unfamiliar setting. This provides a reliable measure of generalized behavior that may be expected to be carried over to similar situations in other environments.

The two scenarios presented in the study provided well documented and accurate portrayals of proposed environments and included appropriate levels of complexity and stress for the subjects. The data collection and the analysis of the information permitted the comparison and measurement of multiple variables that were critical to the finding. The author highlights the criticality of leadership assessment as an integral component to the decision making framework.

As a result of the research, the author concludes that social simulations are a cost effective way to train and evaluate leaders in their ability to make decisions in turbulent environments. The data indicated that individuals with high levels of cognitive complexity and incongruity adaption are more likely to be successful in these turbulent environments. More stable and structured environments tend to favor individuals with lower levels of incongruity adaptation and cognitive complexity. The author proposes additional research by applying the model to more sophisticated computer technology as it becomes available.

Baily, C. (2009). Reverse intergenerational learning: a missed opportunity? AI & Society, 23(1), 111-115.

This paper provides an unusual and novel approach to teaching pedagogy that proposes a model that supports older individuals learning from younger people generally in a business environment. The author states that currently technology is often used to bridge the gap between young and old. She goes on to point out that based on several factors younger technology users often possess greater skills with the technology and as a result may offer knowledge to the older user. To provide context for the study the author divides users into four age groups.

The author presents the commonly accepted generational groupings of traditionalists, baby boomers, generation X, and generation Y. She goes on to classify specific characteristics associated with each group, their ages, and how each one presents their own set of unique attitudes and expectations to the workplace. In the traditional teaching pedagogy the more experienced older workers teach the younger members of the team. However, as the pace of technological development has increased, it is often the case where the younger worker has a greater knowledge of the new technology and is able to coach the more senior colleague. This approach is referred to as reverse mentoring.

Reverse mentoring is considered to be mutually beneficial as the young person learns skills from the older person such as business strategy and knowledge and the older person learns information technology and sensitization skill. The author then points out that this reverse intergenerational learning does not currently possess broad acceptance in the business environment today and that where it is accepted, it is generally limited to a one way transfer of technological knowledge. She then declares that this failure to adopt this reverse intergenerational model is a potential missed opportunity for businesses and their leadership.

The author concludes by summarizing the potential value that could be gained by organizations through improvement to internal communications processes such as reverse intergenerational learning. She contends that junior employees can offer numerous advantages based on their diverse knowledge base and skill set. In support of this approach she asserts that organizations that do leverage the knowledge of all four generations will experience both social and financial benefits over those that do not.

Foreman, N., Korallo, L., Newson, D., & Sarantos, N. (2008). The incorporation of challenge enhances the learning of chronology from a virtual display. Virtual Reality, 12(2), 107-113.

This study investigated a method for enabling rapid learning through associated semantic information recall using a method of observing successive images presented on a graphical user interface. The technology presented in this study is called virtual environment (VE) and leverages three dimensional (3D) graphical environments to allow users to process historical sequential events. The effort is targeted at improving the teaching and learning of history and other memory specific tasks using multimedia technology.

The author states that conveying notions of historical chronology has always posed difficulties for teachers and students. The retention of specific dates and events normally involves the use of book reading and worksheet writings as primary learning tools. However, in this study participants were provided three mediums for learning historical information and then an evaluation of each medium was conducted. The mediums included text based verbal controls, images in Microsoft PowerPoint on a computer screen, and 3D images or VE displayed on a computer screen.

The author’s point out that from previous studies using VEs as a learning tool the results have delivered mixed outcomes. Specifically, younger age groups appeared to be suppressed by the VE medium, while older participants tended to relate the experience to a computer game and retained more information compared to the other mediums. The authors state that the study results do in fact present a reliably conclude that there is a benefit to using VE when compared to PowerPoint. This indicates that the simple use of a computer display is not responsible for the advantage. The design of VEs for teaching purposes should also take into account the fact that of specific memory storage is often difficult to access by means of written text. Therefore designers must consider the material content as they design the VE. In conclusion the authors propose that as additional research is conducted it may be appropriate to apply the value of VE to other memory intensive disciplines such as medicine, science, and religion.