Geography review
Abdulla99
Geography of Human
Diversity in the U.S.
Migration
Migratory Movement
Migration is a permanent change in residence to a different political state
Internal migration occurs when people relocate within their own country
International migration occurs when people relocate to another country
Types of migration: Emigration – when people leave their home country (outgoing)
Immigration – when people arrive at their destination (incoming)
Types of Migration in the U.S.
Voluntary migration
Free choice of movement
Most immigrants fall in this category
Involuntary migration
Slavery – pre Civil War period
Annexation – American Indians, Alaska natives,
Hawaiians
Colonialism – Puerto Ricans and Pacific
Islanders
Streams and Counterstreams
Voluntary migration is selective
Flows vary in size based on:
Perceived degree of difference between source
and destination
Availability of information
Distance to be traveled
Intervening obstacles may alter migration
plans
Counterstream of returnees to home
Push Factors (reason for leaving)
Economic
Lack of land
Lack of jobs
No business
opportunities
Social
Religious
persecution
Political unrest
War
Environmental
Floods
Famines
Droughts
Overcrowding of
farms and cities
Primary reasons
for emigration are
economic factors
Pull Factors in the U.S.
Economic
Plentiful land
Lots of jobs
Business/trade opportunities
Social
Religious freedom
Political freedom
Environmental
Good climate
Plentiful rainfall
Adaptation of Minority Groups
Three concepts of Americanization: Assimilation (Anglo-conformity)
English as dominant language
Anglo culture norms
Melting pot (hybridization) Intermingling of cultures to produce a “new American” culture
The “new” culture strongly resembles the Anglo conformity model
Cultural pluralism (multiculturalism) Minority cultures retain their culture AND participate in the dominant Anglo society
Some groups are successful and some are not
Sometimes referred to as the “Lumpy Stew”
Adaptation by Assimilation
Race Relations Cycle Theory
Five stages of adaptation:
Separatism
Accommodation
Acculturation
Assimilation
Amalgamation
These are not necessarily exclusive or
sequential for all groups
Separatism
Begins as the geographic separation of the minority group from the “others”
Necessary to maintain their way of life after arriving in the U.S.
May be short term or may last for generations
Amish, Mormons and Chinatowns are good examples of long term separation
Accommodation
The minority group adopts certain
traits of the majority group
This is a necessary step to participate
in society
Examples are:
Dress
Language (for employment and school)
Holidays
Acculturation
Greater adoption of material traits
Minority cultural elements may be
used at home
Cultural attitudes and values may be
adopted at this time
Dominant culture may accommodate
certain minority traits within society
Assimilation
Minority groups adopts the cultural
traits of the majority and identifies
with that group
Intermarriage occurs without
repercussions from the majority
The minority group ceases to exist at
this time
Amalgamation
The biological merging of distinct
racial stocks with the dominant group
Some amalgamation usually occurs
without approval of others
Formal amalgamation allows
interaction and habitation within close
quarters
Melting Pot
Assumes that all immigrants will over
time meld together into a new
American identity
Continually changing mix guarantees
a dynamic cultural evolution
Foundations are believed to be
anchored in American ideals of
political and economic freedom
Multiculturalism
Recognized cultural diversity as a
strength not a weakness
Becomes a goal not a step in a linear
process
Mitigates the hierarchical positions of
immigrants and minorities
Establishes a new social order
The “Lumpy Stew” concept
The Role of Migration
Destinations of Migrants
Sources Regions of Immigrants
Total Immigration (1820- 2015)
Europe – 40,173,329
Asia – 14,210,803
Canada – 4,824,052
Mexico – 8,491,557
Caribbean – 5,390,798
Central America – 2,129,558
South America – 3,039,146
Africa – 1,976,542
All countries – 81,551,120
Peak Periods
Waves of migrants
1st peak (1848 - 1857) – 3,092,697
2nd peak (1881 - 1890) – 5,246,613
3rd peak (1905 - 1914) – 10,121,940
Current (1990 - 2015) – 26,269,226 Average 1,010,355 per year
Undocumented immigration???
Estimates range from 11 – 12 million
75% from Mexico and Central America
Undocumented Immigration (6.8 million out of 11.1 million total)
Population Centroid
Immigration Restrictions (1800s)
1875: Banned prostitutes and convicts
1882: Banned lunatics, idiots, convicts
1882: Chinese Exclusion Act
1885: Alien Contract Labor Law: banned importation of contract laborers
1888: Deportation Law: allowed deportation of contract laborers
1891: Banned those afflicted with diseases, immigrants deemed immoral (polygamists, etc.) paupers; authorized deportation of illegal immigrants
Immigration Restrictions (1900s)
1903: increased inadmissible classes; banned epileptics and the insane; beggars, anarchists, white slavers
1906: made English a requirement
1907: increased inadmissible classes again; imbeciles, feeble minded, tubercular, criminals with moral offences
1917: Literacy requirement; expanded inadmissible classes; alcoholics, stowaways, vagrants
Quotas and Origins Acts
1921: Emergency Quota Act – 3% limit by
national origin in 1910 (European
immigration limited to 355,000)
1924: National Origins Act – 2% limit by
origin (1890 Census) except Canada &
Latin America; 150,000 annual limit;
designed to maintain ethnic balance
1929: National Origins Act – changed
quotas to reflect U.S. population in 1920
Immigration Reform
1952: Immigration and Nationality Act – all nationalities became eligible for citizenship; established preference system
1965: INA Amendments - repealed national origins acts; allowed Asian immigration
1986: IRCA – amnesty (1982) and employer sanctions for hiring illegal immigrants
1990: flexible cap of 675,000; family- based, employment & diversity; excludes refugees; sets up TPS program
Deportable Aliens Apprehended
Illegal Immigration Reform and
Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996
Authorized hiring 5,000 new Border Patrol agents
(currently 21,000 in 2012) and 300 INS agents
Money allocated for border fencing, aircraft, night
vision goggles, helicopters, etc.
Penalties increased for illegal border attempts and
for aliens apprehended in the U.S.
Aliens convicted of minor crimes can be deported
and banned from re-entry for years
Limited recourse for challenging deportation
rulings in court
IIRIRA Penalties
If caught at border: $250 fine
If caught trying to evade the Border Patrol at high
speeds: Up to 5 years in prison and deportation
If present in the U.S. for more than 180 days but
less than 1 year: Barred from readmission for 3
years
If present in the U.S. for more than one year:
Barred from readmission for 10 years
Minor offenses like shoplifting could trigger
deportation proceedings (previous law specified
deportation only for criminal offenses with 5 year
prison sentences)
Refugees & Asylees
End of World War II brought a surge of refugees from war torn countries
Refugee policy has been inconsistent over the years
Early policy allowed increased entrants charged against future quotas
Congress passed acts for special cases (Cuba, Vietnam, etc.)
Refugee Act of 1980 clarified policy on refugees vs. asylees and removed entrants from quotas
Micro Level Economic Migration
Theories
Neo-classical: Based on rational decisions by individuals
Actions driven by differential wage rates between two countries
May be affected by government policies on minimum wages, income taxes and immigration
New Economics of Migration: Based on decisions by the family or household units
Migration by a larger number of people may offer opportunities not available to an individual
Employment may cross gender lines causing upheaval in household traditions
Macro Level Economic
Migration Theories
Dual Markets: Based on labor needs on modern industrial societies
Government might assist industries in securing low-skill labor through special programs
Wage differences between developed and developing countries may not be important
World Systems: Complex theory based on spread of global capital from center (rich countries) to periphery (poor countries)
International labor moved in the opposite direction from the periphery to the core (rural to urban)
Linked to colonialism and post-colonial period
Urban Ethnic Landscapes
Incipient urban landscapes of ethnic
arrival
Consolidated urban landscapes of
ethnic enclaves
Defensive urban landscapes of ethnic
contention
Relic urban landscapes of residential
abandonment
Arrival Stage
The pioneers who arrive first!
Generally converge on a low rent part
of town where rents are cheap and
buildings are available
Rent or lease unoccupied commercial
buildings for retail or service
businesses
Existing architecture is unaltered
except for paint and signage
Consolidation Stage
Numbers grow as the news of the success of the
pioneers spreads
More businesses open as more people move into
the enclave
Institutions become established:
Newspapers
Temples or churches
Business and social clubs
Density increases as other groups are pushed out
of the area
Ethnic architecture emerge as new buildings are
constructed and existing buildings are purchased
Defensive Stage
Population stagnates and declines usually as a
result of young people moving out of the enclave
but sometimes because the number of new
arrivals has declined
The level of assimilation in the community has
reduced the need for services originally deemed
essential for survival
As businesses downsize or close new arrivals
from other ethnic groups rent the space and
change the type of products and services
offered
The contest for control of space grows over time
Relic Stage
The residential population has declined to
minimal levels with few or no new arrivals to
replace people who move on or die
The established businesses continue to
operate usually with foreign labor
Foreign investment slowly changes the cultural
footprint of the community
How long can a relic enclave last?
Depends on the financial support of the city
government and the level of outside investment
Lifecycle of Ethnic Landscapes
Stages are not always sequential
Length of time in each stage depends on
level of assimilation of the ethnic group
Some urban landscapes never evolve into
an enclave
Some enclaves remain uncontested for
generations
Most disappear over time